HUMAN EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT

MEANING OF DEVELOPMENT

The reproductive units in all sexual as well as human reproduction are

specialised cells called gametes. The latter are usually of two types : male
gametes called spermatozoa and female gametes termed as ova. A
spermatozoon and ovum unite to form a zygote. The zygote is essentially
similar to othe cells, but differs by its potential to divide and produce all
the cells of the body. It, by a series of changes produces a young one
similar to the parents. All the events which change a zygote into a fully
formed human being and thereafter, contribute to its growth to adulthood
and finally to old age and death are referred to as development.

PHASES OF EMBRYONIC DVELOPMENT

Embryonic development involves 4 basic stages in humans and all

animals, the first 2 for its preparartion and the last 2 for its completion
and they are as follows :-

I) Gametogenesis

Gametogenesis is the process by which gametes i.e.

spermatozoa and ova are formed.

II) Fertilization

Definition: Fusion of a haploid male gamete (spermatozoon)

and a haploid female gamete (ovum) to form a diploid cell, the
zygote, is called fertilization.

Site of Fertilization: It takes place in the ampulla of fallopian

tube of the human female.

This process is characterised by an array of events listed as the

following :

a) Arrival of spermatozoa
b) Arrival of egg
c) Capacitation of sperms
 Chemical and physical events of fertilization

These events comprise 5 processes:

a) Acrosome reaction
b) Cortical reaction
c) Sperm entry
d) Karyogamy (Amphimixis)
e) Activation of egg

III) Cleavage

Definition: The term cleavage refers to a series of rapid mitotic

divisions of the zygote following following fertilization, forming a
many celled blastula.

Cleavage in human zygote occurs during its passage through fallopian

tube to the uterus. It is holoblastic, i.e. it divides the zygote and the
blastomeres completely into daughter cells. However, the blastomeres
differ in size from the start. Their number does not increase by a
regular doubling sequence as happens in frog. The first cleavage takes
place about 30 hours after fertilization. It produces two blastomeres,
one slightly larger than the other. The second cleavage occurs withing
60 hours after fertilization. The larger blastomere divides a little
sooner than the smaller one so that there is a transitory “3-cell” stage
before the characteristic “4-cell” stage of the embryo is reached. Third
cleavage takes place about 72 hours after fertilization. Subsequent
cleavage divisions follow one another but they occur in a less precise
orientation. The embryo now looks like a mulberry, and is known as
morula (Latin, little mulberry).

Morula: The morula consists of 16 to 32 cells but is not larger than

the zygote. Its cells are of two types, There is an outer layer of
smaller, clearer cells around an inner mass of larger cells. The morula
reaches the uterus about 4-6 days after fertilization. It is still
surrounded by the zona pellucida, that prevents its sticking to the
uterine wall.
 Blastocyst (Blastodermic vesical, Blastula)

The outer layer of the morula now absorbs the nutritive fluid secreted
by the uterine mucus membrane, and is called trophoblast or
trophoectoderm.
The cells of the trophoblast become flattened. The fluid absorbed
collects in a cavity called the blastocoel or blastocyst cavity. As the
fluid quantity increases the morula enlarges rapidly and assumes the
shape of a cyst. This is known as the blastocyst. It has different
structures like the embryonal knob, embryonic or animal pole,
abembrynonic pole. The trophoblast cells in contact with the
embryonic knob are known as cells of Rauber.

fig. showing BLASTOCYST FORMATION

IV) Gastrulation or Formation of Germ Layers

Definition : Transformation of the blastula into grastula with three

primary germ layer by rearrangement of cells is known as gastrulation.

Process: The germ layers are formed by characteristic movememnts of

the cells at or near the embryonic knob to their new, more inner positions.
These movements are known as morphogenetic movements. The 3 germ
layers are viz., ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm. Each germ layer gives
rise to new tissues, organs, organ systems of the young one.

a) Formation of Endoderm:
 Some cells covering the free surface of the embryonal knob
differentiate. They rapidly multiply, spread out in all directions and
soon form a complete lining inside the trophoblast of the
blastodermal cavity. This lining constitute the endoderm.

b) Formation of Mesoderm:

At the caudal margin(hind end) of the embryonic disc, the cells

start proliferating at an increased rate. The proliferated cells later
detach from the embryonic disc and spread between trophoblast
and endoderm. The new layer of cells formed is called as
mesoderm.

c) Formation of Ectoderm:

After the formation of mesoderm, the remaining cells of the embryonic

disc get arranged in a layer called ectoderm.

STAGES OF GASTRULATION
V) Organogenesis

The establishment of the germ layers initiates the final phase of

embryonic development, i.e., organogenesis. The latter involves
differentiation and specialization of groups of cells in the
individual germ layers. The cells of such groups change their
form and gives rise to morphologically recognizable tissues and
organs of the new individual.

By four weeks after fertilization, the embryo has a simple heart,

limb buds and eye rudiments. It also has a tail and pharyngeal
pouches, the vestiges of its early vertebrate ancestors that
disappear later in development. After the second month, the
embryo is recognizable as a primate. From this stage on, the
embryo is often called as foetus.

FATE OF GERM LAYERS

Each germ layer gives rise to the specific tissues, organs, and
organ-systems. The germ layers have the same fate in all
animals including humans.

1) Ectoderm

It gives rise to,

i) epidermis of skin and epidermal derivatives (glands, hair,

nails)
ii) nervous system
iii) medulla of adrenal gland, posterior and intermediate
glands of pituitary gland, pineal glan
iv) eye (conjunctiva, cornea, lens, retina, iri and ciliary
muscles)
v) internal ear
vi) nasal epithelium
vii) lining of stomodaeum and proctodaeum
viii) lining of external auditory canal
ix) lacrimal glands, salivary glands
x) enamel of teeth
2) Mesoderm

It produces,

i) dermis of skin
ii) most muscles, connective tissues
iii) peritoneum
iv) kidneys
v) cortex of adrenal glands
vi) gonads
vii) urinary and reproductive ducts
viii) heart, blood and lymph vessels
ix) spleen
x) wall of gut except its lining epithelium
xi) pericardium and pleura
xii) sclera and choroids of eye
xiii) most of skeleton
xiv) dentine of teeth
xv) mesenteries
xvi) notochord

3) Endoderm

It forms,

i) lining of gut except that of stomadaeun and

proctodaeum
ii) gastric and intestinal glands, tongue epithelium, liver,
pancreas, anterior lobe of pituitary, thyroid gland,
parathyroid gland, thymus gland
iii) lining of trachea, bronchi and lungs
iv) lining of urinary bladder
v) lining of middle ear
vi) primordial germ cells
vii) greater part of prostrate
HUMAN EMBRYO AND FOETAL
DEVELOPMENT(STAGES)
ALTERNATIVE DIAGRAM FOR GASTRUALTION