Applied Mechanics and Design Free E-Book

Applied Mechanics
and Design
Mechanical Engineering for

GATE
Free e-book
Volume
L N Pattanaik
Applied 1
©L N Pattanaik Free e-book Applied Mechanics and Design
BIT-Mesra (Mechanical Engineering for GATE)
Applied Mechanics and Design

Mechanical Engineering for
GATE
Free e-Book
L N Pattanaik
Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra
Ranchi (INDIA)
2
About the author
L N Pattanaik (born 1969) is presently Associate Professor in the Department of Production

Engineering, Birla Institute of Technology (deemed university), Mesra, Ranchi, INDIA. Earned his
PhD from Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee and Master of Technology from IT-BHU, Varanasi
after the Degree in Mechanical Engineering in 1993 from IE(I). Qualified in GATE (Mechanical)
1995, he is in the profession of teaching and research since 1997.
More about the author at https://sites.google.com/site/lnpattana
© L N Pattanaik, 2017
All rights are reserved. This work may not be translated, printed, scanned or copied in whole or part without the
written permission of the copyright holder. Use in connection with any form of information storage and
retrieval, distribution, creation of derivative works, electronic adaptation or by similar or dissimilar, existing or
future methodology is forbidden.
This E-book can be freely used by individual readers sans any commercial intent.
3
From the Author

Dear GATE aspirants,
At the outset I thank you for reading my e-book “Applied Mechanics and Design (Mechanical
Engineering for GATE)” which I hope to be useful in your career pursuit.
During the late 1980s, when I first came across the books of core Mechanical Engineering (ME)
subjects like Applied Mechanics, Strength of Materials, Machine Design, Theory of Machines,
Thermal Engineering, to my delight they were very similar to my first love ‘Physics’. Since then I
enjoyed the journey through these fascinating subjects and subsequently settled in a teaching
profession. During this teaching career, I was not always fortunate to get my favourite subjects of ME
to teach. Nevertheless, my fondness for these ME subjects remained unscathed. I had a pleasant
experience to teach and guide GATE (ME) aspirants. The challenge of teaching all the syllabus of ME
was a daunting one yet rewarding for me as a teacher.
The idea of this book developed over a period of time when I could not get my favourite ME subjects
to teach as I specialized in Production and Industrial Engineering during PG and PhD. The increasing
importance of GATE encouraged me to compile my experience and fascination for ME into a book
form to freely share it among the budding graduates. So, the potential readers of this book is
graduating and graduate Mechanical Engineers and allied branches like Production and Industrial
Engineering (PI) appearing for technical aptitude tests like GATE and alike.
The format used in the presentation of the book is to discuss a brief theory or concept from a chapter
followed by numerical solved examples related to that from previous GATE papers. Unimportant
lengthy theories are therefore not included. Author is of the view that GATE basically tests the
aptitude of graduates by putting some not-so-hard questions but from a wide domain of syllabus. The
wide scope of the syllabus is the challenge not the level of difficulty. Graduates preparing for IES or
other such exams in ME will also find the contents useful. This is an unprintable free E-book which is
purely for individual use.
Corrections or suggestions from the readers are solicited.
My best wishes.
L N Pattanaik
pattanaikbit@gmail.com
October, 2017
4
Acknowledgements
I am grateful to my genius teachers Prof. Rama Subramani and Late Prof. S. Krishnan who
taught me the subjects Machine Design, Theory of Machines, Strength of Materials and Applied
Mechanics with their inspiring intellect and pure heart.
I dedicate this selfless work in the memory of my father late Basudev Pattanaik, a noble and
divine soul.
A conducive work ambiance in BIT-Mesra with its scenic campus and infrastructure provided
all the right elements for writing. I am obliged to all the dear persons in my family and life for their
good wishes and support. The supreme cause behind the moments of noble thoughts and actions is
reverenced.
Mesra, Ranchi
October, 2017
5
CONTENTS
APPLIED MECHANICS AND DESIGN

CHAPTER 1 ENGINEERING MECHANICS
1.1 Free-body diagrams and equilibrium
1.2 Trusses and frames
1.3 Virtual work
1.4 Kinematics and dynamics of particles
1.5 Impulse and momentum (linear and angular) and energy formulations
1.6 Collisions
CHAPTER 2 MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
2.1 Stress and strain
2.2 Elastic constants and Poisson's ratio
2.3 Mohr’s circle for plane stress and plane strain
2.4 Thin and thick cylinders
2.5 Shear force and bending moment diagrams
2.6 Bending and shear stresses
2.7 Deflection of beams
2.8 Torsion of circular shafts
2.9 Euler’s theory of columns
2.10 Energy methods
2.11 Thermal stresses
2.12 Strain gauges and rosettes
2.13 Testing of materials with universal testing machine
2.14 Testing of hardness and impact strength
CHAPTER 3 THEORY OF MACHINES
3.1 Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis of plane mechanisms
3.2 Gears and gear trains
3.3 Flywheels
3.4 Free and forced vibration of single degree of freedom systems
3.5 Effect of damping
3.6 Vibration isolation and resonance
3.7 Critical speeds of shafts
6
CHAPTER 4 MACHINE DESIGN

4.1 Design for static and dynamic loading
4.2 Failure theories
4.3 Fatigue strength and the S-N diagram
4.4 Principles of the design of machine elements
4.4.1 Bolted joints

4.4.2 Riveted joints
4.4.3 Welded joints
4.4.4 Shafts
4.4.5 Gears
4.4.6 Rolling and sliding contact bearings
4.4.7 Brakes and clutches
4.4.8 Springs
7
1
Engineering mechanics
Mechanics deals with application of forces and their effects on rigid bodies (without deformation) in rest or in
motion. Hence the subject is clearly divided into Statics (rigid body in rest) and Dynamics (body in motion).
Further, dynamics is classified into Kinetics (includes forces in analysis) and Kinematics (only effects of forces
are considered).
The various approaches in engineering mechanics rely on the following fundamental concepts of physics:
 Newton’s three laws of motion

 Laws of friction
 Laws of forces
 Lami’s theorem
 Resultant and resolution of force or any other vector
 Work and energy
 Rectilinear and circular motion
 Deflection and energy in springs
 Moment of inertia of area/mass
1.1 Free-body diagrams and equilibrium
The various forces acting on a rigid body can be represented in a free-body diagram (FBD) form to make the
analysis simple. In FBDs, only the forces denoted with their magnitudes and directions are marked on the rigid
body.
For constructing an FBD, the most important challenge is to detect all the forces acting on the body and their
directions.
The forces present in a system to maintain equilibrium may not be evident from the initial diagram or problem
statement. Those hidden forces are found through an analysis of contact surfaces, nature of surface
(smooth/frictionless or rough), presence of any thread/rope/chain etc. which can provide only a pull (tension in
thread), and presence of any rigid link which is capable of providing both pull and push (tension and
compression in link) on the body in equilibrium. Many more such practical situations may arise to identify the
forces before applying the conditions of equilibrium. If any of the hidden forces is left out and not considered
during the analysis then the final results for equilibrium are incorrect.
For constructing the FBDs, first the reaction forces from various supports (if any) on the body under equilibrium
are to be ascertained. Depending on the contact nature at the supports, different reaction types are considered.
Some typical contacts at supports and their corresponding reactions are illustrated.
8
Support types Reactions Support types Reactions

Rocker, roller, ball- Reaction is normal Hinge or pin support Reactions both in the
end etc. on smooth to the surface of vertical and
frictionless surface contact in upward horizontal directions
direction
Fixed end support Vertical/horizontal Collar on smooth Reaction normal to

reactions with a rod or pin in slot line of motion
reaction couple
Sphere, cylinder, Reaction is equal to Bar or rod inside a Reactions normal to

ring etc. weight W cylinder, sphere or surface (passes
ring through center)
W O
Two Normal reactions at Roller and hinged Reactions at support

spheres/cylinders each contact surface support beam for equilibrium
inside a container due to weights
Fixed end or built-in A reaction couple at A ladder rests on a Friction at wall is

support Cantilever the fixed end along smooth floor and upwards (opposite to
with force reactions rough wall motion)
The rigid body is said to be in equilibrium at rest or motion when there is no unbalanced net force or moment
acting on it. Even in uniform velocity with zero acceleration/retardation the body can be considered as in
equilibrium.
The conditions for equilibrium of rigid body in two dimension (2D) plane are expressed as
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0, ∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0
where ‘A’ is any point in the plane of the structure.
Putting plainly, the sum of all the forces in two mutually perpendicular directions should be zero if the
body is in equilibrium. Further, the moment of these forces about any point A in the plane must also be zero.
These are the two conditions for equilibrium in two-dimension planes. For a 3D case of equilibrium, another
condition is added i.e. sum of all the forces in a direction perpendicular to previous two directions ∑ 𝐹𝑧 =
0. Until it is specified, the forces in a problem is considered as coplanar or two-dimensional. A simple example
on FBD and equilibrium.
A 50kN metal sphere hanged from the wall and is in equilibrium at rest as shown here. The FBD and
equilibrium of forces are used to find the unknown tension and reaction from the wall.
9
For equilibrium,
200
Tension (T) 200 ∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦
𝑇. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 20 = 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 20 = 𝑅
Reaction (R) 𝑇 = 53.2𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 18.1𝑘𝑁

Weight (W)
Free-body diagram
Finding the components of a force by resolving it along mutually perpendicular directions and the
resultant force from components are often used in problems from equilibrium. Various laws for finding resultant
force and direction are briefly given here.
Moment of forces about some suitable point is also used during verifying the conditions of equilibrium.
The moment of a force about a point is the product of magnitude of the force and the shortest or normal distance
from the point to the line of action (direction) of the force vector. A sign convention is used during these
calculations of moments or couples. A couple is formed on a body when two equal and opposite forces acts at a
given distance apart. The same sign conventions (clockwise moments/couples as positive and anti-clockwise
moments/couples as negative) must be used throughout a problem. Alternatively, the opposite nature
moments/couples can be written separately on either side of the equal sign in the equations for equilibrium.
Similarly, the vertically upward (or towards right) forces are considered as positive and downward (towards left)
forces as negative.
Law of force/vector Illustration Law of force/vector Illustration

𝑇 𝑊 𝑅
Resolution of force
𝐹 = √𝐹𝑥2 + 𝐹𝑦2
When three forces are = =
𝑠𝑖𝑛90 𝑠𝑖𝑛70 𝑠𝑖𝑛20
keeping a body in
y F Fy =F sinθ equilibrium, they must
T 200
pass through one point
θ x (collinear) and Sine
R
Fx =F cosθ rule can be applied W=50kN
(Lami’s theorem).
When two forces are 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑅 Resultant of several Resultant found using
represented as the = √[𝑃 2 + 𝑄2 + 2𝑃𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃] concurrent forces can ∑ 𝐹 and ∑ 𝐹 with
𝑥 𝑦
𝑄𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
sides of a tan 𝛼 = be found using Law of sign convention.
𝑃 + 𝑄𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃
parallelogram, then the Polygon of forces or y
Q
diagonal is their by resolving them into x
θ R
resultant (Law of α
two mutually
parallelogram). P perpendicular axes.
Some solved examples related to equilibrium of rigid bodies from previous tests are given here.
Example 1. A mass of 35 kg is suspended from a weightless bar AC, which is supported by a cable CB and a
pin at A as shown in the Figure. The pin reactions at A on the bar AC are ____________. (GATE)
125 mm
C
A
275 mm
Sol:
Weight of the hanging mass is mg = 35×10 = 350 N
10
Let the tension developed in the cable be T and reactions at joint A are RAV (vertical component) and RAH
(horizontal component). Considering equilibrium of bar AC,
RAV +T sin θ = 350 T
RAH = T cos θ RAV RAH θ
Here, cos θ = (275/302) sin θ = (125/302)
Applying ∑ 𝑀𝐴 = 0, 350 N
T sin θ (275) = 350 ×275 or T = 845 N
RAH = T cos θ = 845×(275/302) = 770 N
RAV = 350 – 350 = 0
(Note: Find the reaction at B)
Example 2. A concentrated force, F, is applied (perpendicular to the plane of the figure) on the tip of the bent
bar shown in Figure. The equivalent load at a section close to the fixed end is____________. (GATE)
Sol:
The equivalent load at the fixed end is a force F acting downwards
accompanied by a twisting moment FL (anti-clock wise) as shown.
(Note: As the force is acting in the same plane as the fixed support
hence the bar is not subjected to bending but it twists (due to torque)
the bar at the fixed.
⊗ symbol means force is normal to paper and downward
⊙ indicates an upward force/vector normal to plane of paper)
Example 3. An automobile of weight W is shown in Figure. A pull ‘P’ is applied as shown. The reaction at the
front wheels (location A) is __________. (GATE)
Sol:
Taking moments about B,
RA (2a) = W.a + P.b or RA = W/2 +Pb/2a (↑)
(Note: Find reaction at B. It is W/2 - Pb/2a. If Pb/2a ≥ W/2, then the reaction at B becomes zero means the
vehicle will loss contact at that point to turn about point A)
Example 4. Bars AB and BC, each of negligible mass, support load P as shown in the figure. In this
arrangement,
(a) bar AB is subjected to bending but bar BC is not subjected to bending
(b) bar AB is not subjected to bending but bar BC is subjected to bending
(c) neither bar AB nor bar BC is subjected to bending
(d) both bars AB and BC are subjected to bending (GATE)
11
Sol: (c)
As the supports are hinged or pin joints, the bars AB and BC are not subjected to bending and the load is
transmitted in bar in axial direction. If the support is fixed or built-in type then bending moment in the bar could
be developed.
Example 5. A uniform stiff rod of length 300 mm and having a weight of 300 N is pivoted at one end and
connected to a spring at the other end. For keeping the rod vertical in a stable position the minimum value of
spring constant K needed is __________. (GATE)
x F=Kx
x/2
Sol:
If the spring elongated by length x then the weight which is at the middle of the rod displaced by x/2 from the
original position as shown. Taking moment about the pivot at the base,
Spring force (Kx). (0.3) = W. (x/2)
For W of 300 N, K=500 N/m
Example 6. If point A is in equilibrium under the action of the applied forces, the values of tensions TAB and TAC
are respectively _______. (GATE)
Sol:
As the point ‘A’ is in equilibrium, writing the equations TAB
for equilibrium
∑ 𝐹𝑥 = 0 = ∑ 𝐹𝑦 TAC
600
300
TAB cos 60= TAC cos 30 or TAB = 1.73 TAC
A
and
TAB sin 60 + TAC sin 30 = 600 600 N
On solving these equations, TAB = 520 N, TAC = 300 N
Alternatively, by using Lami’s theorem (Sine rule) as three concurrent forces are in equilibrium, the
tensions can be easily found.
𝑇𝐴𝐵 𝑇𝐴𝐶 600
= =
Example 7. A block weighing 981 N is resting on a horizontal surface. The coefficient of friction between the
block and the horizontal surface is µ= 0.2. A vertical cable attached to the block provides partial support as
shown. A man can pull horizontally with a force of 100N. What will be the tension, T (in N) in the cable if the
man is just able to move the block to the right? (GATE)
T
12
µ=0.2 100 N
Sol:
The FBD of the block is constructed.
The normal reaction (N) from the surface is marked N
upwards and frictional force Fr acting opposite to the T
direction of impending motion.
The block will just start moving to right when the applied
force (100 N) overcomes the frictional force. Applying µN=Fr 100 N
condition of force equilibrium in the vertical direction
W
N + T = 981 or N = (981- T)
Along the horizontal axis, µN=100 or µ(981- T) =100
Taking µ as 0.2, T = 481 N
Example 8. A uniform rigid rod of mass M and length L is hinged at one end as shown in the adjacent figure. A
force P is applied at a distance of 2L/3 from the hinge so that the rod swings to the right. The reaction at the
hinge is ______. (GATE)
Sol: RV
At equilibrium,
RH=P RH
RV=Mg
Taking moment about a point Mg
at the bottom of rod,
RH. L= P. (L/3) or RH = P/3 P
Example 9. A simply supported beam PQ is loaded by a moment of 1 kN-m at the mid-span of the beam as
shown in the figure. The reaction forces at supports P and Q are_____. (GATE)
Sol:
RQ. 1= 1 kN.m
RQ = 1 kN (↑)
RP = 1 kN (↓)
Example 10. A weight of 500 N is supported by two metallic ropes as shown in the figure. The values of
tensions T1 and T2 are respectively________. (GATE)
13
Sol:
It is simpler to use Sine rule here than resolving the forces into two mutually perpendicular directions. Using
Sine rule,
𝑇1 𝑇2 500
= =
or T1 = 433 N and T2 = 250 N
Example 11. A rigid ball of weight 100 N is suspended with the help of a string. The ball is pulled by a
horizontal force F such that the string makes an angle of 300 with the vertical. The magnitude of force F (in N)
is _______. (GATE)
Sol:
Let the tension in the string be T N. Then the vertical
component of the tension must be equal to the weight of
ball (100 N). Hence, T cos30 =100 or T = 115 N.
Resolving the tension in horizontal direction,
T cos60 = F or F = 115 cos60= 57.5 N
Example 12. A block of mass m rests on an inclined plane and is attached by a string to the wall as shown in the
figure. The coefficient of static friction between the plane and the block is 0.25. The string can withstand a
maximum force of 20 N. The maximum value of the mass (m) for which the string will not break and the block
will be in static equilibrium is ______ kg. (GATE)
Take cosθ = 0.8 and sinθ = 0.6
Acceleration due to gravity g = 10 m/s2
Sol:
FBD of the bock is shown. Resolving forces
perpendicular to inclined plane,
N = Wcosθ
Forces parallel to inclined plane,
T + µN=Wsin θ
20 + 0.25 (Wcosθ)=Wsinθ N T
20 + 0.25 (0.8 W) = 0.6 W
W= 50 N µN
Maximum mass of the block ‘m’ is W/g
Wsinθ Wcosθ
m = 50/10=5 kg
W
Unsolved Problems
Q1. B
Force of 100 N acts at point A. Force 450
developed in cable AC is
(a) 50 N (b) 70.7 N (c) 100 N (d) 141.4 N
A C
100 N
Q2.
The block has a weight of 100N and a 50N
force is acting on it as shown. The frictional 3 50N
force acting at the surface of contact is____. 4
(Coefficients of friction; µs = 0.2 and µk=0.1)
(a) 13N (b) 20N (c) 26N (d) 40N
14
Q3.
If the wall is smooth, the minimum
coefficient of static friction µs between the
ladder and the floor so that the ladder is in
equilibrium
450
(a) 0 (b) 0.707 (c) 0.5 (d) 1
Q4. Y
For the beam loaded as shown Q θ P
X
(a) Reaction RAY> RBY and RAX>0
(b) RAY> RBY and RAX> RBX
(c) RAY< RBY and RAX> RBX B A
(d) RAY< RBY and RBX> RAX
l/2 l/2 l
Q5.
In Q4, if
(a) θ=0, then RBY< RAY (b) θ=90, RAY= RBY
(c) Q=0, RAX≠ RBX (d) Q=0, RAY≠ RBY
Y
5kN θ
Q6.
For the loaded beam shown, find the X
7kN.m
reactions at supports A and B for θ = 450, 0
1.5m×1.5m
and 900.
B A
7m 5m
Q7.
2
Three spheres, 1 (Φ30cm, weight 500N), 2
and 3 (Φ20cm, weight 300N) rest in 1
3
equilibrium inside a channel as shown. Find
the forces at all the six contact points.
60cm
Q8.
A metal bar of length 9m and weight 400N
is pushed by applying a force P as shown. If P 2m
the coefficient of all the surfaces is 0.2, find
the minimum value of P. 3m
Q9.
Two blocks A (500N) and B (300N) are
placed on an inclined plane as shown. Block B
B is tied to a wall using a horizontal rope. If
A
the coefficient of static friction for all
surfaces is 0.25, find the tension in the rope. 450
Q10.
A billboard is mounted on a pillar which is (4m×2m)
supported by a metal cable to the ground. It
is subjected to maximum wind pressure of
200N/m2 as shown. Find the reaction force 9m
6m
and bending moment at the base of the pillar
and tension in the cable. π/5
1.2 Trusses and frames

Truss is a structure made of axially loaded members. The nature of force in a member is either tension (tie) or
compression (strut). The external forces are applied only at the joints. In contrast to this in a frame structure,
loads can be applied anywhere on a frame including joints. The pins connecting members of a frame at a joint
15
are subjected to forces due to external loading. The approaches for solving problems from truss and frame are
thus different.
If a truss is having ‘m’ number of members and ‘j’ number of joints, then
2𝑗 = (𝑚 + 3) is the condition for a perfect or rigid truss
If (𝑚 + 3) > 2𝑗 then the truss is over-rigid or redundant which is statically indeterminate
If (𝑚 + 3) < 2𝑗 then the truss is under-rigid or collapsible
A member of a truss is represented with arrow heads pointing towards their joints when the member is
in compression and arrows away from the joints when in tension.
There are situations in trusses which need application of some concepts to proceed. If these special
situations are not addressed at the beginning of solution, it can be impossible to solve the truss. Some important
conditions and their interpretations are given.
Special situations in truss Quick Solution

Rule 1: “When two non-collinear E
members are meeting at a joint and
there is no external load applied at that
joint, then the two members are with D
zero force” C
Members EC and DE in the adjoining F
figure are satisfying this condition,
hence the force in these members are B A
zero.
Rule 2: “If three members meet at a D

joint but two of them are collinear and
there is no external load at that joint,
then the third member is with zero C B
force” A
Members CA, BA and DA meet at A Note: Force in member CA is equal to
while CA and BA are collinear. As force in member BA as force in DA is
there is no external force at A, hence zero.
force in AD is zero.
Rule 3: “If four members meet at a D D
joint subtending right angles with each
other, then forces are equal in each C B C B
pair of opposite members” A A
FCA= FBA and FDA= FEA F
E
FDA= F (three member joint)
Truss problems can be solved using (a) Method of joints (b) Method of sections. The later method is suitable
when the forces in one or two members are to be found without finding all other member forces. In both the
methods the laws of equilibrium for rigid bodies are applied to find the unknown forces.
Some solved examples related to trusses and frames from previous tests are given here.
Example 1. For the loading on truss shown in the figure, the force in member CD is____. (GATE)
Sol:
Using method of joints, RF = 1kN (↑) (taking ∑MA= 0)
At support F, FFD sin45 = RF = 1 or FFD =1.41kN
Applying Rule 3 of special situation at joint E,
FED=1kN. Resolving all the forces at joint D along
vertical direction, FFD cos45 + FCD cos45 = FED=1
Now, substituting FFD =1.41kN, FCD = 0
Example 2. A truss consists of horizontal members (AC, CD, DB and EF) and vertical members (CE and DE)
having length 1 each. The members AE, DE and BF are inclined at 45° to the horizontal. For the uniformly
distributed load ‘p’ per unit length on the member EF of the truss shown in figure, the force in the member CD
is______. (GATE)
16
Sol:
UDL of p over a length of 1 unit means a total load
of p units acting on the member EF. As the trusses
are designed for loading at the joints only hence
the load p is shared between joints E and F equally
(p/2 each). Using ∑MB= 0, RA = p/2 (↑)
At support A, FAF sin45 = RA = p/2 or FAF= 0.707p
FAC= FAF cos45 = p
At C, using Rule 2 & 3, FAC = FCD = p and FFC=0.
Example 3. The figure shows a pin-jointed plane truss loaded at the point M by hanging a mass of 100 kg. The
member LN of the truss is subjected to a load of______. (GATE)
Sol:
The force in the member LN can be found as K L M
zero using Rule 2 at joint L.
Note: Find FKN taking angle LMN as 300

N
100kg
O
Example 4. In a statically determinate plane truss, the number of joints (j) and the number of members (m) are
related by_______. (GATE)
(A) j = 2m – 3 (B) m = 2j + 1 (C) m = 2j – 3 (D) m = 2j – 1 Sol: (C)
Example 5. For the truss shown in the figure, the forces F1 and F2 are 9kN and 3kN respectively. The force (in
kN) and nature in the member QS is ______. (GATE)
Sol:
To find the force in member QS only, method of sections
is used. A section (dotted line) is cut through the truss F1 F2
3
which separates a portion containing external force F1 and P Q 3
R
internal axial force of three members PQ, SQ and ST.
Considering the equilibrium of this portion (left of the 2
section), for ∑Fy= 0, F1= Vertical component of FQS S T
or FQS sin530 = 9, FQS = 11.25 kN (tension) 1.5
as tanθ = (2/1.5) or θ = 530 3
Example 6. Two identical trusses support a load of 100 N as shown in the figure. The length of each truss is 1.0
m; cross-sectional area is 200 mm2; Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa. The force in the truss AB (in N) is ______.
(GATE)
Sol:
For equilibrium of forces at joint B, using sine rule
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝐹𝐶𝐵 100
= =
Hence, FAB = FCB = 100N
Note: If elongation of each bar is considered then
𝐹𝑙 100 × 1
∆𝑙 = = = 0.0025 𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐸 200 × 10−6 × 200 × 109
This elongation is so small that it hardly affect the
equilibrium condition used above.
Example 6. For the truss shown in figure, the magnitude of the force in member PR and the support reaction at
‘R’ are respectively____and ____. (GATE)
17
Sol:
Taking moment about the hinged support Q, the vertical
component of the external force 100kN is passing through Q
and hence only the horizontal component (100 cos60) is giving
a clockwise moment of (4 ×100 cos60). If the vertical reaction
at R is RR then
(4 ×100 cos60)= RR×4 or RR (↑) = 50kN
At joint R, FPR.sin45=RR or FPR=70.7kN (compression)
Example 7. For the truss shown in the figure, the magnitude of the force (in kN) in the member SR is ______.
(GATE)
Sol:
Taking moment about hinged joint P,
30×2=RQ×3 or RQ=20kN (↑) (Roller support)
At joint Q, FRQ (C) = RQ = 20kN
At joint R, FRQ = FRT cos45 or FRT = 28.28kN (T)
The horizontal component of FRT is equal to FRS
at joint R. Hence,
FRT cos45= FRS=28.28 cos45= 20kN (comp.)
Example 8. A two-member truss PQR is supporting a load W. The axial forces in members PQ and QR are
respectively____and____. (GATE)
Sol:
Resolving the forces vertically and horizontally at
joint Q,
FQR cos60=W and FQR cos30 =FPQ
FQR=2W (Comp.)
FPQ =1.73W (Tension)
Example 9. (Frames) For the loaded frame shown in the figure, find the magnitude and nature of force in
member AC.
Sol: 2kN B
It is noted here that, a frame can be loaded on the
members unlike trusses. First, the roller reaction at C 2kN
A 300 300
is found by equating moments about support A to C
zero.
RC ×4=2×1+2×1 tan30 or RC=0.78kN (↑) (1m×4)
Considering the equilibrium of member BC,
An equal and opposite force of reaction RC acts on
the pin at support C. So, YC= RC=0.78kN. Taking B 2kN
moment about joint B,
2×1 tan30 + XC×2 tan30 = 0.78×2 or XC= 0.35kN XC
The same horizontal force acts on member AC in YC C
opposite direction. Thus AC is in compression.
Note: Vertical reaction at A = 2 – 0.78 = 1.22kN (↑) XA A C XC
Horizontal reaction at A = 2kN (←)
Force in AC can also be found considering
equilibrium of member AB.
18
Unsolved Problems
Q1. G
For the truss shown in the figure, find the
magnitude and nature of force in the members ED F
30kN
and EH.
E H
B
450
A
20kN D
(1m×2)
Q2. E
2kN
magnitude and nature of force in the members FC F
and EF.
300
A B C D
(1m×3)
Q3. 3kN 2kN

For the truss shown in the figure, find the 5kN F C B
magnitude and nature of force in the members AF E
and AD using method of section. 1m
D A
(1m×3)
Q4. 8kN P
For the frame shown in the figure, find the
magnitude and direction of force on the pins at 1m 0.6m
joints T and U. R Q
(1m×3) U
T 15kN
S
Q5.
magnitude and nature of force in the members CG
and BG using method of section.
Q6. F
Consider a truss PQR loaded at P with a force F P
as shown in the figure. The tension in the member
QR is _____. (GATE)
450 300
Q R
19
1.3 Virtual work

If a rigid body is in state of equilibrium, then the work done by external forces applied on the body is zero
for any imaginary or virtual displacement consistent with the geometry of the rigid body. Some examples are
given.
Example 1. A beam is loaded and supported as shown. Find the reaction at A and B using principle of virtual
work.
Sol: 2kN
The force can be resolved into vertical and
horizontal components as A 450 B
FH = 2 cos45 = 1.41kN (←)
FV = 2 sin45 = 1.41kN (↓)
Suppose, a small angular displacement of ∆θ 2m 2m
is given to the beam about point A. Then as
per the principle of virtual work, sum of the Then giving a small linear displacement of
work done by external forces is zero. ∆x to the beam towards left, the horizontal
or 1.41×2∆θ - RB×4∆θ=0 or RB=0.705kN(↑) component of the force and the horizontal
Note: 2∆θ and 4∆θ are arc lengths with radii reaction at A will do the external work.
2 and 4 respectively. These small arcs are RAX×∆x=1.41×∆x or RAX=1.41kN (←)
the linear displacements used in finding the Similarly, giving angular displacement
work. The horizontal component of the force about B, RAY is found as 0.705kN (↑)
added zero work as it is perpendicular to
displacement)
Example 2. A system of pulleys are used to lift a load of 5kN as shown. Find the pull force F using principle of
virtual work.
Sol:
Suppose, a virtual downward displacement of ∆x is given to
force F, then the upward displacement of load 5kN will be
∆x/2. The sum of the work done by these two external forces is
F
zero.
F. ∆x = 5. (∆x/2) or F=2.5kN ∆x
5kN
∆x/2
Example 3. If a system is in equilibrium and the position of the system depends upon many independent
variables, the principle of virtual work states that the partial derivatives of its total potential energy with respect
to each of the independent variable must be___. (GATE)
(A) -1.0 (B) 0 (C) 1.0 (D) ∞ Sol: B
1.4 Kinematics and dynamics of particles

Kinematics is the study of the relationship between displacement, velocity, acceleration and time of motion
without considering the forces. Some useful laws of rectilinear and curvilinear motion are revisited.
Rectilinear motion Curvilinear motion

𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑2 𝑠 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝜃 𝑑𝜔 𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜔
𝑣= ,𝑎 = = =𝑣 𝜔 𝑚𝑣 2 𝜔= ,𝛼 = = =𝜔
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑠 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝜃
𝑟
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡 T 𝜔 = 𝜔0 + 𝛼𝑡
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 1/2𝑎𝑡 2 𝜃 = 𝜔0 𝑡 + 1/2𝛼𝑡 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢 2 + 2𝑎𝑠 r
𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔 𝜔2=𝜔0 2+2𝛼𝜃
𝑣 = √2𝑔ℎ (From height h) 𝑣 = 𝑟𝜔
Projectile Motion
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 𝑎𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 = 𝑟𝛼
𝑅= (Range) v
𝑔
Work=F.s=0 (F normal to s)
Range maximum, sin2θ=1 H
2θ=900 or θ=450 θ
2𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 𝑣2
𝑇= (Time of flight) R 𝑎𝑟 = 𝜔2 𝑟 = (Centripetal)
𝑔 𝑟
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃 𝑣2
𝐻= (Max. height) 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = (Track bending)
2𝑔 𝑟𝑔
20
Example 1. A stone of mass m at the end of a string of length l is whirled in a vertical circle at a constant speed.
The tension in the string will be maximum when the stone is __.(GATE)
(a) at the top of the circle (b) half-way down from the top (c) quarter was down from the top (d) at the bottom of
the circle
Sol: (d)
When the mass is whirled, the centripetal force (mv2)/R acts
radially outwards on the string as shown. The weight of the stone T
is acting vertically downwards. Hence, at the bottom of the circle (mv2)/R
both the centripetal force and weight are acting in the same
downward direction thus causing maximum tension in the string.
mg
Example 2. Two balls of mass m and 2m are projected with identical velocities from the same point making
angles 30° and 60° with the vertical axis, respectively. The heights attained by the balls will be identical (T or
F). (GATE)
Sol: (F)
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Maximum height attained by a projectile H = where θ is the angle made by the initial velocity with
2𝑔
horizontal. In the present case, the two projectiles are making 300 and 600 with vertical axis. Hence, the
projectiles are subtending 600 and 300 with the horizontal. As the value of sin2 θ is different for θ being 600 and
300, hence the height attained are also different.)
Example 3. A ball falls from a height of 1m, hits the ground and rebounds with half its velocity just before
impact. Then after rising it falls and hits the ground and again rebounds with half its velocity just before impact,
and so on. The total distance traveled by the ball till it comes to rest on the ground is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
When a ball falls from a height of h, it strikes the ground with a
velocity of (2gh)1/2. From a height of 1m, this velocity is (2g)1/2. As it 1m
rebounds with half the velocity, hence the upward velocity is 1/2 of
(2g)1/2or (g/2)1/2. The height to which it can go up is found using
¼m
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
where v is 0, u is (g/2)1/2 , a is –g and s is h’ (the second height)
0 = g/2 -2gh or h’ = (1/4)m
Similarly, in the next bounce the ball will move (1/16)m and so on. The
successive heights are 1, 1/4, 1/16, 1/64, ….∞. The addition of this
infinite GP series is found as
𝑎 1
𝑆= = =1.33m
1−𝑟 1−0.25
a is the first term of the series (1 in this case)
r is the common ratio (1/4 here)
Example 4. A car moving with uniform acceleration covers 450m in a 5 second interval, and covers 700m in
the next 5 second interval. The acceleration of the car is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Referring to the figure, t =5s t =5s
v22- v12=2a.450=900a 450m 700m
(v2- v1)( v2+v1)=900a v1 v2 v3
But v2= v1+a.t1 or (v2- v1)=5a
Substituting, 5a. (v2+v1) =900a or (v2+v1)=180
Similarly, v32- v22 =2a.700=1400a or (v2+v3)=280
Subtracting (v2+v1) =180, (v3-v1) =100
Again, v32- v12=2a.1150=2300a and (v3-v1)=10a, so
(v3+v1)=230. Finally, (v3+v1)=230 and (v3-v1)=100 or
v3 = 165 and v1= 65. Then a = 10 m/s2
Example 5. A cannon ball fired from the ground attained a maximum height of 1km. At this maximum height,
the radius of curvature of its path was also 1km. With this data, determine the initial velocity and angle of
projection from the ground. Neglect air resistance. (GATE)
Sol:
21
𝑢2 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜃
Maximum height attained by a projectile is 𝐻 = and radius of curvature of its path is given by
2𝑔
𝑢2 𝑐𝑜𝑠2 𝜃
r= . As both r and H are 1km, thus by dividing them
𝑔
tan 𝜃 = 2 or 𝜃=54.70
2
Substituting in equation for maximum height, u = 171.45 m/s
Example 6. Bodies 1 and 2 shown in the figure have equal mass m. All surfaces are smooth.
The value of force P required to prevent sliding of body 2 on body 1 is____. (GATE)
Sol:
When force P is acting on the combined mass of 2m, the
𝑃
acceleration is . The component of weight of body 2
2𝑚
along the inclined plane (mg sin450) is responsible for
sliding it down. If this component is equal to the opposite
force due to the acceleration then the body will not slide
down. Hence,
mg sin450 = ma. cos450 or a = g then P = 2mg
ma
mg sin450
Example 7. A body of mass (M) 10 kg is initially stationary on a 45° inclined plane as shown in figure. The
coefficient of dynamic friction between the body and the plane is 0.5. The body slides down the plane and
attains a velocity of 20 m/s. The distance travelled (in meter) by the body along the plane is ______. (GATE)
Sol: N=mg cos450
Normal reaction N = mgcos450=10.10.(0.707)=70.7 FR
Frictional force during sliding FR = 0.5 (70.7) = 35.35 N
If ‘a’ is the acceleration in the body, then
mg sin450 mg
mg sin450- FR = ma or a = 3.53 m/s2
0
Body was initially at rest, u = 0, final velocity v=20 m/s 45
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, s = 56.6 m
Example 8. A ball of mass 0.1 kg, initially at rest, is dropped from height of 1m. Ball hits the ground and
bounces off the ground. Upon impact with the ground, the velocity reduces by 20%. The height (in m) to which
the ball will rise is _______ (GATE)
Sol:
Velocity with which the ball strikes the ground is (2gh)1/2 = (2×9.81×1)1/2 = 4.42 m/sec
Velocity with which the bounces back = 80% of 4.42 = 3.53 m/sec
The height to which the ball can rise is (v2/2g) or (3.53)2/2.(9.81) = 0.635m
Example 9. The initial velocity of an object is 40 m/s. The acceleration ‘a’ of the object is given by the
following expression a = −0.1v, where v is the instantaneous velocity of the object. The velocity of the object
after 3 seconds will be ____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Acceleration a = = −0.1𝑣 𝑜𝑟 = −0.1𝑑𝑡, 𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 ∫ = ∫ −0.1𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑡 𝑣 𝑣
𝑙𝑛𝑣 = −0.1𝑡 + 𝑐
Initial velocity v0 is 40 when t = 0. On substituting ln40 = -0.1 (0) + c or c = 3.68
Velocity after 3 sec, 𝑙𝑛𝑣 = −0.1(3) + 3.68 = 3.38 𝑜𝑟 𝒗 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟑𝟕 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄
Example 10. Figure shows a wheel rotating about O2. Two points A and B located along the radius of wheel
have speeds of 80 m/s and 140 m/s respectively. The distance between the points A and B is 300 mm. The
diameter of the wheel (in mm) is ______. (GATE)
Sol:
Linear velocity v = 𝜔𝑟
80 = 𝜔. r1
140 = 𝜔. r2 but r2 = r1 + 0.3
140 = 𝜔. r1 + 0.3 𝜔 = 80 + 0.3 𝜔 or 𝜔 = 200 rad/s
r2 = 140/200 = 0.7m
Diameter of the wheel = 2 r2 = 1.4m = 1400mm
22
Example 11. An inextensible massless string goes over a frictionless pulley. Two weights of 100N and 200N
are attached to the two ends of the string. The weights are released from rest, and start moving due to gravity.
The tension in the string (in N) is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Let ‘T’ be the tension in the string and ‘a’ is the acceleration of
the weights. Then
200 –T =(200/g)a
T – 100 = (100/g)a
On adding the equations, 300 = (300/g)a or a = g
On substituting, T = 0
Unsolved Problem
Q1.
A block of mass M is released from point P on a rough
inclined plane with inclination angle θ, as shown in the P
figure. The coefficient of friction is µ. If µ < tanθ, then
the time taken by the block to reach another point Q on θ Q
the inclined plane, where PQ = s, is ____. (GATE)
1.5 Impulse and momentum (linear and angular) and energy formulations
Impulse is the product of force and time for which the force acts causing a change in the momentum of body. As
the rate of change of momentum or differentiation of momentum with respect to time t gives force, hence
𝑑𝑃
= 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑃 = 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = 𝑃2 − 𝑃1 = (𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1 )
𝑑𝑡
𝑡
𝐽 = ∫ 𝐹𝑑𝑡 = (𝑚𝑣2 − 𝑚𝑣1 )
0
Linear momentum is expressed as P = mv and it remains conserved during collisions. Similarly, angular
momentum is calculated during circular motions given by L = I 𝜔, where I is the mass moment of inertia of the
body about the axis of rotation. Conservation of angular momentum is also applicable during ratational motions
when the external torque is zero. The mass moment of inertia of a body about an axis is obtained by
𝐼 = ∑ 𝑚𝑖 𝑟𝑖2
𝑖
where mi is mass of ith discrete particle at a perpendicular distance of ri from the axis.
The mass moment of inertia for some common rigid bodies about their axis of rotation are given.
X X X
X
2
Cylinder IX = ½ Mr
Similarly, the second Sphere
momentIX of anMr 2
area also known as moment of inertia
=2/5 Thin cylinder IX=isMrfound
2 about X and Y-axis as
2
follows: Disc I X = ½ Mr
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑𝐴 and 𝐼𝑌𝑌 = ∫𝐴 𝑥 2 𝑑𝐴
Moment of inertia for some common areas are given here.
Y b
r
h h h
X X
X X
X1 b X1
X1 𝜋𝑟 4 𝜋𝐷 4
b 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = =
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 4 64
𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝜋𝑟 4
12 36 12 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = (Semi-
8
circle about
23
𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 diameter)

𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 = 𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 = 𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 =
3 12 3
ℎ𝑏 3
𝐼𝑌𝑌 =
12
By using Parallel-axis theorem, the moment of inertia of an area about an axis which is parallel to a known axis
can be found.
If IXX is the moment of inertia of the area A about its own centroidal A
axis XX, then using parallel-axis theorem the moment of inertia about
X
another parallel axis X1X1 at a distance of d is found as d
𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐴. 𝑑 2 X1
If 𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 is known, then 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = 𝐼𝑋1𝑋1 − 𝐴. 𝑑 2
Radius of gyration of an area about an axis is obtained by dividing the moment of inertia about that axis with the
total area. Hence, although it is known as radius of gyration, but it is expressed as m2 unit.
𝐼𝑋𝑋 𝐼𝑌𝑌
𝑘𝑥 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘𝑦 =
𝐴 𝐴
In contrast to this, recall the calculation of first moment of an area as 𝑀𝑦 = ∫𝐴 𝑥𝑑 A about Y-axis and 𝑀𝑥 =
∫𝐴 𝑦𝑑 A about X-axis. The centroid of the area (xC, yC) can be found using
𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑥
𝑥𝐶 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦𝐶 =
𝐴 𝐴
Conservation of energy principle is states that energy can not be created or destroyed but it
can be transformed from one form to other. In engineeing mechanics problems, various
mechanical energies are involved like potential energy (PE) owing to position, kinetic
energy (KE) owing to motion at a velocity and stored energy in springs etc.
PE = mgh
KE (Translational) = ½ mv2 (m is the mass and v is the velocity of the body)
KE (Rotational) = ½ I 𝜔2 (I is M.I and 𝜔 in angular velocity)
Some facts about linear springs:
 Spring force, F = Kx, K is spring constant or stiffness
F= Kx x
(N/m)
 If a spring (K) is cut into two pieces, then spring constant K1
1 K2
of each is 2K as K∝ , n is number of turns in the spring
𝑛
 When two springs with stifffneses K1 and K2 are used in
parallel, the equivalent stiffness is (K1 + K2). In series, the
𝐾 𝐾 Parallel Keq=(K1 + K2)
equivalent stiffness is 𝐾𝑒𝑞 = 1 2
(𝐾1 +𝐾2 )
 PE in springs = ½ Kx2 (K is the spring constant, x is
elongation/compression of spring) K2 K1
Example 1. The 2kg mass C moving horizontally to the right, with a velocity of 5 m/s, strikes the 8kg mass B at
the lower end of the rigid massless rod AB. The rod is suspended from a frictionless hinge at A and is initially at
rest. If the coefficient of restitution between mass C and mass B is one, determine the angular velocity of the rod
AB immediately after impact. (GATE)
Sol:
The coefficient of restitution e =1 indicates that the collision is
perfectly elastic. Hence,
(𝑣𝐵′ − 𝑣𝐶′ ) = (𝑣𝐶 − 𝑣𝐵 )
As the mass B was at rest before the impact, 𝑣𝐵 = 0
(𝑣𝐵′ − 𝑣𝐶′ ) = 5 − 0 = 5 (1)
Conservation of momentum gives
mC. vC + mB. vB = mC. v’C + mB. v’B, on substituting values
2 × 5 + 0 = 2 v’C + 8 v’B or 4v’B + v’C = 5 (2)
Solving (1) and (2), v’B = 2 m/sec
If 𝜔 is the angular velocity of the rod AB then v’B = 𝜔r or
𝜔 = 2/(1.6) = 1.25 rad/sec
24
Example 2. A 1 kg mass of clay, moving with a velocity of 10 m/s, strikes a stationary wheel and sticks to it.
The solid wheel has a mass of 20 kg and a radius of 1 m assuming that the wheel and the ground are both rigid
and that the wheel is set into pure rolling motion, the angular velocity of the wheel immediately after the impact
is approximately _____. (GATE)
Sol:
The clay mass striking the wheel is a
case of perfectly plastic collision (e =0)
Using conservation of momentum,
mA. vA + mB. vB = (mA + mB) v’
Taking vA = 10m/s and vB = 0
1×10 + 20×0 = (1 + 20) v’
v’= 0.476 m/s or 𝜔 = v’/r = (0.476)/1
𝜔 = 0.476 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Example 3. A circular disc of radius 100 mm and mass 1 kg, initially at rest at position A, rolls without slipping
down a curved path as shown in figure. The speed v of the disc when it reaches position B is ___ m/s. (GATE)
Sol:
Using conservation of energy principle, the PE at
point A is converted into KE (translational and
rotational) at point B. Hence,
mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ I 𝜔2
I =Mass moment of inertia for a disc = ½ mr2
½ I 𝜔2 = ¼ mr2.(v2/r2) = ¼ mv2 (substituting 𝜔 = v/r)
So, mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ I 𝜔2 = ¾ mv2
4𝑔ℎ 4×10×30
v=√ =√ = 𝟐𝟎 𝒎/𝒔𝒆𝒄
3 3
Example 4. A solid cylinder of mass m and radius r starts rolling from rest along an inclined plane. If it rolls
without slipping from a vertical height h, the velocity of its centre of mass when it reaches the bottom is _____.
(GATE)
Sol:
Similar to Example 3, the mass moment of inertia of a cylinder about its rotational axis is also ½ mr2. Hence the
4𝑔ℎ
velocity of the cylinder when it reaches the bottom is v = √
3
Example 5. A mass of 2000 kg is currently being lowered at a velocity of 2 m/s from the drum as shown in the
figure. The mass moment of inertia of the drum is 150 kg-m2. On applying the brake, the mass is brought to rest
in a distance of 0.5 m. The energy absorbed by the brake (in kJ) is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Using conservation of energy principle, the energy absorbed by the
brake = energy lost from the system due to position of the mass
and rotational KE of the drum.
When the tangential linear velocity of the mass or rope is 2m/s, the
angular velocity of the drum is 𝜔 = v/r = 2/1 =2 rad/sec
Rotation KE of the drum = ½ I 𝜔2 = ½ (150) 4 = 300J
Loss in PE of the mass = mgh =2000(9.81)(0.5) = 9810J
Total energy = 9810 + 300 = 10110J = 10.11kJ
Example 6. A point mass M is released from rest and slides down a spherical bowl (of radius R) from a height H
as shown in the figure below. The surface of the bowl is smooth (no friction). The velocity of the mass at the
bottom of the bowl is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Using conservation of energy principle, the potential energy
at height H is converted into kinetic energy at the bottom of
the bowl. Hence,
mgH = ½ mv2 or v = (2gH)1/2
25
Example 7. A block of mass 5 kg is thrust up a 30° inclined plane with an initial velocity of 4m/sec. It travels a
distance of 1.0 m before comes to rest. The force of friction acting on it would be____. (GATE)
Sol:
Kinetic Energy at starting point = Potential Energy at
reaching the top + Work done against friction 1m
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝐹𝑅 . 𝑠
2
1
5. 42 = 5. (9.81). 1. 𝑠𝑖𝑛30 + 𝐹𝑅 . 1 FR
2 300
𝐹𝑅 = 15.47𝑁
Example 8. The deflection of a spring with 20 active turns under a load of 1000N is 10mm. The spring is made
into two pieces each of 10 active coils and placed in parallel under the same load. The deflection of this system
is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Stiffness of original spring, K = 1000/10 =100N/mm
Stiffness of each spring after cutting into two pieces = 2K =200N/mm
When springs are used in parallel, Keq= 2K + 2K =4K =400N/mm
New deflection = 1000/400 = 2.5mm
Example 9. An ejector mechanism consists of a helical compression spring having a spring constant of K =
98.1×103 N/m. it is pre-compressed by 100 mm from its free state. If it is used to eject a mass of 100 kg held on
it, the mass will move up through a distance of ____. (GATE) (a) 100 mm (b) 500 mm (c) 981 mm (d) 1000
mm
Sol:
PE stored in spring = KE of the block
½ Kx2 = ½ mv2 100mm
3 2 2
½ ×98.1×10 ×(0.1) = ½ ×100v
v = 3.13 m/s (velocity with which the block ejected)
If the mass move up by a height h, then final velocity is 0 with
initial velocity of 9.9m/s and retardation of g m/sec2
Using 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠, 0 = (3.13)2 + 2 (-9.81)h
h = 0.5 m = 500mm
Example 10. The area moment of inertia of a square of size 1 unit about its diagonal is____. (GATE)
Sol:
The height of the triangle above X-X is 1/√2 or 0.707
The base of the triangle is 1.41 1 1
The moment of the area about X-X is 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑 A X X

𝑏ℎ3 1.41×0.7073
IXX = 2× = = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟖𝟑
12 6
Example 11. The value of moment of inertia of the section shown in the figure about the axis-XX is ____.
(GATE)
Sol:
The MI of the rectangle about its centroidal axis is
60×1203
( ) =8.64×106 mm4
12
The MI of two cut-out square holes about XX can be found
using parallel-axis theorem as
304
2( + 30 × 30 × 302 ) = 1.755 × 106 mm4
12
Moment of inertia of the shaded area = (8.64-1.755)× 106
mm4 = 6.885×106 mm4
Example 12. A shell is fired from a cannon with a speed v at an angle θ with the horizontal direction. At the
highest point in its path it explodes into two pieces of equal mass. One of the pieces retraces its path to the
cannon. The speed of other piece immediately after explosion is_____. (GATE)
(a) 3vcos(b) 2vcos(c) 3/2 vcos(d) (3/2)1/2 vcos
26
Sol: (a)
At the highest point of trajectory, only vcosθ
v
horizontal component of velocity exists.
Momentum before the explosion is m.vcosθ H
Momentum after the explosion is θ
𝑚 𝑚
(−𝑣𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃) + (𝑣 ′ )
2 2
v’ =3vcosθ
Example 13. A point mass of 100 kg is dropped onto a massless elastic bar (cross sectional area = 100 mm 2,
length 1 m, Young’s modulus 100 GPa) from a height H of 10 mm as shown (Figure is not to scale). If g = 10
m/s2, the maximum compression of the elastic bar is ____ mm. (GATE)
Sol:
The mass falling from a height of 10 mm lost a PE of mgH
= 100×10×0.01 = 10 N.m 10 mm
If the maximum compression of the bar is 𝛿𝑙, then ½ P. 𝛿𝑙 = 10 Nm
𝑃2 𝑙 20×100×10−6 ×100×109 1m
= 10 or 𝑃 = √ = 14.14 kN
2𝐴𝐸 1
2×10 20
𝛿𝑙 = = = 1.41 mm
𝑃 14.14×103
Example 14. Two discs A and B with identical mass (m) and radius (R) are initially at rest. They roll down from
the top of identical planes without slipping. Disc A has all of its mass concentrated at the rim, while disc B has
its mass uniformly distributed. At the bottom of the plane, the ratio of velocity of the center of disc A to the
velocity of center of disc B is _____. (GATE)
3 3
(a) √ (b) √ (c) 1 (d) √2
4 2
Sol: (a)
As the mass of disc A is concentrated at the rim, IA = mR2 and for disc B, IB = ½ mR2
If height of the inclined planes is h, then initial PE = mgh
By law conservation of energy, at the bottom of the planes mgh = ½ mv2 + ½ I 𝜔2
1 1 1 1
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 + 𝐼𝐴 𝜔𝐴2 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + 𝐼𝐵 𝜔𝐵2
2 2 2 2
1 1 2 𝑣𝐴 2 1 1 1 𝑣
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 + 𝑚𝑅 ( ) = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 + . 𝑚𝑅2 ( 𝐵)2
2 2 𝑅 2 2 2 𝑅
3 𝑣𝐴 3
𝑚𝑣𝐴2 = 𝑚𝑣𝐵2 or =√
4 𝑣𝐵 4
Unsolved Problems
Q1. A pile hammer weighing 20kN drops from a height of 750mm on a pile of 10kN. The
pile penetrates 100mm per blow. Assuming that the motion of the pile is resisted by a
constant force, find the resistance to penetrate of the ground.
Q2. Ball having mass 4kg and velocity 8m/s travels to the east. Impulse given at point
O, makes it change direction to north with velocity 6m/s. Find the given impulse and
change in the momentum.
Q3. The area moment of inertia (in mm4) of this cross-
section about its base is ______. All dimensions are in 10
mm. (GATE) R4
10
10
27
1.6 Collisions
Conservation of linear momentum: mA

If vA > vB, then body A will collide with body B. When there mB
is no external force present in the system, the total
momentum of the system is conserved. vA vB
Total momentum before the collision = Total momentum
after the collision or mA. vA + mB. vB = mA. v’A + mB. v’B
Where, v’A and v’B are the velocities of bodies A and B
respectively after the impact.
Coefficient of restitution: vA=10m/s v’A=7m/s

(𝑣𝐵′ − 𝑣𝐴′ 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑒=− =− vB=v’B=0 e=0.7
(𝑣𝐵 − 𝑣𝐴 ) 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑐ℎ
When an object like a ball or sphere falls on the floor, the velocity of the floor is taken as zero before and after
the impact. Hence substituting zero for these velocities in the expression for ‘e’, the velocity with which the ball
will bounce is found as ‘e’ times the velocity of impact (refer to the figure).
Case (i) For perfectly elastic collision (between to polished and hardened spheres) the value of e = 1
For e = 1, (𝑣𝐵′ − 𝑣𝐴′ ) = (𝑣𝐴 − 𝑣𝐵 )
Hence in this case KE before collision = KE after collision
½ mA. vA2 + ½ mB. vB2 = ½ mA. v’A2 + ½ mB. v’B2
If the masses of the two bodies are same, then simple exchange of their velocities takes place during the
collision.
Case (ii) For perfectly plastic collision (with a putty ball), the value of e = 0, means v’A = v’B = v’ or both the
bodies will move with the same common velocity v’. KE is not conserved in this case. But momentum is
conserved as given by
Example 1. A railway wagon ‘A’ of mass 10,000 kg collides with another identical wagon ‘B’ as shown in the
figure. If ‘A’ is moving at 5 m/s and ‘B’ is at rest at the time of collision, calculate the maximum compression in
the spring S with a spring constant of 2 MN/m. (GATE)
Sol:
Using conservation of momentum,
vA = 5m/s vB = 0
10000×5 + 0 = (20000) v’
Due to the spring, both wagons will move at a
common velocity v’ after the impact. A S B
v’ = 2.5 m/s
By law of conservation of energy,
Initial KE before impact = Final KE after impact +
Work done on the spring
½ mA. vA2 = ½ (mA + mB) v’2 + ½ Kx2
½ 10000. 25 = ½ (20000). (2.5)2 + ½ .2.106. x2
x = 0.25m =25cm
Example 2. A small ball of mass 1 kg moving with a velocity of 12 m/s undergoes a direct central impact with a
stationary ball of mass 2 kg. The impact is perfectly elastic. The speed (in m/s) of 2 kg mass ball after the
impact will be ____. (GATE)
Sol:
In this case, mA = 1kg, vA =12m/s, mB =2kg, vB = 0, to find v’B
For a perfectly elastic collision, mA. vA + mB. vB = mA. v’A + mB. v’B
1×12 + 2×0 = 1× v’A + 2× v’B or v’A + 2v’B = 12 (1)
As KE remains conserved in perfectly elastic collisions, hence
½ mA. vA2 + ½ mB. vB2 = ½ mA. v’A2 + ½ mB. v’B2
28
½ (1). 122 + 0 = ½ (1). v’A2 + ½ (2). v’B2 or v’A2 + 2v’B2 = 144 (2)
On solving (1) and (2), v’B = 8m/s
Example 3. A bullet of mass ‘m’ travels at a very high velocity v and gets embedded inside the block of mass
‘M’ initially at rest on a rough horizontal floor. The block with the bullet is seen to move a distance ‘s’ along the
floor. Assuming µ to be the coefficient to kinetic friction between the block and the floor and ‘g’ the
acceleration due to gravity what is the velocity v of the bullet? (GATE)
Sol:
In this perfectly plastic collision, the common velocity after s
the bullet gets embedded inside the block is found using
𝑚𝑣 v
m.v + M.vB = (m + M) v’ or v’= as vB is zero M
(𝑚+𝑀) m
The normal reaction from the surface on the block with
embedded bullet N = (m+M)g
Frictional force causing retardation of the block, Fr= µN or Fr= µ (m + M)g
𝐹 µ (𝑚 + 𝑀)𝑔
Retardation on the block a = 𝑟 = = µ𝑔
(𝑚+𝑀) (𝑚+𝑀)
The block moved a distance of s before coming to rest, 𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑠
or 0 = 𝑣′2 + 2(−𝑎)𝑠 or 0 = 𝑣′2 − 2µ𝑔𝑠
𝑚𝑣 (𝑚+𝑀)
v’= = √2µ𝑔𝑠 , Velocity of bullet v = √2µ𝑔𝑠
(𝑚+𝑀) 𝑚
Example 4. A mass m1 of 100 kg travelling with a uniform velocity of 5 m/s along a line collides with a
stationary mass m2 of 1000 kg. After the collision, both the masses travel together with the same velocity. The
coefficient of restitution is____. (GATE)
Sol:
After the collision both the masses travel together with same velocity, hence it is a case of perfectly plastic
collision where coefficient of restitution e = 0 as the velocity of separation is zero.
Example 5. A point mass having mass M is moving with a velocity V at an angle θ to the wall as shown in the
figure. The mass undergoes a perfectly elastic collision with the smooth wall and rebounds. The total change
(final minus initial) in the momentum of the mass is____. (GATE)
Sol:
In a perfectly elastic collision, e =1
The velocity of rebound is same as the velocity of strike.
Here, vertical component of the velocity is v sinθ with which
the mass strikes the wall and also rebounds with velocity of
vsinθ but in opposite direction. The horizontal component
vcosθ is parallel to the wall and hence it plays no role in the
change in momentum.
Change in momentum = Mass (final velocity – initial
velocity) = M (-v sinθ - v sinθ) = - 2Mv sinθ
Example 6. A ball A of mass m falls under gravity from a height h and strikes another ball B of mass m which
supported at rest on a spring of stiffness k. Assume perfectly elastic impact. Immediately after the impact
1 1
(a) velocity of ball A is √2𝑔ℎ (b) velocity of ball A is zero (c) velocity of both ball is √2𝑔ℎ (d) None of the
2 2
above (GATE)
Sol: (b)
In a perfectly elastic collision between two identical masses, when one is stationary, the velocities are
exchanged. The striking mass comes to rest and the stationary mass moves with the velocity of striking mass. In
this case, ball A will come to rest.
Unsolved Problems
Q1.
A steel sphere is thrown at an angle of 450 on a smooth hard e = 0.85
floor with a speed of 10m/sec. The velocity and angle with
450 θ
horizontal at which the sphere will rebound are ____and ____
respectively, if the coefficient of restitution e = 0.85.
Q2.
12kg
A block of mass 12kg falls from a height of 1.5m on another
1.5m
8kg 29
k 1100N/m
metal collar of mass 8kg which was at rest on a spring of

stiffness 1100N/m. Find the total deflection in the spring taking
coefficient of restitution as 0.6.
Q3.
A mass of 5kg moving along the X-axis at a velocity of 10m/s strikes another mass of 10kg
at rest breaking it into two pieces of mass 7kg and 3kg. The 5kg mass comes to rest after the
collision. The 3kg part moved along Y-axis at 2m/s after the impact and the other part along
a path making an acute angle with X-axis. Find the velocity and the direction of the 7kg
mass.
Q4.
A ball of mass 2kg collides head-on with another identical ball at rest with a velocity of
6m/s. If the coefficient of restitution is 0.65, then loss in kinetic energy during the collision
is _____.
Q5.
A bullet of 0.01kg mass travelling at 275m/sec strikes and embedded in a 1.5kg wooden
block which is the bob of a ballistic pendulum. The height to which the CG of the bullet +
bob system reaches is ____.
*******
30
2
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS
2.1 Stress and strain
When force is applied on a body at rest, it is subjected to stress. It develops internal stress to counter the external
force until the external force exceeds some limit beyond which the material fails. Depending upon the direction
and location of external force different nature of stresses develop in a body internally. Some stress types are
 Normal stress (Tension and Compression)
When the external force is applied in such a way that it tries to elongate or compress a body, normal tensile or
compressive stress develops respectively in a plane normal to the direction of force. As shown in the figure,
any section of the loaded bar normal to the force is subjected to the tensile or compressive stress depending on
the nature of force.
F=R (reaction) F=R (reaction) F X
F=R
At X
A
F
σ σ
A A
A
F F
F F
𝐹 𝐹 𝐹 𝐹
𝜎= (𝑇𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑙𝑒) 𝜎= (𝐶𝑜𝑚𝑝. ) 𝜏= (𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟) 𝜎= (𝐶𝑟𝑢𝑠ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑔)
𝐴 𝐴 𝐴 𝐴
(Normal stress) (Normal stress) (Shear stress) (Crushing stress)
 Shear stress
When the external force is applied tangential to the surface of the body, it is subjected to a shear stress as shown.
Apart from these stresses, some more stress types occur in engineering applications of materials.
Bending stress is a type of normal stress (tension/compression) which develops due to the bending moment in a
member. Crushing stress is used when an element is pressed hard against another causing crushing of the softer
one.
Strain is the change in the original dimension (length, area, volume and angle) of a body due to the development
of internal stress.
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝐸𝑥𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑙−𝑙
Nominal stress = , Nominal strain = = 0
𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠−𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑙0
31
A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel under tensile load is shown for further analysis.
Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)

Necking
Proportional
limit Total area indicates Fracture
Yield Stress material toughness
Yielding
Stress σ tanθ = E (Young’s modulus)
∆
Area ∆ = Strain energy/Resilience
θ
Strain ε
Up to the proportional limit, the strain is directly proportional to stress and hence the variation is a
𝜎
straight line. The slope of this straight line, m=tanθ = =E (Young’s modulus). The area under this straight line
𝜖
above the strain axis (a triangle) gives ½.σy.ε is the Elastic Strain energy stored in the sample material which
indicates its resilience property. More the area, higher the resilience. A more resilient material needs more
energy before start of yielding. Beyond proportional limit, the material yields with higher strain at the same
stress level. The maximum stress value achieved by the sample before necking is known as ultimate tensile
stress (UTS). The total area under the stress-strain curve up to fracture is also a measure of work or energy
representing the modulus of rupture or toughness of the material.
True stress is calculated during tensile test by finding the ratio of current load to current sectional area.
𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙
True strain ε = ∫𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙 (Known as logarithmic strain)
0 𝑙 0
𝑙−𝑙0 𝑙 𝑙
Nominal or engineering strain ε0 =
𝑙0
= (𝑙 − 1) 𝑜𝑟 𝑙0
= (1 + 𝜀0 )
0
Hence, true strain ε = ln (1 + 𝜀0 )
Example 1. The true strain for a low carbon steel bar which is doubled in length by forging is (a) 0.307 (b) 0.5
(c) 0.693 (d) 1.0 (GATE)
Sol: (c)
𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙 2𝑙0
True strain ε = ∫𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 =𝑙𝑛2 = 0.693 (As l = 2l0)
0 𝑙 0 𝑙0
Example 2. The stress-strain behaviour of a material is shown in figure. Its resilience and toughness, in Nm/m3,
are ____ and ____respectively. (GATE)
Sol:
Yield stress σy = 75 MPa =75×106 N/m2
Strain at yield point ε =0.004
Resilience = ½.σy.ε = ½ ×75×106×0.004 = 1.5×105 Nm/m3
Toughness =Total area = (Resilience + area of the
trapezium) = 1.5×105 + {(75 + 120)×106}(0.012-0.004)
= 1.71×106 Nm/m3
Example 3. A hypothetical engineering stress-strain curve shown in the figure has three straight lines PQ, QR,
RS with coordinates P(0,0), Q(0.2,100), R(0.6,140) and S(0.8,130). 'Q' is the yield point, 'R' is the UTS point
and 'S' the fracture point. The toughness of the material (in MJ/m3) is ______. (GATE)
Sol:
The toughness of the material is the total area under its
stress-strain curve. Here the total area consists of one
triangle and two trapeziums. Hence the toughness is
½ (0.2) (100×106) + (100 + 140)(0.6-0.2)(106) + (140
+130)(0.8-0.6)(106) = 160 ×106 Nm/m3 = 160 MJ/m3
32
Example 4. A rod of length L having uniform cross-sectional area A is subjected to a tensile force P as shown in
the figure. If the Young’s modulus of the material varies linearly from E1 to E2 along the length of the rod, the
normal stress developed at the section-SS is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Stress developed in a normal section is
independent of the material property like
Young’s modulus. Normal stress depends on
the normal force acting on the plane and the
area of cross-section resisting the force.
𝑃
Hence, stress in section SS is 𝜎 =
𝐴
Example 5. The figure shows a steel rod of 25 mm2 cross sectional area. It is loaded at four points, K, L, M and
N. Assume Esteel = 200GPa. The total change in length of the rod due to loading is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
By analysing the rod in parts KL,
LM and MN, it can be found that
KL: a maximum of 100N is acting as
tension
LM: a maximum 150N (as 250-100
+ 100N
at L) is acting as compression 100N
MN: 50N tension at N and (200- 150N − 150N
150)N at M is hence balanced 50N
50N +
Total change in length of the rod is
𝑃𝑙 1
∑ = (100 × 0.5 − 150 × 0.8 + 50 × 0.4) = −0.01𝑚𝑚
𝐴𝐸 25×10−6 ×200×109
Example 6. A bar having a cross-sectional area of 700 mm2 is subjected to axial loads at the
positions indicated. The value of stress in the segment QR is______. (GATE)
(A) 40 MPa (B) 50 MPa (C) 70 MPa (D) 120 MPa
Sol: (A)
In the member RS, a maximum 63kN 35kN 49kN 21kN
compressive load can be 21KN. N N
P Q R S
Hence, the difference in load at R
is 49-21= 28kN acting as tension
on PR. But the member PQ is 63kN 63kN
subjected to 63kN tension at left
end and also at Q. The middle member 28kN 28kN
QR is under a tension of 28kN and whole
bar is under equilibrium with zero net force. 21kN 21kN
28×103
The stress in QR is = 𝟒𝟎𝐌𝐏𝐚
700
Example 7. A steel bolt having a nominal diameter of 20 mm and a pitch of 2.4 mm is used to connect two
plates of 10 mm thickness each. An aluminium tube of inner diameter 22 mm and outer diameter of 40 mm is
separating the plates as shown in Figure. The nut is pulled snug (just tight) and then given a one-third additional
turn. Find the resulting stresses in the bolt and the tube neglecting the deformation of the plates. Young’s
modulus of steel and aluminium are 207×103 MPa and 67.5 ×103 MPa respectively. (GATE)
Sol:
In this case, when the nut is tightened by 1/3 of a
turn it will move by a distance of 1/3 of pitch of
the thread. This distance of (2.4/3) or 0.8mm is
equal to the combined deformation of steel bolt
and aluminium tube. It can be observed that the
bolt will be elongated (under tension) and the tube
shortened (under compression) while tightening 20mm 40mm 22mm
the nut. But this internal force causing tension and
compression are equal and opposite as there is no
external force.
33
Expressing the sum of deformation in bolt and tube as 0.8mm, the unknown force F can be
found as
𝐹𝑙𝑆 𝐹𝑙 𝐹(0.35) 𝐹(0.33)
+ 𝐴 = 0.8 × 10−3 = −4 3 6 + −4 3 6
𝐴𝑆 𝐸𝑆 𝐴𝐴 𝐸𝐴 3.14×10 ×207×10 ×10 8.76×10 ×67.5×10 ×10
72960
F = 72960N, 𝜎 (Bolt) = −4 =232.35MPa (Tensile)
3.14×10
72960
𝜎 (Tube) = = 83.28MPa (Compressive)
8.76×10−4
Example 8. A horizontal bar with a constant cross-section is subjected to loading as shown in the
figure. The Young’s moduli for the sections AB and BC are 3E and E respectively. For the deflection
at C to be zero, the ratio P/F is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑃
Let the ratio = 𝑥 or P = Fx
𝐹
Reaction force at support A (assuming P > F)
= P-F =Fx-F =F (x-1) (→)
So, member AB is compressed with a force of F (x-1) and member BC is elongated under
the force of F. The deflection at the free end C will be zero, if the deformation (shortening)
of AB is equal to elongation of BC.
𝐹𝑙 𝐹(𝑥−1)𝑙 𝑃
= or x = 4, ∴ =4
𝐴𝐸 𝐴(3𝐸) 𝐹
Example 9. The value of true strain produced in compressing a cylinder to half its original length is_____.
(GATE)
(A) 0.69 (B) − 0.69 (C) 0.5 (D) − 0.5
Sol: (B)
𝑙 𝑑𝑙 𝑙 0.5𝑙0
Similar to Example 1, True strain ε = ∫𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 𝑙 = 𝑙𝑛 =ln(0.5) = −0.693
0 𝑙 0 𝑙0
Example 10. In the figure, the load P = 1N, length L = 1m, Young’s modulus E = 70GPa, and the cross-section
of the links is a square with dimension 10 mm × 10 mm. All joints are pin joints. The stress (in Pa) in the link
AB is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
At joint B, using Lami’s theorem
𝐹𝐴𝐵 𝑃 𝐹
= = 𝐵𝐶
FAB = P. 0 = 0
Hence the stress in member AB is zero.
Example 11. Which one of the following types of stress-strain relationship best describes the behaviour of
brittle materials, such as ceramics and thermosetting plastics, (σ = stress and ε = strain)? (GATE)
Sol: (D)
In case of brittle material like ceramics or
thermosetting plastics, the strain (elongation)
is negligibly small it fractures before any
further deformation or yielding. Stress-strain
curve shown in (B) is for a typical ductile
material like steel, copper, aluminium etc.
Curves shown in (A) and (C) are practically
rare where material continuously deforms
without any further loading or at constant
stress.
Unsolved Problems
Q1. In a bolted joint two members are connected with an axial tightening force of 2200N. if the bolt used has
metric threads of 4 mm pitch, the torque required for achieving the tightening force is_____. (GATE)
Q2. Engineering strain of a mild steel sample is recorded as 0.100%. The true strain is (a) 0.010% (b) 0.055%
(c) 0.099% (d) 0.101% (GATE)
34
Q3. The relationship between true strain (𝜀𝑇 ) and engineering strain (𝜀𝐸 ) in a uniaxial tension test is
given as (GATE)
(a) 𝜀𝐸 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝜀𝑇 ) (b) 𝜀𝐸 = 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝜀𝑇 ) (c) 𝜀𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛(1 + 𝜀𝐸 ) (d) 𝜀𝑇 = 𝑙𝑛(1 − 𝜀𝐸 )
Q4. A metal rod of initial length L0 is subjected to a drawing process. The length of the rod at any instant is
given by the expression, L(t) = L0 (1 + t2), where t is the time in minutes. The true strain rate (in min-1) at the
end of one minute is ____. (GATE)
Q5. A metal bar of 40mm2 cross-section area and 1.5m length is hanging from the ceiling. If a load of 200N is
hanged from the end of the bar, find the stress at a section 0.4m from the ceiling. Take the weight per unit
volume of the material as 12kN/m3.
A
Q6. A bar AB with built-in supports is loaded as shown in the
figure. Find the reactions at A and B. Assume uniform area of
cross-section for the bar. 1m
Hint: Statically indeterminate case. Use the concept of net 12kN
change in length of the bar as zero. The elongation of upper
3m
portion is equal to contraction of lower portion.
B
2.2 Elastic constants and Poisson's ratio
𝜎 (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠)
Young’s Modulus (E) = (valid up to elastic/proportional limit)
𝜀 (𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛)
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎
Bulk Modulus (K) = =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (∆𝑉 ⁄𝑉)
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜏
Shear Modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G or C) = =
𝑆ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝛾
1 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Poisson’s ratio (𝜇 𝑜𝑟 )= then m=
𝑚 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Hence,
𝑚𝐸 𝑚𝐸
𝐾= , 𝐶=
3(𝑚 − 2) 2(𝑚 + 1)
Example 1. A rod is subjected to a uni-axial load within linear elastic limit. When the change in the stress is
200 MPa, the change in the strain is 0.001. If the Poisson’s ratio of the rod is 0.3, the modulus of rigidity (in
GPa) is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝜎 𝜎 (𝜎 −𝜎 ) ∆𝜎 200
Young’s modulus E = 2 = 1 = 2 1 = = = 2 × 105 MPa
𝜀2 𝜀1 (𝜀2 −𝜀1 ) ∆𝜀 0.001
𝑚𝐸 3.33×2×105
Using 𝐶 = = = 𝟕𝟔. 𝟎𝟖GPa (Poisson’s ratio 1/m=0.3 or m = 3.33)
2(𝑚+1) 2(3.33+1)
Example 2. If the Poisson’s ratio of an elastic material is 0.4, the ratio of modulus of rigidity to Young’s
modulus is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Poisson’s ratio (1/m) = 0.4 or m = 2.5
𝑚𝐸 𝐶 𝑚 2.5
Using 𝐶 = or = = = 0.35
2(𝑚+1) 𝐸 2(𝑚+1) 7
Example 3. A 200×100×50 mm steel block is subjected to a hydrostatic pressure of 15MPa. The Young’s
modulus and Poisson’s ratio of the material are 200GPa and 0.3 respectively. The change in the volume of the
block in mm3 is _____. (GATE)
(A) 85 (B) 90 (C) 100 (D) 110
Sol: (B)
Initial volume of the block V = 200×100×50 = 106 mm3
𝑚𝐸 3.33×200×109
Bulk modulus 𝐾 = = = 166.9 GPa
3(𝑚−2) 3(3.33−2)
𝐷𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑡 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝜎 𝜎 15×106
But Bulk modulus K= = 𝑜𝑟 (∆𝑉 ⁄𝑉) = = = 8.98 × 10−5
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 (∆𝑉 ⁄𝑉) 𝐾 166.9×109
∴ ∆𝑉 = 106 × 8.98 × 10 = 89.8~90
−5
Example 4. A rod of length L and diameter D is subjected to a tensile load P. Which of the following is
sufficient to calculate the resulting change in diameter? (GATE)
(a) Young’s modulus (b) Shear modulus (c) Poisson’s ratio (d) Both Young’s modulus and shear modulus
Sol: (d)
35
Young’s modulus can give the change in length of the rod. But to find the change in diameter, shear modulus
is used which gives the change in volume.
Example 5. A square plate of dimension L × L is subjected to a uniform pressure load p = 250 MPa on its edges
as shown in the figure. Assume plane stress conditions. The Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa. The deformed
shape is a square of dimension 𝐿 − 2 𝛿. If 𝐿 = 2 m and 𝛿 = 0.001 m, the Poisson’s ratio of the plate material is
____. (GATE)
Sol:
Assuming unit thickness for the plate, initial volume L × L ×1
Final volume is (𝐿 − 2 𝛿)×(𝐿 − 2 𝛿)×1
(2×2)−(2−0.002)(2−0.002)
Volumetric strain (∆𝑉 ⁄𝑉) = = 0.002
4
𝜎 250×106
Bulk Modulus (K) = = = 1.25 × 1011
(∆𝑉 ⁄𝑉) 0.002
𝑚𝐸 6𝐾 6×1.25×1011
But 𝐾 = or 𝑚 = = = 4.28
3(𝑚−2) 3𝐾−𝐸 3(1.25×1011 )−200×109
Poisson’s ratio = 1/m = 0.23
2.3 Mohr’s circle for plane stress and plane strain
Normal stresses (σx, σy) and shear stress τ act as shown on an

element. Then the normal and shear stress in a section at an σy
angle θ is given by
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 τ
𝜎𝜃 = ( )+( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 σθ
2 2
𝜎𝑦 −𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝜃 = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 σx τθ σx
2
The planes of maximum and minimum normal stress in this θ
element are known as the Principal planes in which the shear τ
stresses are zero. Thus,
2𝜏 σy
𝜏𝜃 = 0 ⇒ 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = (Two values of θ gives two principal
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦
planes normal to each other)
Substituting this values of θ in 𝜎𝜃 , Principal stresses
are -τ σ1
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
σθ
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( ) + 𝜏2
2 2
Maximum shear stress in the element: 2θ
-σ τ R
τθ +σ
𝜎1 −𝜎2 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
(𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 ) = = √( ) + 𝜏2
2 2
𝜎 −𝜎 σ2 τ
Minimum shear stress in element (𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) = −( 1 2 ) R
2
Planes carrying maximum and minimum shear stress σy
𝜎𝑦 −𝜎𝑥
are given by 𝑡𝑎𝑛2𝜃 = . Direction of 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 makes 𝜎1 + 𝜎2
2𝜏
+τ 2
an angle of 45 with principal stress 𝜎1 and 𝜏𝑚𝑖𝑛
0
σx
makes -45 with 𝜎1 . Both converge towards 𝜎1.
0
In graphical approach to construct Mohr’s circle, sign convention is adopted for the stresses.
As shown in the figure, for the loaded element, the normal stresses (𝜎𝑥 and 𝜎𝑦 ) are tensile
and hence taken along positive X-axis (towards right of the origin). The shear stress is
represented in the Y-axis with positive stress in the downward direction from origin. The
centre and radius of the Mohr’s circle is easily identified by joining the two points
representing the two perpendicular planes of the element. Magnitudes and directions of
various stresses can be graphically found using a scale factor.
Example 1. σx, σy and τxy are the rectangular stress component at a point. The radius of Mohr’s circle is______.
(GATE)
Sol:
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2
Referring to the Mohr’s circle, in the right angle triangle, R = √τ2xy + ( )
2
Example 2. The normal stresses at a point are σx = 10 MPa, σy = 2 MPa; the shear stress at this point is 4 MPa.
The maximum principal stress at this point is_____. (GATE)
(a) 16 MPa (b) 14 MPa (c) 11 MPa (d) 10 MPa
36
Sol: (c)
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 10+2 10−2 2
Maximum principal stress is 𝜎1 = ( ) + √( ) + 𝜏2 = ( ) + √( ) + 42
2 2 2 2
𝜎1 = 11.65 MPa
Example 3. In a bi-axial stress problem, the stresses in x and y directions are σx =200 MPa and σy= 100 MPa,
the maximum principal stress in MPa is_____. (GATE)
(a) 50 (b) 100 (c) 150 (d) 200
Sol: (d)
In this case τ = 0
Maximum principal stress, 𝜎1 = ( ) + √( ) + 𝜏 2 = 200 MPa
2 2
Example 4. The maximum principal stress for the stress state shown in the figure is____. (GATE)
Sol:
σ
𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎 2
Maximum principal stress 𝜎1 = ( 𝑥 𝑦 ) + √( 𝑥 𝑦 ) + 𝜏 2 σ
2 2
𝜎+𝜎 𝜎−𝜎 2
𝜎1 = ( ) + √( ) + 𝜎 2 = 2σ σ σ
2 2
Example 5. The state of stress at a point ‘P’ in a two dimensional loading σis such that the Mohr’s circle is a
point located at 175 MPa on the positive normal stress axis. Determine the maximum and minimum principal
stresses respectively from the Mohr’s circle. Determine the directions of maximum and minimum principal
stresses at the point ‘P’ from the Mohr’s circle. (GATE)
Sol:
When the Mohr’s circle is a point on the positive normal stress axis, it indicates that σx= σy and τ = 0.
Hence principal stress σ1 is also equal to σ2 and it is same as the distance of the point from the origin. The
Mohr’s circle being a point, the principal stresses act in all directions.
Here, σ1= σ2 = 175 MPa (Tensile)
Example 6. The figure shows the state of stress at a certain point in a stressed body. The magnitudes of normal
stresses in the x and y direction are 100 MPa and 20 MPa respectively. The radius of Mohr’s stress circle
representing this state of stress is_____. (GATE)
(a)120 (b)80 (c)60 (d)40
Sol: (d)
σy
The Mohr’s circle is constructed
by taking σx =100, σy = -20 and τxy=0.
(40, 0)
As the shear stress is zero, no vertical σx
lines are constructed at points (-20, 0) 0 (100, 0) σx σx
(100, 0) and (-20, 0) rather these
two points are connected and their σy
midpoint is taken as the centre of the τ
Mohr’s circle. So the radius of Mohr’s
circle is at a distance of 40 from the origin.
Example 7. The Mohr’s circle of plane stress for a point in a body is shown. The design is to be done on the
basis of the maximum shear stress theory for yielding. Then, yielding will just begin if the designer chooses a
ductile material whose yield strength is____. (GATE)
(a)45 MPa (b)50 MPa (c)90 MPa (d)100 MPa
Sol: (c)
According to Maximum Shear Stress Theory
𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
(ref. Chapter 4), τmax=
2
𝜎 −𝜎 −100−(−10)
For the loaded element τmax= 1 2 = = −45
2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = 2 × 45 = 90 MPa (comp)
Example 8.
In a plane stress condition, the components of stress at a point are σ x = 20MPa, σy = 80MPa and τxy = 40MPa.
The maximum shear stress (in MPa) at the point is_____. (GATE)
37
(A) 20 (B) 25 (C) 50 (D) 100

Sol: (C)
𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 20−80 2
Maximum shear stress τmax=√( ) + 𝜏 2 =√( ) + 402 = 50 MPa
2 2
Example 9. The state of stress at a point on an element is shown in figure. The same state of stress is
also shown in another coordinate system. The components (τxx,τyy,τxy) are given by______. (GATE)
Sol:
Here the coordinate system is turned by θ=450.
In this case, σx = p, σy = -p and τ =0.
𝜎 +𝜎 𝜎 −𝜎
𝜎𝜃 = ( 𝑥 𝑦 ) + ( 𝑥 𝑦 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃
2 2
𝜎𝑦 − 𝜎𝑥
𝜏𝜃 = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜃 + 𝜏𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜃
2
𝑝−𝑝 𝑝+𝑝
τxx = ( ) + ( ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠90 + 0 = 0 = 𝜎𝜃 (𝑥𝑥)
2 2
𝑝−𝑝 𝑝+𝑝
τyy = ( )+( ) cos(−90) + 0 = 0= 𝜎𝜃 (𝑦𝑦)
2 2
−𝑝−𝑝
τxy = ( ) 𝑠𝑖𝑛90 + 0 = −𝑝
2
Example 10. A two dimensional state of stress at a point is given by σx=60MN/m2, σy=20MN/m2.
(a) What is the maximum permissible magnitude of the shear stress τ xy if the larger principal stress is not
to exceed 75MN/m2?
(b) What is the magnitude of the other principal stress and the maximum shear stress? (GATE)
Sol:
𝜎𝑥 +𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑥 −𝜎𝑦 2 60+20 60−20 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( 2 = (
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 ) ± √( 2 =40± 400 + 𝜏 2
) + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 √ 𝑥𝑦
2 2 2 2
75 = 40 + √400 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑜𝑟 35 = 400 + 𝜏 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜏

√ 𝑥𝑦 = 28.72 MN/m
2
𝑥𝑦
𝜎2 = 40 − √400 + 28.722 = 5 MN/m2
𝜎 −𝜎 75−5
Maximum shear stress τmax= 1 2 2 = 2 = 35 MN/m2
Example 11. If the two principal strains at a point are 1000×10 -6 and -600×10-6, then the maximum shear strain
is____. (GATE)
Sol:
Principal stresses 𝜎1 = (1000×10-6)E 𝜎2 = (-600×10-6)E
𝜎1 −𝜎2 (1600×10−6 )𝐸
Maximum shear stress = = = (800 × 10−6 )𝐸
2 2
−6
Maximum shear strain = 800 × 10
Example 12. A component in an aircraft flap actuator can be adequately modeled as a cylindrical bar subjected
to an axial force of 8 kN, a bending moment of 55 Nm and a torsional moment of 30 Nm. A 20 mm diameter
solid bar aluminium having Sut = 591 MPa, Syp = 542 MPa and Ssyp = 271 MPa is recommended for its use.
Determine the factor of safety available as per stress strain theory. (GATE)
Sol:
𝐹 8000×4
Direct normal/axial stress 𝜎𝐴 = = 2 = 25.46 MPa
𝐴 𝜋×20
32𝑀 32×55
Bending stress 𝜎𝑏 = = = 70.02 MPa
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋×(0.02)3
16𝑇 16×30
Shear stress due to torsion 𝜏 = = = 19.1 MPa
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋×(0.02)3
2.4 Thin and thick cylinders

For a thin cylinder, diameter d > 10 t (wall thickness) and is subjected to two kinds of stresses when contains
any fluid under pressure.
𝑝𝑑
 Circumferential or Hoop stress: σh= where p is internal pressure, d is internal diameter and t is the wall
2𝑡
thickness of the cylinder. This tensile stress develops to prevent the cylinder from bursting apart along a
horizontal plane. Thus, the bursting force is equated with the internal force developed in the wall in the form
of hoop stress.
𝑝𝑑
p.L.d = σh.2L.t or σh=
2𝑡
𝑝𝑑
 Longitudinal or Axial stress: σL= or σh=2 σL. This tensile stress is the result of axial force exerted by the
4𝑡
internal fluid pressure on the ends of the cylinder. It tries to prevent bursting along a vertical plane.
38
𝑝𝑑
Therefore, p.π/4.d2= σL.π.d.t or σL= . As σh=2 σL, the limiting thickness of the cylinder is designed for σh.
4𝑡
𝑝𝑑
Hence, 𝑡 ≥ , where σ is the allowable stress for the cylinder material.
2𝜎
t L
σAxial = (pd/4t)
d p p
σHoop
σHoop = (pd/2t)
σAxial σAxial or εx
σHoop or εy
The strains occur in thin cylinder along both X and Y directions. Axial strain εx (along X-axis) is accompanied by
a negative lateral strain εy along Y-axis as related using Poisson’s ratio.
1 𝐿𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 −𝜀 (𝐷𝑒𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟)/𝑑0 (𝑑−𝑑0 )/𝑑0
Poisson’s ratio (𝜇 𝑜𝑟 )= = 𝑦= =
𝑚 𝐿𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝜀𝑥 (𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ)𝐿0 (𝐿−𝐿0 )/𝐿0
Similarly, strain along Y- axis due to hoop stress is also accompanied by a negative lateral strain along
X-axis. Thus the increase in diameter due to hoop stress is associated with a decrease in length of cylinder. By
combining these two strains, the resultant strain along X-axis is
𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 ∆𝐿 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 ∆𝑑
𝜀𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝐿 − ℎ = and along Y-axis 𝜀𝑦 = 𝑦 − 𝑥 = ℎ − 𝐿 =
𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝐿0 𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝐸 𝑚𝐸 𝑑0
So, increase in diameter or length of the cylinder can be found using these relations. Volume of the cylinder is
𝜋 𝜋 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑑 ∆𝐿
𝑉 = ( ) . 𝑑 2 . 𝐿 𝑜𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑉 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ) + 2𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑑 + 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝐿 𝑜𝑟 =2 + = 2𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥
4 4 𝑉 𝑑 𝐿
Change in volume of the cylinder ∆𝑉 = V (2𝜀𝑦 + 𝜀𝑥 )
𝑝𝑑
In the case of a thin spherical vessel or shell of diameter d, the stress is in all sections.
4𝑡
𝜋 ∆𝑉 ∆𝑑
𝑉 = ( ) . 𝑑 3 or =3 = 3𝜀𝑦 = 3𝜀𝑥
6 𝑉 𝑑
Thick cylinders are identified as having d < 10t are subjected to an additional stress called Radial stress
(compressive) apart from the hoop (tensile) and axial (tensile) stress. As the wall thickness of the cylinder is
more, the stress varies along the thickness and found by using Lame’s equation as follows:
𝐴 𝐴
𝜎ℎ = 2 + 𝐵, 𝜎𝑟 = 2 − 𝐵 where, r is the radius of the cylinder and 𝜎𝑟 is the radial stress
𝑟 𝑟
Example 1. A thick cylinder is subjected to an internal pressure of 60MPa. If the hoop stress on the outer
surface is 150MPa, then the hoop stress on the internal surface is_____.(GATE)
(a)105 MPa (b)180 MPa (c)210 MPa (d)135 MPa
Sol: (c) 𝜎𝑅 = 0
Let the internal and external radii of the thick cylinder are r and R
respectively. The radial stress at the inner layer of the cylinder is
equal to the internal pressure and at the outer layer is zero. Using r R
Lame’s equation,
𝐴 𝐴
σr = p ⇒ 60 = 2 − 𝐵 and σR = 0 = 2 − 𝐵 𝜎𝑟 = 𝑝
𝑟 𝑅
𝐴
Hoop stress at the outer layer σh (outer) = 150 = +𝐵
𝑅2
𝐴 𝐴
On solving, =75, B=75 and =135
𝑅2 𝑟2
𝐴
σh (inner) = + 𝐵 =135+75 =210 MPa
𝑟2
Example 2. A thin cylinder of 100mm internal diameter and 5 mm thickness is subjected to an internal pressure
of 10 MPa and a torque of 2000 Nm. Calculate the magnitudes of the principal stresses. (GATE)
Sol:
The wall of the thin cylinder is subjected to two normal tensile
stresses (hoop and longitudinal) along with a shear stress developed
39
due to the torque. An element under stress from the wall of the σL
cylinder is shown.
𝑝𝑑 10×106 ×100×10−3 τ
Hoop stress σh = = = 100 MN/m2
2𝑡 2×5×10−3
Longitudinal stress σL = 50 MN/m2 σh σh
𝑇.𝑑.32 2000×0.11×16
Shear stress τ (due to torque) = 4 4 = 𝜋(0.114 −0.14 ) = 24.14MN/m
2
τ
2.𝜋(𝑑 −𝑑0 )
𝜎ℎ +𝜎𝐿 𝜎ℎ −𝜎𝐿 2
Principal stresses (σ1, σ2) = ( ) ± √( ) + 𝜏2 σL
2 2
100+50 100−50 2
(σ1, σ2) = ( ) ± √( ) + 24.142 =109.75 and 40.24 MPa
2 2
Example 3. Find the maximum principal strain in a thin cylindrical tank, having a radius of 25 cm and wall
thickness of 5 mm when subjected to an internal pressure of 1 MPa. Young’s modulus is 200 GPa and Poisson’s
ratio is 0.2. (GATE)
Sol:
In the absence of any shear stress, the principal stresses are same as the normal stresses. Thus, principal stresses σ1 and σ2
are equal to σh and σL respectively.
𝜎ℎ 𝜎𝐿 𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑 1
Maximum principal strain, 𝜀𝑦 = − = − = (2 − )
𝐸 𝑚𝐸 2𝑡𝐸 4𝑡𝐸𝑚 4𝑡𝐸 𝑚
1×106 ×50×10−2
= (2 − 0.2) = 2.25 × 10−4
4×5×10−3 ×200×109
Example 4. A thin walled cylindrical vessel of wall thickness t and diameter d is filled with gas to a gauge
pressure of p. Find the maximum shear stress on the vessel wall. (GATE)
Sol:
As there is no external shear stress on the cylinder wall, hence principal stresses σ1 and σ2 are equal to σh and σL
respectively.
Maximum shear stress developed in the element of the wall,
𝑝𝑑 𝑝𝑑
𝜎1 −𝜎2 𝜎ℎ −𝜎𝐿 − 𝑝𝑑
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 2𝑡 4𝑡
=
2 2 2 8𝑡
Example 5. A thin walled spherical shell is subjected to an internal pressure. If the radius of the shell is
increased by 1% and the thickness is reduced by 1%, with the internal pressure remaining the same, the
percentage change in the circumferential (hoop) stress is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑝𝑟
Circumferential stress σh=
2𝑡
𝛿𝜎ℎ 𝛿𝑟 𝛿𝑡
On differentiating, = − = 0.01 − (−0.01) = 0.02 𝑜𝑟 2% (increase)
𝜎ℎ 𝑑 𝑡
Example 6. A thin gas cylinder with an internal radius of 100 mm is subject to an internal pressure of 10 MPa.
The maximum permissible working stress is restricted to 100 MPa. The minimum cylinder wall thickness (in
mm) for safe design must be ____. (GATE)
Sol:
As hoop stress is more than the axial stress, the design of cylinder thickness is based on it.
Equating the maximum permissible working stress, 100 MPa with the hoop stress, the minimum thickness 𝑡 ≥
𝑝𝑑 10×106 ×200×10−3
or t = = 0.01m or 𝑡 ≥1cm
2𝜎 2×100×106
2.5 Shear force and bending moment diagrams

When a machine element or a member of structure is under one or more forces, it is subjected to shear force and
bending moment which varies along its length. In order to graphically represent these variations, shear force and
bending moment diagrams are constructed. Some sign conventions are used before constructing these diagrams.
Shear force upward (↑): Positive (+) otherwise Negative (-)
Bending moment anti-clockwise (↺) taken from right is Positive (+) otherwise Negative (-)
Bending moment clockwise (↷) taken from left is Positive (+) otherwise Negative (-)
Important to note:
 The bending moment in a beam attains its optimum (maximum or minimum) only at those points
where shear force is zero (SF crosses the zero line while changing its sign)
 The points where BM changes its sign (crosses the zero line) are called points of contra-flexure or
inflexion
40
𝑑𝑀 𝐵 𝐵
 = 𝐹 𝑜𝑟 ∫𝐴 𝑑𝑀 = ∫𝐴 𝐹𝑑𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑀𝐵 − 𝑀𝐴 = Area under SF diagram (A to B)
𝑑𝑥
For the loaded beam shown here, RA and RB are

4kN
found after applying the equilibrium conditions, C
∑MA= 0
RB×7 = 4×2 or RB = 1.142 kN (↑) A B
∑FY= 0 or RA + RB = 4 or RA = 4-1.142 = 2.85kN(↑) 2m 5m
Shear force diagram is constructed using the sign RA RB
convention after finding the shear force from the left 2.85kN
hand support towards right. SF just to the right of Shear Force Diagram
point A is 2.85kN (+) and up to point C. At C, a +
downward force of 4kN (-) brings the SF to -1.142 −
which is also same as RB.
1.142kN
To draw the bending moment diagram, the BMs are 5.7kNm
found at some salient points on the beam. At points +
A and B, the BMs are zero. At C, the BM is RB×5 or
5.7kNm is taken as positive being anti-clock wise
and B towards right of C. Bending moment Diagram
Example 1. The shape of the bending moment diagram for a uniform cantilever beam carrying a uniformly
distributed load over its length is_____. (GATE)
(a) a straight line (b) a hyperbola (c) an ellipse (d) a parabola
Sol:
w per unit length
Taking a vertical section at a distance x from the
free end of the cantilever, the BM in the section is
found by multiplying the total load in length x with L
half of the length. Hence, BM in section X is - x
2 0
w.x.(x/2) = -½ w.x (equation of a parabola with x as
a variable and negative sign is as per the sign
convention) -½ wx2 (parabola)
2
Maximum BM is ½ wL at x = L.
Example 2. Two bars AB and BC are connected by a friction less hinge at B. The assembly is supported and
loaded as shown in figure. Draw the shear force and bending moment diagrams for the combined beam AC,
clearly labeling the important values. Also indicate the sign convention. (GATE)
Sol:
Using conditions of equilibrium, RC = 125kN (↑)
At hinge B, the reaction from the hinge support on D E
bar BC is 200-125 = 75kN (↑). Equal and opposite
force acts on AB at B in downward direction. Using
the sign convention given earlier, the SF and BM
diagrams are constructed. It is convenient to treat
bars AB and BC separately using the equal and
opposite force of 75kN at the hinge. For the bar BC,
75
shear force is 75kN positive being upwards from B to +
D where a 100kN downward (-ve) acts. So, -25kN
shear force is between D to E. The -100kN force at E 25
makes the total of -125kN which is equal to the 75
upward reaction RC. For the BM diagram, the 15kNm 125kN
bending moments at the salient points are calculated. 125kNm
BM at A is negative because 75kN reaction produces
a clockwise moment at A. It can be noted here that
the net shear force as well as the bending moment at
the hinge is zero. -112.5kNm
41
Example 3. A simply supported beam carries a load ‘P’ through a bracket, as shown in the figure. The
maximum bending moment in the beam is_____. (GATE)
Sol: P
The load P applied through a bracket is transferred to the
centre of the beam accompanied by a clockwise moment C a
of P.a. Using conditions of equilibrium, A B
RB×L = P×L/2 + P.a or RB = P/2 + (P.a)/L L/2 L/2
RA + RB = P or RA = P/2-(P.a)/L P
If a/L = 0.5 then RA = 0 C P.a
𝑃 𝑃.𝑎 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃.𝑎 A B
BM at C (right) = RB×L/2 = ( + )( ) = ( + ) L/2 L/2
2 𝐿 2 4 2
𝑃 𝑃.𝑎 𝐿 𝑃𝐿 𝑃.𝑎
BM at C (left) = RA×L/2 = ( − ) ( ) = ( − )
2 𝐿 2 4 2
Thus, maximum BM is at C taken from the right. P.a
Note: At C, clockwise moment of P.a is shown as a drop
of moment the BM diagram.
Example 4. For the overhanging beam shown in figure, the magnitude of maximum bending moment (in kN-m)
is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Taking moment about A,
RB×4 = 20×6 + 10×4×2 or RB = 50kN
RA=(20+10×4)-50 =10kN
Taking a section towards left of B at a
distance x,
BM (at x) = 50. x - 20(2+x) -10x.(x/2)
= 50x - 40 - 20x -5x2 = 30x - 40 -5x2 My =10y – 5y2
BM at B (for x=0) is -40 kNm 5kNm
BM is zero (between A and B) for 30x - 40 - 2m
5x2=0 or -x2 +6x-8=0 or x = 2m and 4m.
1m
When x = 4, the section is at support A.
Hence, x is taken as 2m where the BM is Mx =30x - 40 - 5x2
zero as it changes from negative to positive
or vice-a-versa.
This BM attains its maximum positive value -40kNm
𝑑𝑀
for = 0 = 30 − 10𝑥 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 3m
𝑑𝑥
Maximum BM (positive) at 𝑥 = 3m
is 30(3) − 40 − 5(9) = 5kNm
Maximum BM (negative) is at B = -40 kNm
𝑥
Example 5. A simply supported beam of length L is subjected to a varying distributed load 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [3𝜋 ] N/m,
𝐿
where the distance x is measured from the left support. The magnitude of the vertical force in N at the left
support is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Total load is found by integrating the load distribution function
within limits of x =0 to L.
𝐿 𝑥 −𝐿 3𝜋𝐿 2𝐿
Total load=∫0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [3𝜋 ] 𝑑𝑥 = [𝑐𝑜𝑠( ) − 𝑐𝑜𝑠0] = x
𝐿 3𝜋 𝐿 3𝜋
L
Assuming the load to be equally divided between the two supports,
the magnitude of vertical force at the left support is (L/3π)
Example 6. For a loaded cantilever beam of uniform cross-section, the bending moment (in N.mm) along the
length is M (x) = 5x2+10x, where x is distance in mm measured from the free end of the beam. The magnitude
of shear force (in N) in the cross section at x = 10 mm is ______. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑑𝑀
Shear force 𝐹 = = 10𝑥 + 10
𝑑𝑥
42
Magnitude of shear force at x = 10 is 10×10+10 = 110 N
Unsolved Problems
Q1.
A beam is made up of two identical bars AB and BC, by
hinging them together at B. The end A is built-in
(cantilevered) and the end C is simply supported. With
the load P acting as shown, the bending moment at A
is_____. (GATE)
Q2.
A cantilever beam OP is connected to another beam PQ
with a pin joint as shown in the figure. A load of 10 kN is
applied at the mid-point of PQ. The magnitude of
bending moment (in kNm) at fixed end O is____.
(GATE)
Q3. w/l
Uniform distributed load (UDL) of w per unit length is
applied on a beam as shown. Find the ratio (y/x) such that
the numerical values of the sagging and hogging bending x y x
moments are equal.
Q4. Max. 2kN/m
8kN
For the loaded beam shown with an uniformly varying
load (UVL) of maximum 2 kN/m, construct the SF and
BM diagrams and identify any point of inflexion (if any).
5m 2m
2.6 Bending and shear stresses
Consider the cantilever beam with a load P at the

free-end as shown. Bending moment in a section X- X
P
X at a distance l from the load is M = Pl. This
moment is bending the beam in such a way that the
top layer is becoming convex under tension and the l
bottom layer concave under compression. The X
Tension
central layer passing through centroidal axis of the
cross-sectional area is called neutral layer and with
y
zero stress. The nature of stress on either side of the
Neutral axis
neutral axis is opposite. The magnitude of the
normal stress σ (tension or compression) at a
distance y from the neutral axis is found using
Section at X-X Compression
following equation:
𝜎 𝑀 𝐸
= =
𝑦 𝐼 𝑅
M: Bending moment at the section
I: Moment of inertia of the X-sectional area about
its centroidal axis
E: Young’s modulus R
R: Radius of curvature of the beam after bending
EI: Flexural rigidity
Example 1. Two beams, one having square cross section and another circular cross-section, are subjected to the
same amount of bending moment. If the cross sectional area as well as the material of both the beams are the
same then
(a) maximum bending stress developed in both the beams is the same
(b) the circular beam experiences more bending stress that the square one
(c) the square beam experiences more bending stress than the circular one
(d) as the material is same both the beams will experience same deformation (GATE)
43
Sol: (b)
𝜎 𝑀 𝑀𝑦 𝜎 𝑦 𝐼
Using = or 𝜎 = . For the same bending moment, 𝐶 = 𝐶 . 𝑆 (C for circle and S for square). As the area
𝑦 𝐼 𝐼 𝜎𝑆 𝐼𝐶 𝑦𝑆
𝑦𝐶 𝑑/2
of both circle and square are same, hence a2 = ¼ πd2 or 4a2= πd2 or a:d = 0.88:1. Therefore, = =
𝑦𝑆 𝑎/2
𝜋𝑑 4 𝐼𝑆 𝑎4 /12 𝑎4 64
1.13. Similarly, MI of square is IS=a4/12, MI of circle is IC= . The ratio of = = . =
64 𝐼𝐶 𝜋𝑑 4 /64 12 𝜋𝑑 4
𝑎
1.69( )4 = 1.69 (0.88)4 = 1.013
𝑑
𝜎𝐶 𝑦𝐶 𝐼𝑆
Now, = . =1.13×1.013=1.14 or σC (circle) > σS (square).
𝜎𝑆 𝐼𝐶 𝑦𝑆
Example 2. A simply supported beam of span length 6 m and 75 mm diameter carries a uniformly distributed
load of 1.5 kN/m. (GATE)
a) What is the maximum value of bending moment?
b) What is the maximum value of bending stress?
Sol: 1.5 kN/m
Reaction at the supports = (1.5×6)/2= 4.5kN
BM in a section X at a distance x from one end is (4.5x –
0.75x2). The maximum BM occurs when derivative of 6m
this w.r.t x is zero.
4.5 – 1.5x = 0 or x = 3m (at the midpoint of the beam).
y = d/2 =37.5mm
Maximum BM = 4.5×3 – 0.75×9 = 6.75 kNm
𝜎 𝑀 𝑀𝑦
Bending stress σ is given by = or 𝜎 = = N. Axis
𝑦 𝐼 𝐼
𝑑
𝑀( 2 ) 32𝑀 32×6.75×103
= = =162.9 MN/m2
𝜋𝑑 4 /64 𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋×0.0753
Example 3. Consider a simply supported beam of length 50h, with a rectangular cross-section of depth h and
width 2h. The beam carries a vertical point load P at its mid-point. The ratio of the maximum shear stress to the
maximum bending stress in the beam is____.
(A) 0.02 (B) 0.10 (C) 0.05 (D) 0.01 (GATE)
Sol: (D) P
Reactions at the supports are P/2 (↑). Hence,
maximum shear force is also P/2. Average shear B
𝐹 𝑃 𝑃 𝑃 A
stress in the beam is 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 2 = 2 50h
𝐴 2𝐴 2×2ℎ 4ℎ
Maximum shear stress in the beam due to bending is
3 3𝑃
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 2 (Note: For a circular cross- h/2
2 8ℎ
4
section 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝜏𝑎𝑣𝑒 ) 2h
3
Maximum bending stress occurs when y =h/2
𝑀𝑦 𝑃×50ℎ×ℎ×12 75𝑃
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 3 = 2 𝑃×50ℎ
𝐼 4×2×2ℎ×ℎ 2ℎ Note: Maximum BM occurs at
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 3𝑃 2ℎ2 4
= . = 0.01 midpoint of the beam
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 8ℎ2 75𝑃
Example 4. A simply-supported beam of length 3L is subjected to the loading as shown. It is given that P = 1 N,
L = 1 m and Young’s modulus E = 200 GPa. The cross-section is a square with dimension 10 mm × 10 mm. The
bending stress (in Pa) at the point A located at the top surface of the beam at a distance of 1.5L from the left end
is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Reaction at the roller support can be found as P/3 (↑)
after taking moment about the hinge support. Then
reaction at the hinge support is also P/3 (↓). Bending
moment at the midpoint A is MA = P/3×1.5L - P×0.5L
= 0 means bending stress σ at A is also zero.
Example 5. The cross-sections of two solid bars made of the same material are square and a circle. The square
cross-section has flexural (bending) rigidity I1, while the circular cross-section has flexural rigidity I2. Both
sections have the same cross-sectional area. The ratio I1/I2 is______. (GATE)
Sol: (Similar to Example 1)
Flexural rigidity of a beam is expressed as EI where E is the Young’s modulus and I is moment of inertia of its
cross-section about the centroidal axis. Hence for the same material, the ratio of flexural rigidity is the ratio of
moment of inertia.
44
When areas of square and circle are same a:d = 0.88:1

𝑎
Ratio of MIs =1.69( )4 = 1.013
𝑑
Example 6. For the component loaded with a force F as shown in the figure, the axial stress at the corner point
P is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
At the corner point P, both direct stress (tensile) and bending
stress (tensile) are occurring which are to be added being of P
F 2b
the same nature. L 2b
Direct tensile stress at P =F/A = F/4b2
Bending moment at the section containing point P = F(L-b)
𝑀𝑦 𝐹(𝐿−𝑏)𝑏 3𝐹(𝐿−𝑏) L
Bending stress σ = = 4 = 3
𝐼 16𝑏 /12 4𝑏
3𝐹(𝐿−𝑏) 𝐹 𝐹(3𝐿−2𝑏)
Total axial stress = + 2 =
4𝑏 3 4𝑏 4𝑏 3
Example 7. A cantilever beam has the square cross section of 10 mm×10 mm. It carries a transverse load of
10N. Considering only the bottom fibres of the beam, the correct representation of the longitudinal variation of
the bending stress is_____. (GATE)
Sol: (a) 10N
BM at the fixed end = 10 Nm = M
y = 10/2 = 5mm =0.005 m, I = (0.01)4/12
𝑀𝑦 10×0.005×12 1m 1m
𝜎= = = 60 MPa
𝐼 0.014
As σ ∝ M , variation of σ is linear along the length of
the beam as M also varies linearly
(a) (b) (c) (d)
60MPa 60MPa
400MPa 400MPa
2.7 Deflection of beams
𝑀 𝐸 𝐸𝐼
Recalling the equation for bending = or 𝑀 = , the reciprocal of radius of curvature is approximately equal
𝐼 𝑅 𝑅
𝑑2𝑦
to . Hence, the deflected axis of a beam due to bending satisfies the following differential equation:
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑2𝑦
𝑀(𝑥) = ±𝐸𝐼 2
𝑑𝑥
The positive or negative sign is taken for Y-axis being upwards or downwards respectively. Similarly, M (x) is
positive for sagging (concave upwards) and negative for hogging (convex upwards) bending moments. Now, by
integrating this equation twice the deflection y can be determined. After first integration,
𝑑𝑦
𝐸𝐼 = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
Here represents the slope of the deflected axis of the beam. The particular value of at a point also
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦
gives angle of deflection θ such that tan θ = .
𝑑𝑥
Applying some known boundary conditions like slope is zero at fixed ends and at the centre of simply
supported beam with uniform/symmetrical loads etc., the value of constant C1 can be found. After second
integration,
𝐸𝐼𝑦 = ∬ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 𝑥 + 𝐶2
Finally the deflection y can be found after finding the constant C2 using another boundary condition at
supports where deflection is zero.
45
Moment Area method:

Consider the simply supported beam with an
𝑀
arbitrary load as shown. The diagram for 𝐸𝐼 is of
same and reduced shape as bending moment
A B
diagram assuming the material E and moment of
inertia I of the beam section being same
𝑀
throughout. The area enclosed by this 𝐸𝐼 curve 𝑀
between any two points A and B represents the 𝐸𝐼
difference in angle of deflections at B and A. ∆
2
𝑑𝜃 𝑑 𝑦 𝑀 𝑀 𝜃 𝐵𝑀
= = 𝐸𝐼 or 𝑑𝜃 = 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥 or ∫𝜃 𝐵 𝑑𝜃 = ∫𝐴 𝐸𝐼 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥2 𝐴
𝑀
𝜃𝐵 − 𝜃𝐴 = ∆ = Area between A and B under 𝐸𝐼
Elastic
curve
curve (Mohr’s theorem I)
The moment of this area ∆ about a vertical line yB/A θB/A=∆
through A gives the difference in vertical deflections
between B and A. (Mohr’s theorem II)
𝑦𝐵/𝐴 = ∆. 𝑥̅𝐴 and 𝑦𝐴/𝐵 = ∆. 𝑥̅ 𝐵
Beam and Diagram Elastic curve Maximum Slope θ

loading deflection at end
Cantilever with P
point load at 𝑃𝑙3 𝑃𝑙2
l ymax ymax=
free-end 3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Cantilever with w per unit length

UDL over its 𝑤𝑙4 𝑤𝑙3
ymax ymax=
length l 8𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
Cantilever with M
a moment at 𝑀𝑙2 𝑀𝑙
l ymax ymax= 𝐸𝐼
free-end 2𝐸𝐼
Simply support P
with a point ymax 𝑃𝑙3 𝑃𝑙2
l ymax=
load at centre 48𝐸𝐼 16𝐸𝐼
Simply support w/l

with UDL of w ymax 5𝑤𝑙4 𝑤𝑙3
l ymax=
per unit length 384𝐸𝐼 24𝐸𝐼
Example 1. A concentrated load P acts at the middle of a simply supported beam of span l and flexural rigidity
EI. Another simply supported beam of identical material, geometry and span is being acted upon by an
equivalent distributed load (w = P/l) spread over the entire span. The central deflections in both the beams are
identical (True or False). (GATE)
Sol: (F)
𝑃𝑙3 5𝑤𝑙4
The central deflection in both cases are given by ymax=48𝐸𝐼 (for point load) and ymax=384𝐸𝐼 (for UDL). On
5𝑃𝑙3 𝑃𝑙3
substituting w = P/l for the UDL case, ymax= which different from .
384𝐸𝐼 48𝐸𝐼
46
Example 2. For the composite beam shown, flexural rigidities EI of AB and DC are equal to 105 N-cm2, and EI
of BD is 2×105 N-cm2. Using moment-area theorem, determine the location and magnitude of maximum
deflection between B and C. (GATE)
Sol:
Reactions RB = 600 N (↑) and RC= 600 N (↓)
The bending moment diagram (BMD) can be
constructed as shown with maximum BM of
1800 N-cm. However, as the EI of beam is not
same throughout, hence the shape of M/EI
diagram is different from BM diagram. The
part BD having twice the EI than AB and DC,
the M/EI for BD becomes half of 1800/EI or
900/EI.
Let the maximum deflection between B and C BMD 1800 N.cm
occurs at a distance of x from B. At the
maximum deflection, the slope of elastic curve
𝑀 M/EI
is zero. Further, the moment of area under 𝐸𝐼 to 900/EI
the left of maximum deflection point about B is x
same as that of right about C.
900 𝑥 450𝑥 2
Moment of area about B = ( . 𝑥) = = 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝐼 2 𝐸𝐼
900 (7−𝑥) 1 1800 2×3
Moment of area about C = (7 − 𝑥){3 + }+ . .3( ) = 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝐸𝐼 2 2 𝐸𝐼 3
On solving for x = 5.15 cm
450𝑥 2 450 ×5.15×5.15
Maximum deflection 𝛿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.11cm
𝐸𝐼 105
Example 3. For the piping system shown, EI AB=1011 N-cm2 and EIBC=8×1011 N-cm2. The axial rigidity of DC,
EADC=107 N. Determine the load in DC.
Sol:
For the piping system, the deflection at
point C is same as a point of beam AC as
well as a point on part DC.
Let the force in member DC be F.
Then same force is also acting on member
AC upwards at C. Bending moment at B is
F×200 cm = 2F Nm. BM at A is
BMD
F×300 cm - 5375×100 cm=(3F - 5375) Nm (3F-5375) 2F
On dividing the EI for
𝑀
corresponding sections of the beam, the
𝐸𝐼
diagram is constructed as shown. (3F-5375)/1011 2F/(8×1011) M/EI
𝑀
The deflection of point C is 𝛿𝐶 = Moment of area under about the point C.
𝐸𝐼
𝛿𝐶 =Area of the trapezium×distance of its CG from C+ Area of triangle × two-third of its
1 2𝐹 3𝐹−5375 1 1 2𝐹 2×2
base length (height)= . ( + ) (2 + ) + . . 2 ( ) = 46.3 × 10−8 𝐹 −
2 8×1011 1011 2 2 8×1011 3
71756.25 × 10−8
𝐹𝑙 𝐹.(0.5)
But 𝛿𝐶 is also equal to for DC = 7 . Equating these two equations, F = 1737.4 N
𝐴𝐸 10
Example 4. A lean elastic beam of given flexural rigidity EI is loaded by a single force F as shown. How many
boundary conditions are necessary to determine the deflected centre line of the beam? (GATE)
Sol: F
The deflected centre line is expressed in terms of y = f(x)
𝑑2𝑦
To begin with the D.E 𝑀(𝑥) = ±𝐸𝐼 2 and after first
𝑑𝑥
integration, the constant C1 can be found using a boundary
𝑑𝑦
condition for slopes (dy/dx) as 𝐸𝐼 = ∫ 𝑀(𝑥)𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥
The second boundary condition for deflections (y) is
needed after the second integration to find constant C2.
47
Example 5. Consider the sign board mounting shown in Figure. The wind load acting perpendicular to the plane
of the figure is F = 100 N. We wish to limit the deflection, due to bending, at point A of the hollow cylindrical
pole of outer diameter 150 mm, to 5 mm. Find the wall thickness for the pole. Assume E = 2.0×1011 N /m2.
(GATE)
Sol:
The sign board mounting is a cantilever beam fixed
at the ground. The force acting at a distance of 1 m
from the pole is transferred to the axis along with a d
twisting moment. The deflection at A is only due
to bending moment and hence the twisting moment
is ignored. Maximum deflection at the free-end of 150
𝑃𝑙3
a cantilever due to a point load is given by ymax=
3𝐸𝐼
100×53
Hence, 0.005= or I = 4.16×10-6 m4
3×𝐼×2×1011
Let the internal diameter of the pole is d. Then
𝜋
(0.154 − 𝑑 4 ) =4.16×10-6 or d =143.2 mm
64
(150−143.2)
Wall thickness of the pole = = 3.4 mm
2
Example 6. Use the area moment method to find the vertical deflection of the uniform beam AB with flexural
rigidity of EI at the following points:
(a) middle of the beam (point O)
(b) left end of the beam (point A)
Sol:
𝑀 P P
Reactions at the two roller supports are P. The
𝐸𝐼 A C O D B
diagram similar to BM diagram (as EI is same
throughout the length) is constructed. The deflection at
the support C or D is zero. Hence, the difference in a a a a
deflections between middle of the beam O and support C
(yO/C) is also the deflection of O.
𝑀
yO/C = Moment of the area between C and O about C
𝐸𝐼 Pa/EI
𝑃𝑎 𝑎 𝑃𝑎3
= (area of a rectangle of sides and a) × =
𝐸𝐼 2 2𝐸𝐼
Deflection at left end of the beam A is found by the difference between yO/A and yO/C. The
point O where the slope of elastic curve is zero has to be taken as a reference while finding
the deflections. As the slope at C is not zero, moment of the area between A and C about C
will not give the deflection at A.
yO/A=Moment of the area between O and A about A = (area of a triangle of base a and height
𝑃𝑎 2𝑎 𝑃𝑎 𝑎 𝑃𝑎3 3𝑃𝑎3
)× ( ) + (area of a rectangle of sides and a) × (a + ) = +
𝐸𝐼 3 𝐸𝐼 2 3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
𝑃𝑎3 3𝑃𝑎3 𝑃𝑎3 4𝑃𝑎3
Deflection at point A = yO/A - yO/C = + − = 3𝐸𝐼
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
Example 7. A cantilever AB of length ‘L’ has fixed end A and free end B. It is loaded by applying a
concentrated load W at the midpoint C of the cantilever.
(a) Determine the deflection and slope at points C and B
(b) Show deflections and slopes on the cantilever. (GATE)
Sol: W
𝑀
The diagram is constructed. The slope at A C B
𝐸𝐼
𝑀
point C is the area under diagram between A θB
𝐸𝐼
and C.
1 𝑊𝐿 𝐿 𝑊𝐿2
θC = . . = L/2 L/2
2 2𝐸𝐼 2 8𝐸𝐼
𝑀
Similarly, slope at B is area under between A 𝑊𝐿
𝐸𝐼
and B. 2𝐸𝐼
𝑊𝐿2
θB = = θC
8𝐸𝐼
𝑀
Deflection at C is the moment of area between A and C about C.
𝐸𝐼
1 𝑊𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿 𝑊𝐿3
𝛿𝐶 = ( . . )( )=
2 2𝐸𝐼 2 3×2 24𝐸𝐼
48
𝑀
Deflection at B is the moment of area between A and B about B.
𝐸𝐼
1 𝑊𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 2𝐿 5𝑊𝐿3
𝛿𝐵 = ( . . )( + )=
2 2𝐸𝐼 2 2 3×2 48𝐸𝐼
Example 8. A simply supported laterally loaded beam was found to deflect more than a specified value. Which
of the following measures will reduce the deflection? (GATE)
(a) Increase the area moment of inertia
(b) Increase the span of the beam
(c) Select a different material having lesser modulus of elasticity
(d) Magnitude of the load to be increased
Sol: (a)
𝑃𝑙3
Deflection of a simply supported beam is given by ymax =
48𝐸𝐼
Hence, deflection increases with increase in load P and span length l while it decreases with increase in Young’s
modulus E and moment of inertia I.
Example 9. A steel beam of breadth 120 mm and height 750 mm is loaded as shown. Assume Esteel = 200GPa.
The beam is subjected to a maximum bending moment of____ and the value of maximum deflection of the
beam is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
The uniformly distributed load (UDL) = w =120 kN/m
120×15 120 kN/m
The reactions at the end supports = = 900 kN
2
𝑥
BM at a distance x from the end = 900x – 120.x.
2
BM is maximum when derivative of this equation = 0 15m
900 – 120x = 0 or x = 7.5 m (at the midpoint) 120
7.52
Maximum BM = 900×7.5 - 120× = 3375 kNm
2
Maximum deflection of a simply supported beam with 750 X-X
5𝑤𝑙4
UDL is given by ymax=
384𝐸𝐼
0.12×0.753
Moment of inertia I = = 4.21 × 10−3 m4
12
5×120×103 ×154
ymax= = 0.0939 m = 93 mm
384×200×109 ×4.21×10−3
Example 10. Two identical cantilever beams are supported as shown, with their free ends in contact through a
rigid roller. After the load P is applied, the free ends will have____. (GATE)
(a) equal deflections but not equal slopes F
(b) equal slopes but not equal deflections
(c) equal slopes as well as equal deflections
F
(d) neither equal slopes nor equal deflections
Sol: (d)
An equal and opposite force F is shown at the roller due to the force P on the upper
cantilever. It can be analysed that the lower cantilever is deflected only due to the force F
while the upper one is subjected to two forces P and F. Hence the BM in both the cantilevers
is different with different deflections and slopes.
Example 11. Flexural rigidity EI of a cantilever beam is assumed to be constant over the length of the beam
shown. If a load P and bending moment PL/2 are applied at the free end of the beam then the value of the slope
at the free end is ____. (GATE)
Sol: P
The slope at the free end of the cantilever is obtained by adding the
slopes caused by point load P and bending moment M = PL/2. L
𝑃𝐿2 𝑀𝐿 𝑃𝐿2 𝑃𝐿2 3𝑃𝐿2
PL/2
𝛿= 2𝐸𝐼
+ =
𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼
+
4𝐸𝐼
=
4𝐸𝐼
(substituting M = PL/2)
Example 12. A cantilever beam with flexural rigidity of 200 Nm2 is loaded as shown in the figure. The
deflection (in mm) at the tip of the beam is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
5𝑊𝐿3 5×500×0.13
500 N
Referring to previous Example 7, 𝛿 = = = mm
48𝐸𝐼 48×200
0.26 mm 50 mm 50 mm
49
Example 13. A cantilever beam with square cross-section of 6 mm side is subjected to a load of 2 kN normal to
the top surface as shown in the figure. The Young’s modulus of elasticity of the material of the beam is 210
GPa. The magnitude of slope (in radian) at Q (20 mm from the fixed end) is ____. (GATE)
Sol: Q
2 kN
The bending moment varies from 0 to maximum along 20
𝑀 mm
the cantilever length as shown in the diagram. The P
𝐸𝐼
100 mm
maximum BM at the fixed end is 2 kN×100 mm =
2000×0.1 = 200 Nm. As the BM varies linearly along the
length, BM at a distance of 20 mm from the end can be
M/EI
found using proportion.
200 100
= or BM20 = 160 Nm
𝐵𝑀20 100−20
𝑀
The slope of elastic curve at Q in radian is the area under between the fixed end and Q.
𝐸𝐼
200 160 7.2
The area of the hatched trapezium is 𝜃𝑄 = ( + ) (0.02) = rad
𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼 𝐸𝐼
0.0064
I for the square section = m4
12
7.2 7.2×12
𝜃𝑄 = = = 0.317 rad
𝐸𝐼 210×109 ×0.0064
Example 14. A cantilever beam having square cross-section of side a is subjected to an end load. If a is
increased by 19%, the tip deflection decreases approximately by____. (GATE)
(a) 50% (b) 19% (c) 29% (d) 41%
Sol: (a)
𝑃𝑙3
For a cantilever beam with a load at free end, ymax=
3𝐸𝐼
𝑎4
When the beam is of square section of size a, the moment of inertia I =
12
𝑃𝑙3 12𝑃𝑙3 1 𝑦2 𝑎14 𝑎14 1
Hence, 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = or 𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ 4 or = = 4=
3𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝑎4 𝑎 𝑦1 𝑎24 (1.19𝑎1 ) 2
𝑦1
𝑦2 = = 0.5𝑦1 (50% decrease)
2
Example 15. A force P is applied at a distance x from the end of the beam as shown in the figure. What would
be the value of x so that the displacement at ‘A’ is equal to zero? (GATE)
Sol:
L A
The load P can be virtually transferred to point A accompanied by a
bending moment of P (L-x). The displacement or deflection at point
A is caused by both the point load P and this moment P (L-x). The P
x
direction of these two deflections are opposite to each other.
L
The point load tries to pull it down while the moment moves it up. Therefore, the net
deflection at A is zero when both these deflections are numerically equal.
𝑃𝐿3 𝑀𝐿2 𝑃(𝐿−𝑥)𝐿2 𝐿 (𝐿−𝑥) 𝐿
= = or = or 𝑥 = = 0.33𝐿
3𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 3 2 3
Example 16. A triangular-shaped cantilever beam of uniform-thickness is shown in the
figure. The Young’s modulus of the material of the beam is E. A concentrated load P is
applied at the free end of the beam. The area moment of inertia about the neutral axis of a
cross-section at a distance x measured from the free end is_____. The maximum deflection
of the beam is_____. (GATE)
Sol: t P
The cross-section at a distance x from the free end is a
𝑏𝑥
rectangle of depth t and width (using proportionality l
𝑙
between two triangles). Hence the moment of inertia of the Top view
cross section at distance x is α
b α
𝑏𝑥𝑡 3 𝑏𝑡 3
I= (when x =l at the fixed end I = ) x
12𝑙 12
𝑑2𝑦
Using 𝑀(𝑥) = ±𝐸𝐼 t
𝑑𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 𝑀(𝑥) 12𝑙.𝑃𝑥 𝑏𝑥
𝐸 =∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1 = ∫ 𝑑𝑥 + 𝐶1
𝑑𝑥 𝐼 𝑏𝑥𝑡 3 𝑙
50
12𝑃𝑙𝑥 12𝑃𝑙2
= + 𝐶1 (Putting x = l for fixed end where slope dy/dx is zero, C1=− )
𝑏𝑡 3 𝑏𝑡 3
Integrating again,
1 12𝑃𝑙 12𝑃𝑙2
∫ 𝑑𝑦 = 𝐸 [ 𝑏𝑡3
∫ 𝑥𝑑𝑥 − ∫ 𝑏𝑡3
𝑑𝑥] + 𝐶2
6𝑃𝑙𝑥 2 2
12𝑃𝑙 𝑥 6𝑃𝑙3
𝑦= 𝐸𝑏𝑡3
− 𝐸𝑏𝑡3
+ 𝐶2 (Putting x = l for fixed end where deflection y is zero, C2=
𝐸𝑏𝑡 3
)
6𝑃𝑙𝑥 2 12𝑃𝑙2 𝑥 6𝑃𝑙3
𝑦= − + 3
𝐸𝑏𝑡3 𝐸𝑏𝑡3 𝐸𝑏𝑡
Deflection is maximum at the free end where x = 0. Substituting x = 0,
6𝑃𝑙3
𝑦𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑏𝑡3
Example 17. A beam of length L is carrying a uniformly distributed load w per unit length.
The flexural rigidity of the beam is EI. The reaction at the simple support at the right end
is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Let the reaction at the roller support be R (↑).
The magnitude of this reaction R is such that the
deflection caused by the UDL in downward
direction is equal to that of the reaction (point
load) in upward direction.
𝑤𝐿4 𝑅𝐿3 3
= or 𝑅 = 𝑤𝐿
8𝐸𝐼 3𝐸𝐼 8
Unsolved Problems
Q1. w
A simply supported beam of span L is loaded with
uniformly varying load of maximum value w per
unit length as shown. Find the maximum deflection
in the beam.
L/2 L/2
Q2. 20 kN/m
For the simply supported beam with loadings shown,
find the deflection at the midpoint of the beam. Take
E as 200 GPa and beam cross section as a rectangle of
60 mm width and 100 mm depth.
10 kN 15 kN
1m 2m 1m
2.8 Torsion of circular shafts

When a circular element like shaft is subjected to equal
and opposite torques or twisting moments, shear L
stresses develop tangentially to the circular layers. The
magnitude of the shear stress at various distances from θ
T (torque)
the centre of the shaft is given as follows:
𝜏 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
= = = R
𝑟 𝑅 𝐽 𝐿
𝜏 and 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 : shear stress at radius r and R respectively τ (max)
L: Length of the shaft under torsion
J: Polar moment of inertia (J = IXX + IYY)
θ: Angle of twist (radians)
G: Shear or rigidity modulus of the material of shaft
51
Example 1. The outside diameter of a hollow shaft is twice its inside diameter. The ratio of its torque carrying
capacity to that of a solid shaft of the same material and the same outside diameter is______. (GATE)
Sol:
𝜏 .𝐽 𝐽
𝑇 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∝ (𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 same for the materials)
𝑅 𝑅
𝜋 D
𝐽𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 = {𝐷 4 − (0.5𝐷)4 } , 𝑅𝐻 = 𝐷/2
32
𝜋
𝐽𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 = (𝐷4 ), 𝑅𝑆 = 𝐷/2
32
D/2
𝑇𝐻𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝐽𝐻 𝑅𝑆 {𝐷4 − (0.5𝐷)4 }
= . = = 0.9375
𝑇𝑆𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑 𝐽𝑆 𝑅𝐻 𝐷4
Example 2. Two shafts A and B are made of the same material. The diameter of shaft B is twice that of shaft A.
The ratio of power which can be transmitted by shaft A to that of shaft B is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Power transmitted by a shaft is proportional to the torque. The ratio of power is also the ratio of torques the
shafts are subjected.
𝑇𝐴 𝐽𝐴 𝑅𝐵 (𝐷4 ) 2𝐷
= . = . = 1: 8
𝑇𝐵 𝐽𝐵 𝑅𝐴 16𝐷4 𝐷
Example 3. A steel shaft A of diameter d and length l is subjected to a torque T. Another shaft B made of
aluminium of the same diameter d and length 0.5l is also subjected to the same torque T. The shear modulus of
steel is 2.5 times the shear modulus of aluminium. The shear stress in the steel shaft is 100 MPa. The shear
stress in the aluminium shaft in MPa is______. (GATE)
Sol:
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
= = , with same diameter for steel and aluminium, JSteel=JAl and RSteel= RAl. Further, torque applied on
𝑅 𝐽 𝐿
𝑇𝑅
both is also same. Hence, the shear stresses developed in both the shafts are same because 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = . Shear
𝐽
stress in Aluminium = 100 MPa.
Note: The difference between the shafts in their shear modulus (G) and lengths will give different angles of twist
(θ).
Example 4. Maximum shear stress developed on the surface of a solid circular shaft under pure torsion is 240
MPa. If the shaft diameter is doubled then the maximum shear stress developed corresponding to the same
torque will be_____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑇𝑅
As 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , when diameter is doubled with the same torque the new maximum shear stress is given
𝐽
𝑛𝑒𝑤 𝑇(2𝑅)
by 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = . When diameter is doubled, the polar moment of inertia J increased by 16 times because
16𝐽
𝜋
J= 𝐷4 .
32
2 1 240
New maximum shear stress = or times of the initial shear stress = = 30 MPa
16 8 8
Example 5. A torque of 10 Nm is transmitted through a stepped shaft as shown. The torsional stiffness of
individual sections of lengths MN, NO and OP are 20 Nm/rad, 30 Nm/rad and 60 Nm/rad respectively. The
angular deflection between the ends M and P of the shaft is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Torsional stiffness or rigidity of a shaft is given O P
M N
by the product of the shear modulus (G) and its
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝜃 𝑇
polar MI (J). Using = or =
𝐽 𝐿 𝐿 𝐺𝐽
Angular deflection between ends M and P = 10 Nm
Sum of angle of twist for MN, NO and OP
10 10 10
= + + = 1 rad
20 30 60
Example 6. The two shafts AB and BC, of equal length and diameters d and 2d, are made of the same material.
They are joined at B through a shaft coupling, while the ends A and C are built-in (cantilevered). A twisting
moment T is applied to the coupling. If TA and TC represent the twisting moments at the ends A and C,
respectively, then____. (GATE)
(a) TC = TA (b) TC = 8TA (c) TC = 16TA (d) TA = 16TC
52
Sol: (c)
When a twisting moment (torque) T is applied to the Coupling
coupling, both the shafts AB and BC will twist by same B C
A d
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑇 𝑇
angle (θAB= θBC). Using = , 𝜃𝐴𝐵 = 𝜃𝐵𝐶 = 𝐴 = 𝐶 2d
𝐽 𝐿 𝐺𝐽𝐴 𝐺𝐽𝐶
𝑇𝐴 𝐽𝐴 𝑑4
= ∝ or TC = 16TA L L
𝑇𝐶 𝐽𝐶 16𝑑 4
Note: The sum of the torques in AB and BC is equal to the
externally applied torque T. Hence, TA + TC = T.
Example 7. A solid shaft of diameter d and length L is fixed at both the ends. A torque, T0 is applied at a
distance L/4 from the left end as shown. The maximum shear stress in the shaft is_____. (GATE)
Sol: T0
In this case, the applied torque T0 is shared between the
two parts (left and right) of the shaft in such a way that the d
angle of twist at the point of application of torque remains
same. L/4 3L/4
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 𝐺𝜃
Using = = , as the G, J and θ for both portions are same, torque varies with
𝑅 𝐽 𝐿
inverse ratio of length or T.L = constant. The maximum torque is in the portion with smallest
length. On solving these two equations
T1+T2= T0 and T1(L/4) = T2(3L/4), T1 =3T0/4 and T2 = T0/4
Maximum shear stress is due to T1 in the portion L/4.
𝑇𝑅 3𝑇 .𝑑×32 12𝑇0
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = 0 4 = 3
𝐽 4×2×𝜋×𝑑 𝜋𝑑
Example 8. A torque T is applied at the free end of a stepped rod of circular cross-sections
as shown. The shear modulus of the material of the rod is G. The expression for d to produce
an angular twist θ at the free end is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Angular twist θ at the free end is equal to
the sum of angular twists in both the rods
of diameter 2d and d subjected to same
torque of T. So, θ = (θ2d + θd).
𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑇𝐿 32𝑇𝐿
Using = , 𝜃2𝑑 = = 4 and
𝐽 𝐿 𝐺𝐽 𝐺.𝜋×16𝑑
32𝑇𝐿 32𝑇𝐿 32𝑇𝐿
𝜃𝑑 = or 𝜃 = +
2𝐺.𝜋×𝑑 4 𝐺.𝜋×16𝑑 4 2𝐺.𝜋×𝑑 4
18𝑇𝐿 18𝑇𝐿 1/4
= . Hence, 𝑑 = [ ]
𝜋𝐺𝑑 4 𝜋𝐺𝜃
Example 9. Two solid circular shafts of radii R1 and R2 are subjected to same torque. The
maximum shear stresses developed in the two shafts are τ1 and τ2. If R1/R2=2, then τ1/τ2
is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑇𝑅 𝜏1 𝑅1 𝑅24 𝑅 3 1 3 1
Using 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , = = ( 2) = ( ) =
𝐽 𝜏2 𝑅14 𝑅2 𝑅1 2 8
Example 10. Consider a stepped shaft subjected to a twisting moment applied at B as

shown. Assume shear modulus G =77 GPa. The angle of twist at C (in degrees) is ____.
(GATE)
Sol: A
When the twisting moment is applied at B and the shaft is B C
fixed at end A and free at end C, it is evident that BC portion Φ20 Φ10
of the shaft is not under any stress or angular deflection. 10Nm
Hence, the angle of twist at C is same as that of B. 500 500
𝑇𝐿 10×0.5×32
𝜃𝐵 = 𝜃𝐶 = = 9 4 = 0.0041 rad = 0.23
0
𝐺𝐽 77×10 ×𝜋×(0.02)
Example 11. A hollow shaft of 1 m length is designed to transmit a power of 30 kW at 700

rpm. The maximum permissible angle of twist in the shaft is 1°. The inner diameter of the
shaft is 0.7 times the outer diameter. The modulus of rigidity is 80 GPa. The outside
diameter (in mm) of the shaft is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
53
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 60𝑃 60×30×103

Power transmitted in a shaft is 𝑃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = = = 409.25 Nm
60 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×700
0 𝜋 𝑇𝐿 409.25×1
Maximum angle of twist 𝜃 = 1 = = = 𝑜𝑟 𝐽 = 2.93 × 10−7 m4
180 𝐺𝐽 80×109 ×𝐽
𝜋 𝜋
𝐽= (𝐷4 − 𝑑 4 ) = 2.93 × 10−7 = [𝐷4 − (0.7𝐷) 4 ],
𝐷 = 0.078 m = 78mm
32 32
Example 12. The cross sections of two hollow bars made of the same material are
concentric circles as shown in the figure. It is given that 𝑟3 > 𝑟1 and 𝑟4 > 𝑟2, and that the
areas of the cross-sections are the same. J1 and J2 are the torsional rigidities of the bars on
the left and right, respectively. The ratio J2/J1 is______. (GATE)
Sol:
As the areas of cross-section are same, (𝑟22 − 𝑟12 ) = (𝑟42 − 𝑟32 ) r3
𝐽2 (𝑟44 −𝑟34 ) (𝑟42 −𝑟32 ) (𝑟42 +𝑟32 ) r1
Ratio of torsional rigidities = =
𝐽1 (𝑟24 −𝑟14 ) (𝑟22 −𝑟12 ) (𝑟22 +𝑟12 )
r2 r4
𝐽2 (𝑟42 +𝑟32 )
∴ =
𝐽1 (𝑟22 +𝑟12 )
Example 13. A rigid horizontal rod of length 2L is fixed to a circular cylinder of radius R as shown in the
figure. Vertical forces of magnitude P are applied at the two ends as shown. The shear modulus for the cylinder
is G and the Young’s modulus is E. The vertical deflection at point A is______. (GATE)
Sol:
The deflection at point A can be found using the angle
of twist of the cylinder. The twisting moment
produced in the cylinder by forces at the two ends of
𝑇𝐿 2𝑃𝐿.𝐿.2 4𝑃𝐿2
the rod is T = 2PL. Using 𝜃 = = =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺.𝜋𝑅 4 𝜋𝐺𝑅 4
The upward deflection l of point A is equal to the
product of this angle of twist 𝜃 with the radius of
rotation of the bar L.
4𝑃𝐿3
Deflection l of point A =
𝜋𝐺𝑅 4
Example 14. Two circular shafts made of same material, one solid (S) and one hollow (H), have the same
length and polar moment of inertia. Both are subjected to same torque. Here, S is the twist and S is the
maximum shear stress in the solid shaft, whereas H is the twist and H is the maximum shear stress in the
hollow shaft. Which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE)
(A) S= H and S = H (B)S > H and S > H (C)S < H and S < H (D)S=H and S < H
Sol: (D)
For the two shafts, G are same (same material), length, polar MI and torque are same (given)
𝜏 𝑇 𝐺𝜃 𝑇𝑅 𝑇𝑅 𝜏 𝑅
Hence, using 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = , 𝜏𝑆 = 𝑆 , 𝜏𝐻 = 𝐻 𝑜𝑟 𝑆 = 𝑆
𝑅 𝐽 𝐿 𝐽 𝐽 𝜏𝐻 𝑅𝐻
For the J to be same between solid and hollow, RH > RS therefore S < H
𝑇𝐿 𝑇𝐿
Similarly, = , 𝜃𝑆 = = 𝜃𝐻
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝐽
Example 15. A machine element XY, fixed at end X, is subjected to an axial load P, transverse load F, and a
twisting moment T at its free end Y. The most critical point from the strength point of view is_____. (GATE)
(a) a point on the circumference at location Y
(b) a point at the center at location Y
(c) a point on the circumference at location X
(d) a point at the center at location X
Sol: (c)
Maximum stress occurs at the upper surface of the circumference at the location X because
tensile stress due to P is added with the tensile stress due to bending caused by F.
Example 16. A solid circular shaft of diameter 100 mm is subjected to an axial stress of 50 MPa. It is further
subjected to a torque of 10 kNm. The maximum principal stress experienced on the shaft is closest to ______.
(GATE)
(a) 41 MPa (b) 82 MPa (c) 164 MPa (d) 204 MPa τ
Sol: (b) σ1
Maximum shear stress due to torque T of 10 kNm is σx σx
𝑇𝑅 10×103 ×100×10−3 ×32
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 50.9 MPa
𝐽 2×𝜋×1004 ×10−12
τ
Shaft is thus loaded with σx=50 MPa, σy=0, 𝜏=50.9 MPa
54
Principal stresses, 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( ) + 𝜏2
2 2
(50+0) 50−0 2
= ± √( ) + 50.92 =81.7 and -31.7 MPa
2 2
The maximum principal stress ≈ 82 MPa
Example 17. A motor driving a solid circular steel shaft transmits 40 kW of power at 500 rpm. If the diameter
of the shaft is 40 mm, the maximum shear stress in the shaft is ______ MPa. (GATE)
Sol:
2𝜋𝑁𝑇 60𝑃 60×40×103
Power transmitted in a shaft 𝑃 = 𝑜𝑟 𝑇 = = = 763.94 Nm
60 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×500
𝑇𝑅 763.94×32×0.02
Maximum shear stress 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 60.79 MPa
𝐽 𝜋×(0.04)4
2.9 Euler’s theory of columns

Calculation of critical buckling/crippling load
(PCr) for columns PCr PCr PCr PCr
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
1. Both ends hinged/pinned 𝑃𝐶𝑟 =
𝑙2
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
2. One end fixed, other free 𝑃𝐶𝑟 =
4𝑙2
2𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
3. One end fixed, other hinged 𝑃𝐶𝑟 =
𝑙2
4𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 1 2 3 4
4. Both ends fixed 𝑃𝐶𝑟 = 2
𝑙
E: Young’s modulus of the material
I: Minimum moment of inertia of column
section about own centroidal axis
l: Effective length of the column
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 1 1
In general, 𝑃𝐶𝑟 = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 1,2, , for the
(𝑛𝑙)2 √2 2
four cases respectively. Equivalent lengths for
these four end conditions are l’=l, l’=2l, l’=l/√2
and l’=l/2.
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
Slenderness ratio (l/r) =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝑃𝐶𝑟 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2 𝐸(𝐴𝑟 2 ) 𝜋2 𝐸 𝜋2 𝐸
Buckling stress𝜎𝑐𝑟 = = = = =
𝐴 𝐴𝑙2 𝐴𝑙2 (𝑙/𝑟)2 (𝑆𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜)2
For example, in case of structural steel (E=200 GPa and yield stress 𝜎𝑦 = 250 MPa) columns, a
minimum slenderness ratio of 89 is calculated to categorize it as a long column. If the slenderness ratio is less
than this threshold value, then the buckling stress is more than the yield stress indicating that column yields
before buckling.
Example 1. Find the shortest length of a hinged-hinged steel column having a rectangular section 60×100 mm,
for which the elastic Euler’s formula applies. Take yield strength and modulus of elasticity values for steel as
250 MPa and 200 GPa respectively. (GATE)
Sol:
100×603 100×603
Least MI of the rectangle, I = and least radius of gyration = √ = 17.32mm
12 12×60×100
The limiting length of the column is at σCr = σYield
𝜋2 𝐸 𝜋2 𝐸𝑟 2 𝜋2 ×200×109 ×(17.32)2 ×10−6
𝜎𝑦 = 𝜎𝐶𝑟 = = = = 250 × 106 or l ≥ 1.53 m
(𝑙2 /𝑟 2 ) 𝑙2 𝑙2
Example 2. The buckling load for a column pinned at both ends is 10 kN. If the ends are fixed, the buckling
load changes to____. (GATE)
(a) 40 kN (b) 2.5 kN (c) 5 kN (d) 20 kN
Sol: (a)
4𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
Buckling load when both ends fixed, 𝑃𝐶𝑟 = = 4× Buckling load when both ends hinged
𝑙2
= 40 kN
55
Example 3. Rod PQ of length L and with flexural rigidity EI is hinged at both ends. For what minimum force F,
it is expected to buckle? (GATE)
Sol: P
If PCr is the critical or minimum buckling load for the rod PQ
then PCr cos45 = F
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝑐𝑜𝑠45 𝜋2 𝐸𝐼
F= =
𝑙2 √2𝑙2
450
F
Example 4. A column has a rectangular cross-section of 10mm× Q
20mm and a length of 1m. The slenderness ratio of the column is
close to_____. (GATE)
(A) 200 (B) 346 (C) 477 (D) 1000
Sol: (C)
𝐸𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑛
Slenderness ratio (l/r) =
𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑢𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑦𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Assuming column with both ends hinged, equivalent length l’=l=1 m
Radius of gyration k = (I/A)1/2 , I is least MI about centroidal axis and A is area of section
20×103
Minimum moment of inertia of the rectangular column is
12
20×103 1000
𝑘=√ =2.88 mm, Slenderness ratio = = 346
10×20×12 2.88
Example 5. The piston rod of diameter 20 mm and length 700 mm in a hydraulic cylinder is subjected to a
compressive force of 10 kN due to the internal pressure. The end conditions of the rod may be assumed as
guided at the piston end and hinged at the other end. The Young’s modulus is 200 GPa. The factor of safety for
the piston rod is_____. (GATE)
(a) 0.68 (b) 2.75 (c) 5.62 (d) 11.0
Sol:
The end conditions of the piston rod is considered as both end hinged. Critical buckling load for the piston rod
𝜋2 𝐸𝐼 𝜋2 ×200×109 ×𝜋×(0.02)4
𝑃𝐶𝑟 = = = 3.1 × 104 N
𝑙2 64×0.72
3.1×104
Factor of safety = =
10×103
2.10 Energy methods

When a material is under stress due to external force applied on it, the work done is stored in the body
as elastic strain energy. The amount of strain energy varies according to the type of loading it is subjected to like
bending, shear, normal stress etc.
1 1 𝜎𝑙 𝜎2 𝜎2
In tension/compression S.E (U) = average force × 𝛿𝑙 = ( .σ.A) 𝛿𝑙 = ( σ. A) ( ) = (𝐴𝑙) = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒). On
2 2 𝐸 2𝐸 2𝐸
𝑃 𝑃2 𝑃2 𝐿
substituting 𝜎 = ,𝑈 = (𝐴𝐿) = . When the material is stressed up to elastic limit, the strain energy is
𝐴 2𝐸𝐴2 2𝐴𝐸
2
𝜎𝐸
known as Proof Resilience given by the expression (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒). For unit volume, the strain energy that can be
2𝐸
𝜎2
stored in the body up to elastic limit is a property of the material called Modulus of Resilience, 𝐸 .
2𝐸
Important Note:
𝑥 𝑥 1
 In case of a spring, Strain energy, U = Work Done = ∫0 1 𝑃𝑑𝑥 = ∫0 1 𝐾𝑥𝑑𝑥 = 𝐾𝑥12
2
𝑃 𝑃2 2𝐸𝑃ℎ
 When a load P allowed to fall from a height h, stress 𝜎 = + √ + which is greater than from
𝐴 𝐴2 𝐴𝑙
2𝑃
stress due to suddenly applied load (𝜎 = ).
𝐴
𝜏2
 Under shear stress, the shear resilience is 𝑈 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒)
2𝐺
𝜏2 𝐷2 +𝑑 2
 Strain energy due to torsion of a shaft, 𝑈 = ( )(Volume of shaft) if inner diameter d = 0 then 𝑈 =
4𝐺 𝐷2
𝜏2
(Volume of shaft)
4𝐺
𝑙 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
 Strain energy during bending, 𝑈 = ∫0
2𝐸𝐼
64𝑛𝑃𝑅 3
 For a closed-coiled helical spring, axial deflection 𝛿 = , n is number of coils, P axial load, R radius
𝐺𝑑 4
of coil, d diameter of wire, G modulus of rigidity
𝑃 𝐺𝑑 4
 Stiffness or spring constant for the helical spring 𝐾 = =
𝛿 64𝑛𝑅 3
56
16𝑇 16𝑃𝑅
 Maximum shear stress 𝜏 = =
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋𝑑 3
𝑇𝑙 64𝑛𝑃𝑅 2
 Angle of twist at free-end of the spring 𝜃 = =
𝐺𝐽 𝐺𝑑 4
Castigliano’s Theorem:
Linear deflection under a point load can be found by partially differentiating the strain energy (U) with respect
𝜕𝑈
to the point load below which the deflection is required. Deflection under point load P is 𝛿𝑃 = . Similarly,
𝜕𝑃
𝜕𝑈
under load Q is 𝛿𝑄 = and so on. Angle of twist (θ) due to a torque and angle of bend Φ (slope) due to a
𝜕𝑄
bending moment can also be found using partial differentiation of strain energy w.r.t torque (T) and moment (M)
respectively.
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
𝜃1 = , 𝜃2 = etc. and ∅1 = , ∅2 = etc.
𝜕𝑇1 𝜕𝑇2 𝜕𝑀1 𝜕𝑀2
A dummy load/torque/moment is applied at the point where deflection/angle of twist/slope is required.
𝑃𝐿3
Example 1. is the deflection under the load P of a cantilever beam (length L, modulus of elasticity E,
3𝐸𝐼
moment of inertia I). The strain energy due to bending is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑃𝐿3 𝑃2 𝐿3
S.E U= average force × 𝛿𝑙 = ½ P. 𝛿𝑙 = ½ P. =
3𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
𝑙 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
Note: Using S.E in bending 𝑈 = ∫0 , bending moment in cantilever at a distance x from the free-end where
2𝐸𝐼
load P is applied is M = P.x
𝑙 𝑃2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑃2 𝐿3
𝑈 = ∫0 =
2𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
Example 2. A simply supported beam is subjected to a single force P at a distance b from one of the supports.
Obtain the expression for the deflection under the load using Castigliano’s theorem. How do you calculate
deflection at the mid-point the beam? (GATE)
Sol:
Assuming length of the beam to be l, the reactions at A and Q
𝑃(𝑙−𝑏) 𝑃𝑏 P
B are found as and respectively. Now the S.E in A C B
𝑙 𝑙
the beam due to bending is sum of the S.Es in the parts AC
b l-b
and BC. Taking sections at distance of x from each of the
𝑃(𝑙−𝑏)𝑥 𝑃𝑏𝑥
ends, BMs are expressed as and .
𝑙 𝑙
Total S.E in the beam
𝑏 𝑃(𝑙−𝑏)𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑙−𝑏 𝑃𝑏𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑃2 𝑏 2 (𝑙−𝑏)2
𝑈 = ∫0 [ ] + ∫0 [ ] =
𝑙 2𝐸𝐼 𝑙 2𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼𝑙
𝜕𝑈 𝑃𝑏 2 (𝑙−𝑏)2
Deflection under P=𝛿𝑃 = =
𝜕𝑃 3𝐸𝐼𝑙
To find the deflection at the mid-point, a dummy load Q is applied there. New reactions at A
and B to be found. Total strain energy is sum of S.E in AC, CD and BD.
𝜕𝑈 𝜕𝑈
Deflection under Q is . Finally substituting Q = 0 in the expression for , the deflection
𝜕𝑄 𝜕𝑄
can be found.
Example 3. A square bar of side 4 cm and length 100 cm is subjected to an axial load P. The same bar is then
used as a cantilever beam and subjected to an end load P. The ratio of the strain energies, stored in the bar is the
second case to that stored in the first case is____.
(a) 16 (b) 400 (c) 1000 (d) 2500 (GATE)
Sol: (d) P
1 1 𝑃𝑙 𝑃2 𝑙
S.E in case of axial loading is 𝑈1 = 𝑃. 𝛿𝑙 = 𝑃. = =
2 2 𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
100𝑃2 25𝑃2
=
2×16×𝐸 8𝐸 4×4 cm
𝑙 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥
S.E for the cantilever is due to bending, 𝑈2 = ∫0
2𝐸𝐼
BM in the cantilever expressed as equation M = P.x, where x
P
is the distance of a section from the free-end.
𝑙 𝑀2 𝑑𝑥 𝑙 𝑃2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑃2 𝑙3 𝑃2 𝑙3
𝑈2 = ∫0 = ∫0 = [ − 0] = =
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 3 6𝐸𝐼
𝑃2 ×12×1003 15625𝑃2
=
6𝐸×4 4 2𝐸
𝑼𝟐 15625𝑃2 8𝐸
= . = 2500: 1
𝑼𝟏 2𝐸 25𝑃2
57
Example 4. Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean coil diameter and
weight, have wire diameters d and d/2. The ratio of their stiffness is_____.
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 64 (d) 128 (GATE)
Sol: (c)
𝜋 𝜋 𝑑
As the weights of the two springs are same, 𝑑 2 𝑛𝑑 = ( )2 𝑛𝑑/2 or 4𝑛𝑑 = 𝑛𝑑/2
4 4 2
𝐺𝑑 4 𝐾𝑑 𝑑 4 (𝑛𝑑/2 )
Stiffness of helical spring, = , Ratio = = 64
64𝑛𝑅 3 𝐾𝑑/2 𝑛𝑑 (𝑑/2)4
Example 5. A stepped steel shaft shown below is subjected to 10 Nm torque. If the modulus of rigidity is 80
GPa, the strain energy in the shaft in N mm is____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝜏 𝑇 16𝑇 16×10 ∅50
Using 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = , 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 25
= 3= ∅25
3 = 3.25 𝑀𝑃𝑎
10 Nm
𝑅 𝐽 𝜋𝑑 𝜋(0.025)
50 16𝑇 16×10
𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = = = 0.4 𝑀𝑃𝑎
𝜋𝑑 3 𝜋(0.05)3
Total S.E is sum of the S.Es in both the parts.
𝜏2 (3.25)2 ×1012 ×𝜋×(0.025)2 ×0.1 100 100
Using 𝑈 = (𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒) =
4𝐺 4×80×109 ×4 Dimensions in mm
(0.4)2 ×1012 ×𝜋×(0.05)2 ×0.1
+ = 1.73 𝑁𝑚𝑚
4×80×109 ×4
Note:
S.E can also be found by using U = ½ T. θ, where θ is the angle of twist at the free-end
which is the sum of angle of twists in both the portions of stepped shaft.
Example 6. The strain energy stored in the beam with flexural rigidity EI and loaded as shown is ______.
(GATE)
Sol:
The reactions at the two supports are also P each.
P P
The BMs in this beam are considered in three L 2L L
different sections; left and right parts, middle part.
These BMs can be expressed as P.x for the two left
and right ends while {P.x – P(x–L)} for the middle
part by taking a section at a distance of x from one
end. Total S.E for the beam is sum of the S.Es
stored in these three parts due to bending.
𝐿 𝑃2 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2𝐿 {𝑃𝑥−𝑃(𝑥−𝐿)}2 𝑑𝑥 5𝑃2 𝐿3
𝑈 = 2 ∫0 + ∫𝐿 =
2𝐸𝐼 2𝐸𝐼 6𝐸𝐼
Example 7. The threaded bolts A and B of same material and length are subjected to identical tensile load. If the
elastic strain energy stored in bolt A is 4 times that of the bolt B and the mean diameter of bolt A is 12mm, the
mean diameter of bolt B in mm is____. (GATE)
Sol:
S.E due to tensile load P in a bolt of length l and area of cross-section A is given as
1 1 𝑃𝑙 𝑃2𝑙
𝑈 = 𝑃. 𝛿𝑙 = 𝑃. = . When the material, length and loads are same, S.E is inversely proportional to the
2 2 𝐴𝐸 2𝐴𝐸
area of cross-section.
𝑼𝑨 𝑨𝑩 𝒅𝟐
𝑩 𝒅𝟐
𝑩
=𝟒= = = or dB = 24 mm
𝑼𝑩 𝑨𝑨 𝒅𝟐
𝑨 𝟏𝟐𝟐
2.11 Thermal stresses

Materials particularly metals expand and contract due to increase or decrease in temperature respectively. If this
changes in the dimension (length, breadth or height) of the body is restricted by any means, then either tensile or
compressive stress develops depending on the situation. For example, if a bar is rigidly fixed at both ends and
heated to expand then thermal compressive stress develops as its ends are virtually compressed. Similarly, if it is
contracted due to cooling then it will be subjected to thermal tensile stress.
Let a bar of length l, coefficient of linear expansion α be heated through t0 C. If the expansion is freely
allowed then the increase in length of the bar is (l.α.t) and it is under no stress or strain. However, if the ends are
restricted to move so that the expansion is prevented then compressive strain produced in the bar
𝛿𝑙 𝑙𝛼𝑡
𝜀= = = 𝛼𝑡 and the thermal compressive stress 𝜎 = 𝜀𝐸 = 𝐸𝛼𝑡
𝑙 𝑙
Example 1. A uniform, slender cylindrical rod is made of a homogeneous and isotropic material. The rod rests
on a frictionless surface. The rod is heated uniformly. If the radial and longitudinal thermal stresses are
represented by σr and σz respectively, then____. (GATE)
58
(a) σr = 0 and σz = 0 (b) σr ≠ 0 and σz = 0 (c) σr = 0 and σz ≠ 0 (d) σr ≠ 0 and σz ≠ 0

Sol: (a)
As the rod is free to expand in all directions hence it will not be subjected to any stress.
Example 2. A steel rod of length L and diameter D, fixed at both ends, is uniformly heated to a temperature rise
of ∆t. The Young’s modulus is E and the coefficient of linear expansion is α. The thermal stress in the rod is
_____. (GATE)
(a) 0 (b) α∆t (c) E α∆t (d) E α∆t L
Sol: (c)
The thermal stress is E α∆t
Example 3. A circular metallic rod of length 250 mm is placed between two rigid immovable walls as shown in
the figure. The rod is in perfect contact with the wall on the left side and there is a gap of 0.2 mm between the
rod and the wall on the right side. If the temperature of the rod is increased by 200 0C, the axial stress developed
in the rod is ____ MPa. Young’s modulus of the material of the rod is 200 GPa and the coefficient of thermal
expansion is 10−5 per 0C. (GATE)
Sol:
The total increase in the length of the rod = l.α.t
= 250×10−5×200 = 0.5 mm. As there is a gap of 0.2 mm,
hence the difference in length of 0.3 mm is restricted by
the wall. This length has to be taken to find the axial
stress in the rod.
𝛿𝑙 0.3
Strain 𝜀 = =
𝑙 250
0.3×200×109
Stress 𝜎 = 𝜀𝐸 = =240 MPa
250
Example 4. A steel bar is held by two fixed supports as shown in the figure and is subjected to an increase of
temperature ∆T=1000C. If the coefficient of thermal expansion and Young’s modulus of elasticity of steel are
11×10-6 /0C and 200 GPa respectively, the magnitude of thermal stress (in MPa) induced in the bar is______.
(GATE)
Sol:
Due to increase in temperature of 100 0C, the thermal elongation of

an unrestricted bar is 𝛿𝑙 = 𝑙. 𝛼. ∆𝑇 ∆T=1000C
𝛿𝑙
Strain 𝜖 = = 𝛼. ∆𝑇
𝑙 Steel bar
𝜎 = 𝜖𝐸 = 𝐸. 𝛼. ∆𝑇 = 200 × 109 × 11 × 10−6 × 100 = 220 MPa
2.12 Strain gauges and rosettes

As it is relatively difficult to practically measure stress, strains are measured by various direct and indirect
approaches like electrical resistance, capacitance, inductance, photo-electric principles, optical methods etc. The
most commonly used strain gauge works on the principle of electrical resistance which changes with change in
length of the resistive wire.
𝐿
Resistance 𝑅 = 𝜌 gives a direct proportionality between resistance and length. If the length of a resistance
𝐴
wire mounted on a specimen increases due to strain, its resistance changes proportionally which can be detected
using a Wheatstone bridge configuration. In this bridge of four resistances, three are of known values and fourth
𝑅 𝑅
one is the variable resistance strain gauge. If these four resistances are balanced or 1 = 3, the potential
𝑅2 𝑅4
difference across the middle is zero. Any change in one resistance (the strain gauge) due to change in its length
will be reflected in the voltmeter across the middle. From that reading of voltage, the change in resistance
followed by the strain can be found.
A single strain gauge is capable of finding the strain in one axis only. In order to find the principal
strain/stress at least three strain gauges are required to be used in various known configurations. Such
configurations are known as rosette strain gauges. The popular rosettes are
 Rectangular (two gauges along X and Y axis, third one at an angle of 45 0 with both)
 Delta (three gauges along the side of an equilateral triangle)
 Star (three gauges at an angle of 1200 with each other)
2.13 Testing of materials with universal testing machine

Various properties of the material can be judged through material testing and analysis. Testing are broadly
classified into mechanical testing and NDT (non-destructive testing). Most of the mechanical testing approaches
59
are destructive where the specimen distorted during the process except the hardness test. The various
mechanical properties of importance are
 Yield strength/Elastic limit in tension and compression
 Ultimate strength
 Resilience and toughness
 Ductility/Brittleness/Plasticity
 Endurance limit
 Hardness
 Impact strength etc.
Some NDT methods are
 Ultrasonic Testing
 Radiographic Testing
 Liquid Penetrant Testing
 Magnetic Particle Testing
 Electromagnetic Testing
 Laser Testing
Universal Testing Machine (UTM) has versatile testing capability of material under tension, compression and
bending. Either electromechanical or hydraulic UTM, specified mainly in terms of maximum load capacity,
dimension of cross heads, test speed etc. The various mechanical tests conducted in a typical UTM are
 Tensile and compressive test
 Ductility test
 Fatigue/Cyclic load test
 Adhesion test
 Shear/Torsion test
 Bending/Flexure test
Standard test specimen is to be prepared before a particular test in UTM. A typical stress-strain curve with
salient points and features for a ductile material like mild steel is discussed in §2.1.
Some more stress-strain curves for other
materials: B
A
A-Brittle (Specimen fails without necking)
B-High strength-low strain C
C-Ductile (Specimen demonstrates all the
salient points like proportional limit, σ
upper and lower yield points, ultimate
stress, necking and breaking)
D-Highly plastic (Specimen elongates at low
stress before failure) D
2.14 Testing of hardness and impact strength

Hardness is the property of material to resist indentation, scratch, abrasion or penetration. It has a direct
relationship with tensile strength of the material and hence sometimes hardness tests can be used to avoid the
tensile tests which are destructive in nature. The three categories of hardness tests are
 Scratch Tests
(Mohs scale is used to compare between two materials as harder one can only mark on the other. Diamond
is given 10 on the scale, tungsten carbide 9.7 and this goes down to 1.0 for soft material talc)
 Rebound Tests
(Sceleroscope hardness test uses the height of rebound of a hammer with a diamond tip when it falls from a
known height to find the hardness of the material)
 Indentation Tests
(This approach is commonly used for hardness tests wherein a hard indenter of ball, cone, square pyramid
shape is forced against the specimen to create a mark. The dimensions of the permanent mark is used in the
measurement of hardness)
The popular indentation based hardness tests are
 Rockwell hardness test
60
• Rockwell B (ball) used for soft materials.

• Rockwell C (cone) used diamond cone for hard materials
• Gives direct reading on a dial or digital display
 Brinell hardness test
• Ball indenter of hardened steel or WC (tungsten carbide) of 1, 5, 10 mm diameter
• Not suitable for thin sheets
• Surface area of indentation mark measured to calculate BHN (Brinell Hardness No.)
• Used to calculate tensile strength from BHN
 Vickers hardness test
• Uses square shaped pyramid indenter (known as diamond pyramid hardness test)
• Accurate results
• Measures length of diagonal on indentation
• Used for very hard materials
The methods given above are for macro hardness testing while for micro hardness testing load less than 1
kg is used for Vickers or Knoop indenters. Knoop indenters are used for thin sheet.
Impact tests measure the toughness of material, higher the toughness better the impact bearing capability.
Impact strength of a material is the specific work done to fracture a specimen with a stress concentrator (notch)
in the middle when struck with a single blow of swinging pendulum type striker in impact testing machine. A
more brittle material is having a low impact strength and vice-a-versa.
Two popular tests for impact are
 Charpy test
• Specimen is held as a horizontal beam Specimen
with notch on the opposite side of the 22 mm
strike 40 mm
• Strikes with higher energy of about 300 J Striker
• Striker is a pendulum with knife-edge
 Izod test
CHARPY TEST IZOD TEST
• Specimen is held vertically as a cantilever
and the notch faces the striker
• Strikes with about 167 J kinetic energy
Example 1. The Jominy test is used to find (GATE)

(A) Young’s modulus (B) hardenability (C) yield strength (D) thermal conductivity
Sol: (B)
Jominy test is for testing the hardenability of material due to heat treatment.
*******
61
3
THEORY OF MACHINES
3.1 Displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis of plane mechanisms
The study of kinematics of mechanisms includes the displacement, velocity and acceleration analysis of plane
(in two-dimension) mechanisms. The different types of links (a restraint body with relative motion) are binary
(with two joints), ternary (with joints) etc. A kinetic pair is formed between two links if the relative motion
between them is constrained. Further, based on the nature of motion between them, the kinetic pairs can be
grouped as sliding, turning, screw, rolling and spherical pair. Degree of freedom of a body is the sum of
unconstrained translational and rotational axes associated with it. In space, the maximum DOF can be 6 with 3
translational and 3 rotational motions about X, Y and Z axes.
Kinematic chain and mechanism:
In kinematic chain, several links are joined together to form a chain with a definite relative motion among them.
If one or more of the links of a kinematic chain is/are fixed, then it results in a mechanism. Different
mechanisms result from fixing different links of the kinematic chain. Each of these mechanisms is known as
inversion of the original kinematic chain. These mechanisms are used in numerous situations to transmit force
and motion in a desirable way. Piston-connecting rod, quick return in shaper and slotting are the examples of
mechanisms.
The common types of kinematic chains are
(a) Four bar chain or quadric cycle chain
(b) Single slider crank chain
(c) Double slider crank chain
A four bar kinematic chain fulfills the condition that the longest link is less than the sum of the lengths of the
remaining three links (l < s+b+c) where l and s are the length of longest and smallest links respectively, b and c
are the length of other two links. Further, a four bar chain is classified into three classes using the Grashof’s
condition as follows:
If l +s < b + c (Class I four bar chain)
If l +s > b + c (Class II NonGrashof four bar chain)
If l +s = b + c (Class III four bar chain)
A single slider crank chain is an inversion of four bar chain which is applied in a reciprocating piston-cylinder
arrangement.
The other inversions of four bar chain are
obtained by fixing different links. 3 4
When link 4 is fixed it results Whitworth
2
quick return mechanism as used in Shaper 1
2 1
machine tools.
When link 2 is fixed a hand pump 1: Frame with cylinder (fixed)
mechanism is obtained. 2: Piston
A crank and slotted lever mechanism as 3: Connecting rod
used in slotting machine tools or oscillating 4: Crank
cylinder mechanism results as an inversion (1-2) sliding pair and rest are turning pairs
when link 3 is fixed.
The DOF for planer mechanisms can be found using Grubler’s equation
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻
N is total number of links i.e. sum of binary, ternary… links
L is the number of joints as lower pair (surface contact or sliding between the links)
Note: If more than two links are connected at any joint, then one additional lower pair is to be added for
every additional link
H is the number of joints as higher pair (line or point contact and partly turning/sliding)
62
For example, for the mechanisms shown here, the DOFs are found as follows:
3 4
2 5
2 3 4
5
1 6
1
The floor is considered as single link (1) Total number of links N = 6
Total number of links N = 5 All the joints are lower pairs. L = 7, H = 0
All the joints are lower pairs. L = 5, H = 0 No. of binary links = 4, ternary links = 2
All the links are binary links. 𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3(6-1) - 2(7) - 0 = 1
= 3(5-1) - 2(5) - 0 = 2 (GATE)
Example 1. The number of degrees of freedom of a planar linkage with 8 links and 9 simple
revolute joints is____. (GATE)
(a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4
Sol: (c)
Here, N = 8, L = 9
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3(8 − 1) − 2 × 8 = 3
Example 2. The number of degrees of freedom in a planar mechanism having n links and j simple hinge joints is
____. (GATE)
(A) 3 𝑛 − 3 − 2𝑗 (B) 3 𝑛 − 1 − 2𝑗 (C) 3𝑛 − 2𝑗 (D) 2𝑗 − 3𝑛 + 4
Sol: (A)
As per Grubler’s equation 𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3 𝑛 − 3 − 2𝑗 (absence of higher pair)
Example 3. Match the items in columns I and II (GATE)
Column I Column II
(P) Higher kinematic pair (1) Grubler’s equation

(Q) Lower kinematic pair (2) Line contact
(R) Quick return mechanism (3) Euler’s equation
(S) Mobility of a linkage (4) Planer
(5) Shaper
(6) Surface contact
(A) P - 2 Q - 6 R - 4 S - 3
(B) P - 6 Q - 2 R - 4 S - 1
(C) P - 6 Q - 2 R - 5 S - 3
(D) P - 2 Q - 6 R - 5 S - 1
Sol: (D)
Example 4. A double – parallelogram mechanism is shown in the figure. Note that PQ is a single link. The
mobility of the mechanism is____. (GATE)
Sol: P 4 Q
As PQ is a single link, hence link 3 is redundant and can
be removed. 2 5
3
Total number of links N = 4 1
Number of lower pairs L = 4 and H = 0
𝐷𝑂𝐹 = 3(𝑁 − 1) − 2𝐿 − 𝐻 = 3(4 − 1) − 2 × 4 = 1
DOF is 1 means single mobility for the mechanism. 1
Example 5. Figure shows a quick return mechanism. The crank OA rotates clockwise uniformly.
OA = 2 cm
OO’ = 4 cm
The ratio of time for forward motion to that for return motion is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
A
At the extreme positions, crank is perpendicular
to the arm. From the right angled triangle OCO’, O
𝑂𝐶 2 O
Cos(θ/2) = , = or θ/2 = 600, θ = 1200
𝑂𝑂 4
Ratio of time for forward motion to return motion D θ C
(360−120) 2
= =
120 1
O’ O’ 63
Example 6. Consider the triangle formed by the connecting rod and the crank of an IC engine as the two sides
of the triangle. If the maximum area of this triangle occurs when the crank angle is 75°, the ratio of connecting
rod length to crank radius is____. (GATE)
(A) 5 (B) 4 (C) 3.73 (D) 3
Sol: (C) Crank
Connecting rod
Area of the triangle is maximum when crank
is normal to connecting rod as shown. 750
𝐶𝑅
tan 750 = = 3.73
𝐶𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘
3.2 Gears and gear trains

Gear terminology
Addendum - It is the radial distance between
addendum circle and pitch circle. pc
Dedendum - It is the radial distance between Addendum circle
pitch circle and root circle. Pitch circle
Pitch – It is the term used to denote the relation
between pitch circle diameter (PCD) and
R
number of teeth on a gear. It is expressed in the Ra Rd Root/Base circle
following ways:
 Circular pitch (pc) – It is the distance from a
point on one tooth to the corresponding
point on next tooth, the distance being
measured along the pitch circle.
𝜋𝐷
𝑝𝑐 = , D is the PCD and T is the no. of teeth
𝑇
𝐷
 Module pitch (m or pm) – It is the ratio of PCD to the number of teeth on a gear. 𝑚 =
𝑇
1 𝑇
 Diametral pitch (pd) – It is the reciprocal of module pitch. 𝑝𝑑 = =
𝑚 𝐷
1
Note: 𝑝𝑐 = 𝜋𝑚 = 𝜋. or 𝑝𝑐 . 𝑝𝑑 = 𝜋
𝑝𝑑
Velocity ratio in gear drives is expressed as follows:
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑁 𝑅
VR= = 𝑃= 𝐺
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑁𝐺 𝑅𝑃
Pressure angle (ψ) is defined as the angle made by the normal to the tooth profile with the tangent to the pitch
circle. For purpose of interchangeability the value of ψ is standardized like 14.5 0, 200 and 250. The fundamental
law of gearing is satisfied by two curves for tooth profiles namely
 Cycloid and
 Involute
Most of the gear tooth profiles are involute because it is convenient for manufacturing and operation. However
it has a drawback of ‘interference’ phenomenon for which involute teeth are undercut near the root. Interference
does not occur in cycloid tooth gears. Involute teeth have line contact and high contact stress compared to
cycloid teeth having surface contact and low contact stress. Involute tooth profile consists of single curve and
hence easy to manufacture whereas cycloid consists of two curves; hypo-cycloid and epi-cycloid, hence difficult
to manufacture. The pressure angle remains constant for involute profile leading to steady load and smooth
operation. For cycloid gears pressure angle varies from 0 to ψ causing dynamic loading.
Gear trains are of the following types:
 Simple gear train
 Compound gear train
 Reverted gear train
 Epicyclic gear train
64
D Driving shaft A
A B C
B
Compound
wheel
C
Input shaft Output shaft Driven shaft D

Simple gear train
Compound gear train

D A
Input shaft Output shaft
A
B
Fixed
Compound wheel Arm
B C
Reverted gear train Epicyclic gear train
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐵 𝑁𝐵 𝑇𝐶 𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐷
In simple gear train, = , = , =
𝑁𝐵 𝑇 𝐴 𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐵 𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐷 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑟 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
Hence, = = = V. R
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐴 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑓 𝑑𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑠ℎ𝑎𝑓𝑡
𝑁𝐴 𝑇 𝐵 𝑁𝐶 𝑇𝐷
In compound gear train, = , = but 𝑁𝐵 = 𝑁𝐶 (compound wheel)
𝑁𝐵 𝑇 𝐴 𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐶
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐵 𝑇𝐷
Hence, = . = V.R
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐶
𝑁𝐴 𝑇𝐵 𝑇𝐷
In reverted gear train, = . = V.R, input and output shafts are co-axial.
𝑁𝐷 𝑇𝐴 𝑇𝐶
Example 1. Find the number of revolutions made by arm E when A makes +1 revolution and D makes - ½
revolution. TA= 40 and TD = 90.
Sol:
90 40
TB = TC = − = 25, B D
2 2
Taking clockwise rotation as +ve (sign convention)
Condition of Arm E Sun wheel Pinion Internal E
motion A B/C wheel D
A
Arm stationary,
0 -x.(25/40) +x +x.(25/50)
B makes +x rpm
Arm makes +y rpm +y +y +y +y
Total +y y-x.(25/40) x + y y + x.(25/50) C
Given that, y - x.(25/40) = 1 and y + x.(25/50) = - ½
On solving y = revolution of arm = - (1/26) rev.
Example 2. The arm OA of an epicyclic gear train shown in figure revolves counter clockwise about O with an
angular velocity of 4 rad/sec. Both gears are of same size. The angular velocity of gear C, if the sun gear B is
fixed, is _____. (GATE)
(a) 4 rad/sec (b) 8 rad/sec (c) 10 rad/sec (d) 12 rad/sec
Sol: (a) C
Taking clockwise rotation as +ve (sign convention) B O A
Condition of motion Arm OA Sun wheel B
Arm stationary, 0 -x (TB/TC) = -x
C makes +x rpm (as TB = TC)
Arm makes +y rpm +y +y
Total +y y- x
Given that, y = -4 rad/s and y – x = 0 or x = -4 rad/s
Wheel C rotates counter clockwise at 4 rad/s.
Example 3. Figure shows a planetary gear train. Gears 2, 4 and 5 have 24, 40 and 144 teeth respectively. Gear 5
is fixed. Gear 2 is rotating clockwise at 700 rpm. What will be the rpm of the arm and gear 4? (GATE)
65
Sol:
Condition of Arm 3 Wheel 4 Sun Internal
motion wheel 2 wheel 5
Arm 3 stationary,
0 +x -x(40/24) +x.(40/144)
Wheel 4 makes +x rpm
Total +y x+y y-5x/3 y + 5x/18
Given that, y + 5x/18 = 0 (gear 5 is fixed)
y-5x/3 = 700 (gear 2 speed is 700 rpm)
Solving these two equations x =-360 and y = 100
Arm rotates at 100 rpm (cw) and gear 4 at 360 rpm (ccw)
Example 4. A planetary gear train is shown. Internal gear (1) has 104 teeth and is held fixed and planet gear (2)
has 96 teeth. How much does the planet gear rotate for sixty revolutions of the planet carrier (3) in clockwise
direction? (GATE)
Sol:
Taking clockwise rotation as +ve (sign convention) 1
Condition of motion Arm 3 Gear 2 Internal gear 1
Arm 3 stationary, 2
0 +x +x (96/104) 3
Wheel 2 makes +x rpm
Arm makes +y rpm +y +y +y
Total +y x + y x (96/104) + y
Given that, x(96/104) + y = 0 (gear 1 is fixed)
y = +60 (speed of planet carrier 3 is 60 rev.)
Solving these two equations x =-65
Gear 2 rotates at x + y or -65+60 = -5 rev. (ccw)
Example 5. The sun gear in the figure is driven clockwise at 100 rpm. The ring gear is held stationary. For the
number of teeth shown on the gears, the arm rotates at____. (GATE)
Sol:
Taking clockwise rotation as +ve (sign convention) Ring (80T)
Condition of motion Arm Planet Sun Ring
Arm stationary, Planet (30T)
0 +x -x (30/20) +x (30/80)
Planet makes +x rpm
Total +y x + y y-(3x/2) (3x/8) +y
Given that, (3x/8) +y = 0 (ring is fixed) and y - (3x/2) = 100 Sun (20T)
Solving these two equations, x =-53.33 and y = 20
Arm rotates at 20 rpm (cw)
Example 6. A compound gear train with gears P, Q, R and S has number of teeth 20, 40, 15 and 20 respectively.
Gears Q and R are mounted on the same shaft as shown. The diameter of the gear Q is twice that of the gear R.
If the module of the gear R is 2 mm, the center distance in mm between gears P and S is _____. (GATE)
(a) 40 (b) 80 (c) 120 (d) 160
Q
Sol: (b)
𝐷
Module of gear R = 𝑅 = 2 or 𝐷𝑅 = 2𝑇𝑅 = 30 mm P
𝑇𝑅
S
Hence, 𝐷𝑄 = 2×30 = 60 mm
𝐷𝑃 𝐷𝑄 60
Module of gear Q = Module of gear P = = = = 1.5 mm R
𝑇𝑃 𝑇𝑄 40
𝐷𝑃 = 1.5 × 20 = 30 mm
Module of S = Module of R = 2 mm, hence 𝐷𝑆 = 2×20 = 40 mm
𝐷 𝐷 𝐷 𝐷
Distance between centers of gears P and S = 𝑃 + 𝑄 + 𝑅 + 𝑆
2 2 2 2
= 15 + 30 + 15 + 20 = 80 mm
Example 7. An epicyclic gear train is shown in the figure. The sun gear 2 on the input shaft is a 20 teeth
external gear. The planet gear 3 is a 40 teeth external gear. The ring gear 5 is a 100 teeth internal gear. The ring
gear 5 is fixed and the gear 2 is rotating at 60 rpm counter-clockwise (ccw). The arm 4 attached to the output
shaft will rotate at_____. (GATE)
(a) 10 rpm ccw (b) 10 rpm cw (c) 12 rpm cw (d) 12 rpm ccw
66
Sol: (a)
3
Planet Sun gear
Condition of motion Arm Ring gear 5 4
Gear 3 2
Arm 4 at rest,
0 +x -x (40/20) +x (40/100) 5
Planet gear 3 makes +x rpm 2
Total +y x + y y-2x 0.4x+y
Given that, 0.4x+y = 0 (ring gear fixed)
y-2x = -60 (gear 2 rotating at 60 rpm ccw)
On solving these two equations, x = 25 and y = -10
Arm rotates at 10 rpm (ccw)
Example 8. Gear 2 rotates at 1200 rpm in counter clockwise direction and engages with Gear 3. Gear 3 and
Gear 4 are mounted on the same shaft. Gear 5 engages with Gear 4. The numbers of teeth on Gears 2, 3, 4 and 5
are 20, 40, 15 and 30 respectively. The angular speed of Gear 5 is_____. (GATE)
(a) 300 rpm ccw (b) 300 rpm cw (c) 4800 rpm ccw (d) 4800 rpm cw
20T 2
Sol: (a)
Speed of gear 3 = speed of gear 2 × (20/40) = 1200×0.5 = 600 (cw) 3
But gears 3 and 4 are on the same shaft hence, N4 = N3 = 600 (cw) 5
4
Speed of gear 5 = Speed of gear 4 × (15/30) = 600×0.5= 300 (ccw)
15T
40T 30T
Example 9. A planetary gear train has four gears and one carrier. Angular velocities of the gears are ω 1, ω2, ω3
and ω4 respectively. The carrier rotates with angular velocity ω 5. What is the relation between the angular
velocities of Gear 1 and Gear 4?
For ω1 = 60 rpm clockwise (cw) when looked from the left, what is the angular velocity of the carrier and
its direction so that Gear 4 rotates in counterclockwise (ccw) direction at twice the angular velocity of Gear 1
when looked from the left. (GATE)
Sol: Gear 2
Condition of motion Carrier Gear 1 Gear 2 Gear 4 45T Gear 3
Carrier at rest, +ω1 (15/45). 20T
0 +ω1 -ω1 (15/45)
Gear 1 makes +ω1 rpm (20/40)
Carrier makes +ω5 rpm +ω5 +ω5 +ω5 +ω5
Total +ω5 ω1 + ω5 ω5 – (1/3)ω1 (1/6) ω1+ ω5 Carrier Gear 4
Relation between the angular velocities of Gear 1 and Gear 4 is Gear 1 40T
ω4 = (1/6) ω1+ ω5 15T
When ω1 = 60 rpm and ω4 = -120 rpm
ω5= -120 – (1/6).60 = -130 rpm (ccw)
Example 10. In the gear train shown, gear 3 is carried on arm 5. Gear 3 meshes with gear 2 and gear 4. The
number of teeth on gear 2, 3, and 4 are 60, 20, and 100, respectively. If gear 2 is fixed and gear 4 rotates with an
angular velocity of 100 rpm in the counterclockwise direction, the angular speed of arm 5 (in rpm) is_____.
(GATE)
(a) 166.7 rpm counterclockwise (b) 166.7 rpm clockwise
(c) 62.5 rpm counterclockwise (d) 62.5 rpm clockwise
Sol: (c)
Condition of motion Arm Planet Sun Gear 2 Internal gear 4
Gear 3
Arm 5 at rest,
0 +x -x (20/60) +x (20/100)
Planet gear 3 makes +x rpm
Total +y x+y y-(1/3)x 0.2x+y
Given that, y-(1/3)x = 0 (gear 2 is fixed) and 0.2x+y = -100
On solving, x = -187.5 and y = -62.5
Angular speed of the arm = 62.5 rpm (ccw)
Example 11. In an epicyclic gear train, shown in the figure, the outer ring gear is fixed, while the sun gear
rotates counterclockwise at 100 rpm. Let the number of teeth on the sun, planet and outer gears to be 50, 25 and
67
100 respectively. The ratio of magnitudes of angular velocity of the planet gear to the angular velocity of the
carrier arm is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Taking clockwise rotation as +ve (sign convention) 100T
Condition of motion Carrier Planet Sun Gear Outer gear Planet
Carrier at rest,
0 +x -x (25/50) +x (25/100)
Planet gear makes +x rpm
Carrier makes +y rpm +y +y +y +y 25T
Total +y x + y y-x/2 0.25x+y
Given that, 0.25x+y = 0 (outer ring fixed) and y-x/2 = -100 50T
On solving, x =133.33 and y = -33.33 Sun gear
Ratio of angular velocity of planet gear to that of carrier arm
𝑥+𝑦 133.33−33.33
is = = −3 or 3 Outer gear
𝑦 −33.33
Example 12. A gear train shown in the figure consists of gears P, Q, R and S. Gear Q and gear R are mounted
on the same shaft. All the gears are mounted on parallel shafts and the number of teeth of P, Q, R and S are 24,
45, 30 and 80 respectively. Gear P is rotating at 400 rpm. The speed (in rpm) of gear S is ______. (GATE)
Sol: S
24 24 Q
Speed of gear Q = Speed of gear P × = 400 × P
45 45
45 R
Speed of gear S = Speed of gear Q ×
80
24 45
=400 × × = 120 rpm
45 80
Note: Gear R is not contributing to the velocity ratio.
3.3 Flywheels
Flywheels are provided in in certain machines to for temporary storage of kinetic energy. A FW is used in the
following cases:
 Machine requires energy at constant rate but prime mover supplies energy at a variable rate. For example,
automobiles, generators driven by IC engines etc.
 Machine requires energy at a variable rate but driving motor supplies energy at a constant rate. For
example, punching machine, riveting machine etc.
During every cycle, FW has to alternatively store and release KE. Hence its speed fluctuates between two
extreme values.
If ∆E is maximum fluctuation of energy or energy stored during every cycle in N.m (or J)
1 1 1
∆𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔22 − 𝐼𝜔12 = 𝐼(𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔2 + 𝜔1 ) = 𝐼(𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔)
2 2 2
(𝜔 −𝜔 )
= 𝐼𝜔2 [ 2 1 ] = 𝐼𝜔2 𝑘𝑠
𝜔
Where I=mk2 is the mass moment of inertia of the FW in kg.m2
(𝜔2 +𝜔1 )
Mean speed of FW is 𝜔 = and
2
(𝜔2 −𝜔1 )
𝑘𝑠 = (Coefficient of fluctuation of speed)
2
𝑘𝑠 = 0.2 means total speed fluctuation is 20% or cyclical speed fluctuation is ±10%
Case (i) Flywheel for machines driven by IC engine A

Tmax T- θ diagram
A 4S IC engine has three idle strokes and one power (Power stroke)
stroke during every cycle or two revolutions of shaft. The
function of FW is to store the surplus energy during
power stroke and distribute it uniformly during entire ∆𝐸
cycle. Energy is the area under torque (T) verses angle of
D E
rotation (θ) diagram. For simplification, energy during
power stroke is represented as a triangle ABC with base π Tmean
radians.
θ
Area of triangle ABC = ½.π. Tmax B π
2𝜋𝑁𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 C
Power actually obtained from the IC engine =
60
Triangles ABC and ADE are similar, hence
∆𝐸 (𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )2 𝑀𝑎𝑥. 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦
= =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝐴𝐵𝐶 𝑇𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 𝐸𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑑𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑘𝑒
68
Case (ii) Flywheel for punching and riveting machines
In a punching or riveting machine, the actual operation

consumes only a small part of the entire cycle time. The Crank S/2
driving motor supplies energy at a constant rate. A FW
is used to absorb the energy supplied during idle time
and to release during actual punching or riveting
process. If a FW is not used then a motor of very high
power is required to perform the same operation.
Cutting force to punch one hole (F), Punch Sheet
𝐹 = 𝜏𝑢𝑠 (𝜋𝑑𝑡), 𝜏𝑢𝑠 is ultimate shear stress of sheet/plate
material
Work done or energy to punch one hole (E),
𝐸 = (Average force × thickness of sheet) S t
𝐸 = (F/2 × thickness of sheet) = Ft/2 Dia d
𝜏 𝜋𝑑𝑡 2
𝐸 = 𝑢𝑠 Nm
2
If S is the stroke length of the punch then one complete
cycle corresponds to one revolution of the crank or
distance 2S travelled by the punch.
As actual punching is taking place for length t (thickness of plate), energy supplied during
𝐸
actual punching is . 𝑡
2𝑆
𝐸
Maximum fluctuation of energy or energy stored during every cycle (∆𝐸) = 𝐸 − .𝑡
2𝑆
𝑡
∆𝐸 = 𝐸(1 − )
2𝑆
Using this ∆𝐸 the FW can be designed.
Example 1. A machine punching 40mm diameter holes in 30mm thick plate requires 7 Nm of energy per sq.
mm of shear area. The punch has a stroke 100mm and it takes 10 sec to complete one cycle. The mean speed of
flywheel is 25 m/sec and the fluctuation of speed should not exceed 3% of mean speed. Assuming that the motor
supplies energy to the machine at a uniform rate, determine the power of the motor and the mass of the flywheel
required. (GATE)
Sol:
Shear area of a punched hole = 𝜋𝑑𝑡 mm2
Energy required to punch a hole E = 7 (Nm/mm2)×𝜋𝑑𝑡 = 7×𝜋 × 40 × 30 = 26389.4 Nm
26389.4
This much of energy is supplied by the motor in one cycle or 10 sec, hence power of the motor is 𝑊=
10
2.64 kW
𝑡 30
Max. fluctuation of energy ∆𝐸 = 𝐸(1 − ) =26389.4 (1 − ) = 22430.99 Nm
2𝑆 2×100
𝑉 22430.99
∆𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 𝑘𝑠 = 𝑚𝑟 2 ( 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛)2 𝑘𝑠 = 𝑚(𝑉𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛 )2 𝑘𝑠 or 𝑚 = 2 = 1196.31kg
𝑟 25 ×0.03
2
Example 2. A flywheel of moment of inertia 9.8 kgm fluctuates by 30 rpm for a fluctuation
in energy of 1936 Joules. The mean speed of the flywheel is_____ (rpm). (GATE)
(a) 600 (b) 900 (c) 968 (d) 2940
Sol: (a)
2𝜋×30
N2 - N1=30 rpm or 𝜔2 − 𝜔1 = = 𝜋 rad
60
∆𝐸 1936
∆𝐸 = 𝐼(𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔) or 𝜔 = = = 62.88 rad/s
𝐼(𝜔2 −𝜔1 ) 9.8×𝜋
60×62.88
Mean speed Nmean= = 600 rpm
2𝜋
Example 3. For a certain engine having an average speed of 1200 rpm, a flywheel approximated as a solid disc,
is required for keeping the fluctuation of speed within 2% about the average speed. The fluctuation of kinetic
energy per cycle is found to be 2kJ. What is the least possible mass of the flywheel if its diameter is not to
exceed 1 m? (GATE)
(a) 40 kg (b) 51 kg (c) 62 kg (d) 73 kg
Sol: (b)
2𝜋×1200
𝑘𝑠 = 0.02, Nmean=1200 rpm, 𝜔 = = 125.66 rad/s
60
2
Fluctuation of energy ∆𝐸 = 2 kJ = 𝐼𝜔 𝑘𝑠
2×103
𝐼= = 6.33 kg.m2
125.662 ×0.02
69
2×6.33
For a disc I = ½ mr2, m = = 50.66 kg
0.52
Example 4. Maximum fluctuation of kinetic energy in an engine has been calculated to be 2600 J. Assuming
that the engine runs at an average speed of 200 rpm, the polar mass moment of inertia (in kg.m 2) of a flywheel
to keep the speed fluctuation within ±0.5% of the average speed is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
∆𝐸 = 2600 J = 𝐼𝜔2 𝑘𝑠 , 𝑘𝑠 = ±0.5% = 1 % of the average speed
2𝜋×200 2600
𝜔= = 20.94 rad/s, 𝐼 = = 592.95 kg.m2
60 20.94 2 ×0.01
Example 5. Consider a flywheel whose mass M is distributed almost equally between a heavy, ring-like rim of
radius R and a concentric disk-like feature of radius R/2. Other parts of the flywheel, such as spokes, etc. have
negligible mass. The best approximation for α, if the moment of inertia of the flywheel about its axis of rotation
is expressed as αMR2, is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
For the ring-like rim, moment of inertia = (M/2)R2
For the disc-like part, moment of inertia = ½ (M/2) (R/2)2=MR2/16
MI of the flywheel = MR2/2+ MR2/16 = 9/16 (MR2) = αMR2 or α = 9/16
Example 6. Torque and angular speed data over one cycle for a shaft carrying a flywheel are shown in the
figures. The moment of inertia (in kg.m2) of the flywheel is _____. (GATE)
Angular speed
20 rad/s
10 rad/s
θ
0 π/2 π 2π
Sol:
Since energy is the area under torque (T) verses angle of rotation (θ) diagram, the maximum
fluctuation of energy ∆𝐸 = 3000 (π-π/2) – 1500 (2π-π) = 0
Example 7. A punch press is fitted with a FW having radius of gyration of 0.5m, runs at 260 rev/min. The press
is capable of punching 600 holes per hour. Each punching operation takes 1.5 sec and requires a work of 10000
Nm. The rating of the electric motor is 2 kW. Determine the mass of the FW, if the speed of the FW should not
drop below 240 rev/min. (GATE)
Sol:
For punching of 600 holes per hour or 10 holes per min, one hole takes 6 sec to complete. Hence, 2S = 6 s and
actual punching time t =1.5 s (given)
𝑡 1.5
Using ∆𝐸 = 𝐸 (1 − ) = 10000 (1 − ) = 7500 Nm
2𝑆 6
2 2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋
∆𝐸 = 𝐼𝜔2 𝑘𝑠 = 𝐼(𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )(𝜔) = 𝑚𝑘 . [ (𝑁2 − 𝑁1 )]
60 60
2𝜋×60 2𝜋
7500 = 𝑚(0.5)2 [ ] [ (280 − 240)]
60 60
m = 263 kg
3.4 Free and forced vibration of single degree of freedom systems

Vibrations can be classified as
a) Free or natural vibration
b) Damped vibration
c) Forced vibration
d) Self-excited vibration
Free or natural vibration: If a body is disturbed from its equilibrium position and thereafter vibrates of its own
accord without any disturbance from any external agency then it is under free or natural vibration. Vibration of a
tuning fork, a mass suspended from a spring, a simple pendulum etc. are examples.
The number of vibrations per second is known as natural frequency of vibration and expressed in Hertz, cycles/s
or vibration per second units. When the frequency of any external agency coincide with the natural frequency of
the system, resonance occurs.
70
Damped vibration: When a ‘dashpot’ is used to reduce

the amplitude of a vibrating system, the resulting Viscous
vibration is known as damped vibration. Fluid
Shock absorbers in automobiles, pointers in dial K
Dashpot
indicators etc. are examples of damped vibration.
Forced vibration: If a periodic force continuously acts
on a system, the resulting vibration is known as forced
vibration.
Degree of freedom refers to number of translational and rotational motions possible by a vibrating system. The
system shown in the figure for damped vibration is a single degree of freedom system as it can only oscillate in
a vertical axis due to the guide provided for the mass.
Natural vibration is further divided into
a) Longitudinal vibration
b) Transverse vibration
c) Torsional vibration
In (a), particle vibrates in a direction
parallel to the axis of shaft. In (b), Transverse
particle vibrates perpendicular to the
shaft axis and in (c) particle vibrates
along arcs whose center lies on shaft Longitudinal Torsional
axis.
Calculation of natural frequency:

(For longitudinal and transverse vibrations)
Method 1:
At a time of t sec, let the displacement be y and corresponding K
acceleration be f. Hence accelerating force at y is mf. Spring
force is the resisting force is Ky. Equating these two forces, a
𝑓 𝐾 y
= = a constant (as K and m are constants) a
𝑦 𝑚
As the ratio of displacement and acceleration is a constant, m
𝑓
m
hence the motion is in SHM. Therefore, = 𝜔2 (for SHM, 𝜔 is K
𝑦 a
mathematical constant related to time period) y
a
𝐾 𝐾𝑔 𝑔 𝑚𝑔
∴𝜔=√ =√ =√ where 𝛿 = static deflection due to
𝑚 𝑚𝑔 𝛿 𝐾
weight mg.
𝜔 1 𝐾 1 𝑔
Frequency of vibration 𝑓𝑛 = = √ = √𝛿 Hz, c/s, VPS
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋
Method 2: (Using differential equation)
𝑑2𝑦
Accelerating force = 𝑚. and spring force = Ky
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝐾 𝑑2 𝑦
The DE for the vibrating mass is 𝑚. 2 + 𝐾𝑦 = 0 or 2 + ( )𝑦 = 0 or + 𝜔2 𝑦 = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 2
The solution to this DE is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
Constants A and B can be found from known boundary conditions.
𝑑𝑦
Velocity 𝑣 = = −𝐴𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 + 𝐵𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡,
𝑑𝑡
When time is measured from the extreme positions, 𝑣 = 0 for t = 0
0 = −𝐴𝜔𝑠𝑖𝑛0 + 𝐵𝜔𝑐𝑜𝑠0 or 𝐵𝜔 = 0 or B = 0 since 𝜔 ≠ 0
𝐾
As B = 0 hence A≠ 0 or 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 = 𝐴𝑐𝑜𝑠√ 𝑡 (Equation of SHM)
𝑚
𝜔 1 𝐾 1 𝑔
Frequency of vibration 𝑓𝑛 = = √ = √𝛿 Hz, c/s, VPS
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋
𝑃𝑙
Note: (i) For longitudinal vibration, 𝛿 is the elongation under load =
𝐴𝐸
(ii) For transverse vibration, 𝛿 is the deflection under load obtained using deflection formula
(iii) When a shaft carries several loads, natural frequency of transverse vibration is given by Dunkerley’s
formula as
71
4.985
𝑓𝑛 =
𝛿
√𝛿1 +𝛿2 +⋯+ 𝑠
1.27
𝛿1 , 𝛿2 are deflections due to loads F1, F2 etc. when acting alone
𝛿𝑠 deflection due any uniformly distributed load (UDL) alone
Example 1. A mass of 1 kg is suspended by means of 3 springs as shown. The spring constants K1, K2 and K3
are respectively 1 kN/m, 3 kN/m and 2 kN/m. The natural frequency of the system is approximately
(a) 46.90 Hz (b) 52.44 Hz (c) 60.55 Hz (d) 77.46 Hz (GATE)
Sol: (b)
Equivalent stiffness of the system is the result of parallel connection
between K3 and the resultant of series connection between K1 and
K 2.
𝐾 𝐾 3
Series connection of K1 and K2 gives a resultant of 1 2 = kN/m
𝐾1 +𝐾2 4
3 3 11
Parallel connection between K3 and kN/m gives 2 + = kN/m
4 4 4
1 𝐾 1 11000 1
Frequency of vibration = √ = √ = (52.44) Hz
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 4×1 2𝜋
Example 2. As shown in the figure, a mass of 100 kg is held between two springs. The natural frequency of
vibration of the system, in cycles/s, is_____. (GATE)
1 5 10 20
(a) (b) (c) (d)
2𝜋 2𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Sol: (c) 20 kN/m
The two springs are in parallel and hence the equivalent stiffness is 20 +
20 = 40 kN/m 100 kg
1 𝐾 1 40000 10
Natural frequency of vibration is √ = √ = cps 20 kN/m
2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 100 𝜋
Example 3. The static deflection of a spring under gravity, when a mass of 1 kg is suspended from it, is 1 mm.
Assume the acceleration due to gravity g =10 m/s2. The natural frequency of this spring-mass system (in rad/s)
is______. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑔 𝑚𝑔
𝜔 = √ where 𝛿 = , static deflection due to weight mg.
𝛿 𝐾
10
𝜔=√ = 100 rad/s
0.001
Example 4. The system shown in the figure consists of block A of mass 5 kg connected to a spring through a
massless rope passing over pulley B of radius r and mass 20 kg. The spring constant k is 1500 N/m. If there is
no slipping of the rope over the pulley, the natural frequency of the system is____ rad/s. (GATE)
Sol:
r
KE (translational) + KE (rotational) = Energy stored in spring B
1 2 1 2 1 2
𝑚𝑣 + 𝐼𝜔 = 𝑘𝑥
2 2 2
I = ½ Mr2 = ½ .20. r2 = 10r2
1 1 1 1 𝑣2 1 1
𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝐼𝜔2 = (5)𝑣 2 + (10𝑟 2 ) 2 = (15)𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝑣 2 k
2 2 2 2 𝑟 2 2 A
Equivalent mass 𝑚𝑒𝑞 = 15 kg
𝐾 1500
Natural frequency of vibration is √ =√ = 10 rad/s
𝑚𝑒𝑞 15
Example 5. Considering massless rigid rod and small oscillations, the natural frequency (in rad/s) of vibration
of the system shown in the figure is_____. (GATE)
Sol:
Taking moment about the hinge,
mg (2r) = Fs (r) or Force in spring Fs = 2mg
𝐹 2𝑚𝑔
Deflection in spring = 𝑠 =
𝑘 400
Deflection under the load of 1 kg is twice
that of deflection in spring (similar
triangles).
4𝑚𝑔
Deflection under the load δ =
400
72
𝑔 𝑔×400 400
Natural frequency ωn =√ = √ =√ = 10 rad/s
𝛿 4𝑚𝑔 4
Example 6. Figure shows a single degree of freedom system. The system consists of a massless rigid bar OP
hinged at O and a mass m at end P. The natural frequency of vibration of the system is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
If the force in the spring is Fs, then taking moment about
hinge mg (2a) = Fs (a) or Fs = 2mg k P
2𝑚𝑔 O m
Deflection in spring =
𝑘
2𝑚𝑔 4𝑚𝑔 Q
Deflection under the mass = 2× = a a
𝑘 𝑘
𝑔 𝑔𝑘
Natural frequency of vibration ωn =√ =√ rad/s
𝛿 4𝑚𝑔
3.5 Effect of damping

To reduce the amplitude of vibration, a dashpot is used (Figure in §3.9) in damped vibration.
Let,
f is the damping coefficient/constant or resistance of dashpot at unit velocity (N/cm/s)
It is assumed that damping is linear or damping force is directly proportional to velocity
𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦
At a time t, displacement be y and velocity is , acceleration is
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑦
Accelerating force = m.
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑𝑦
Damping force = Damping coefficient × velocity = f.
𝑑𝑡
Spring force = Ky
The differential equation for motion of the vibrating mass is based on
Accelerating force + damping force + spring force = 0
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2𝑦 𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝐾
m. + 𝑓. +Ky = 0 or + ( ). + ( ).y = 0
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑓 𝐾
+𝑎 + 𝑏y = 0 where a =( ) sec-1 and b =( ) sec-2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑎 𝑎2
The solution of this DE is 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 −2𝑡 cos (√𝑏 − ) 𝑡 is in the form of 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑓(𝑡)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 which represents an
4
SHM with variable amplitude.
𝑎2
𝜔𝑑 = √𝑏 − (Circular frequency of damped vibration)
4
𝜔𝑑 1 𝑎2
Frequency of damped vibration 𝑓𝑑 = = √𝑏 − Hz
2𝜋 2𝜋 4
𝑎2
Note: (i) If = 𝑏 then 𝑓𝑑 = 0 or system brought to rest instantaneously (critical damping)
4
𝑎2 𝑎2
(ii) > 𝑏 then √𝑏 − becomes imaginary (over damped)
4 4
𝑎2
(iii) < 𝑏 is the practically applicable case (under damped)
4
2𝜋 2𝜋
(iv) Time period in damped vibration is tp = = 2
sec
𝜔𝑑
√𝑏−𝑎
4
𝑓
(v) Damping factor or damping ratio (ξ) of a system with damping coefficient of 𝑓 is where 𝑓1 the damping
𝑓1
coefficient of a critically damped system.
Hence, DF ξ > 1 (over damped), DF ξ < 1 (under damped) and DF ξ = 1 (critically damped)
(vi) The ratio of successive amplitudes in damped y1 y2
vibration is found as follows: y3
y4
𝑎 𝑎2
Substituting t = 0 in 𝑦 = 𝐴𝑒 − 2𝑡 cos (√𝑏 − ) 𝑡, y1= A
4 t
𝑎 𝑎
− 𝑡𝑝 − (2𝑡𝑝 )
When t = tp, y2 = 𝐴𝑒 2 and t = 2tp, y3 = 𝐴𝑒 2 so on
𝑎
− (𝑛𝑡𝑝 ) tp
like yn+1 = 𝐴𝑒 2 . Hence ratio of successive amplitudes, tp tp
𝑎
𝑦1 𝐴 𝑡 𝑦2 𝑦𝑛
= 𝑎 =𝑒 2 𝑝 = = (Amplitudes are in GP)
𝑦2 − 𝑡
𝐴𝑒 2 𝑝 𝑦3 𝑦𝑛+1
(vii) Logarithmic decrement is the natural logarithm of the ratio of any two successive amplitudes. It is a
measure of damping force present in the system.
73
𝑦1 𝑎
𝑙𝑛 = 𝑡𝑝
𝑦2 2
(viii) Effect of damping on forced vibration
If an external periodic force 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 is applied on the vibrating spring-mass damping system, then the
differential equation of the vibrating mass is
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑2 𝑦 𝑓 𝑑𝑦 𝐾 𝐹
m. + 𝑓. +Ky = 𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 or +( ) + ( )y =( )𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 2 𝑚 𝑑𝑡 𝑚 𝑚
𝑓 𝐾 𝐹
Let ( ) = 𝑎, ( ) = 𝜔2 = 𝑏 and ( ) = 𝑐
𝑚 𝑚 𝑚
𝑐 𝑐
Amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = =
√𝑎2 𝜔2 +(𝑏−𝜔2 )2 2 −𝜔2 )2
√𝑎2 𝜔2 +(𝜔𝑛
𝐹
𝐹
Also amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = 𝐾
=
2 √(𝐾−𝑚𝜔2 )2 +(𝑓𝜔)2
𝜔 2 2𝜉𝜔 2
√[1−( ) ] +( )
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝑐 𝐹
At resonance 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 or 𝐴 = 𝑜𝑟 𝐴 = (with a dashpot), 𝐴 = ∞ (without dashpot)
𝑎𝜔𝑛 2𝐾𝜉
(ix) Torsional vibration
1 𝑞 1 𝐶𝐽
Natural frequency of torsional vibration 𝑓𝑛 = √ 𝐼 = 2𝜋 √ 𝐼𝐿
2𝜋
𝑞
Circular frequency 𝜔𝑛 = rad/s dϕ
𝐼
𝐶𝐽 L
Where, q = torsional stiffness of shaft =
𝐿
I = Mass MI of the rotor (kg.m2) Rotor
J = Polar MI of the shaft (m4)
C = Modulus of rigidity
For damped torsional oscillation,
𝑑2𝜃 𝑑𝜃
𝐼. + 𝑇𝑑 . + 𝑞𝜃 = 0 Dashpot
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡
Example 1. The suspension system of a two-wheeler can be equated to a single spring-mass system with a
viscous damper connected in series. Sketch the free body diagram and give the equations of motion. For a mass
m = 50 kg and a spring with a stiffness of 35 kN/m, determine what should be the damping coefficient (damping
constant) for critical damping. What can be the damping force for a plunger velocity of 0.05 m/s? (GATE)
Sol: 𝑥
The differential equation for vibration is 𝑚𝑥̈
𝑑2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
m. 2 + 𝑓. +Ky = 0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 m
m = 50 kg, K = 35 kN/m
For critical damping,
𝑎2 𝑓
= 𝑏 where a =( ) sec-1 and b =( ) sec-2
𝐾 𝑓𝑥̇ 𝐾𝑥
4 𝑚 𝑚
𝐾 35000 𝑓
𝑎2 = 4𝑏 = 4 ( ) = 4 ( ) = 2800, a = 52.91 sec-1= ( )
𝑚 50 𝑚
f (damping coefficient) = 52.91×50 = 2645.75 N-s/m
𝑑𝑦
Damping force = 𝑓. = 𝑓. 𝑣 = 2645.75×0.05 = 132.28 N
𝑑𝑡
Example 2. The natural frequency of an undamped vibrating system is 100 rad/s. A damper with a damping
factor of 0.8 is introduced into the system. The frequency of vibration of the damped system, in rad/s, is _____.
(GATE)
(a) 60 (b) 75 (c) 80 (d) 100
Sol: (a)
Natural frequency of undamped system (ωn) = 100 rad/s
𝑓 𝑎𝑚 𝑎
Damping factor ( ) = 0.8 = ( ) = ( )
𝑓1 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑎1
𝑎12
b = (ωn)2 = (100)2 = (for critically damped) or 𝑎1 = 200 sec-1 or a = 0.8×200 = 160 sec-1
4
𝑎2 1602
𝜔𝑑 (Circular frequency of damped vibration) = √𝑏 − = √1002 − = 60 rad/s
4 4
Example 3. In a spring-mass system, the mass is 0.1 kg and the stiffness of the spring is 1 kN/m. By introducing
a damper, the frequency of oscillation is found to be 90% of the original value. What is the damping coefficient
of the damper? (GATE)
(a) 1.2 N.s/m (b) 3.4 N.s/m (c) 8.7 N.s/m (d) 12.0 N.s/m
Sol: (c)
Mass (m) = 0.1 kg and spring stiffness (K) = 1 kN/m
74
𝐾 1000
𝜔𝑑 = 0.9𝜔𝑛 but 𝜔𝑛 = √ = √ = 100 rad/s or 𝜔𝑑 = 0.9 × 100 = 90 rad/s
𝑚 0.1
𝑎2 𝑎2
𝜔𝑑 = √𝑏 − = √1002 − = 90 or a = 87.17 sec-1
4 4
Damping coefficient f = am = 87.17×0.1 = 8.71 N-s/m
Example 4. A vibratory system consists of a mass 12.5 kg, a spring of stiffness 1000 N/m, and a dashpot with
damping coefficient of 15 Ns/m. The value of critical damping of the system is:
(GATE)
(a) 0.223 Ns/m (b) 17.88 Ns/m (c) 71.4 Ns/m (d) 223.6 Ns/m
Sol: (d)
𝐾 1000
Natural frequency of undamped system (ωn) = √ = √ = 8.94 rad/s
𝑚 12.5
𝑎2
b = (ωn)2 = (8.94)2 = 1 (for critically damped) or 𝑎1 = 17.88 sec-1
4
Critical damping coefficient f1 = a1m = 17.88×12.5 = 223.5 N-s/m
Damping coefficient f =15 Ns/m = am or a = (f/m) = 15/12.5 = 1.2 sec-1

2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑡𝑝 = 2
sec = 2
= 0.7 s
√𝑏−𝑎 √(8.94)2 −1.2
4 4
𝑎 1.2
Logarithmic decrement is 𝑡𝑝 = (0.7) = 0.42
2 2
Example 5. In a spring-mass system, the mass is m and the spring constant is k. The critical damping coefficient
of the system is 0.1 kg/s. In another spring-mass system, the mass is 2m and the spring constant is 8k. The
critical damping coefficient (in kg/s) of this system is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑘 𝑎12 𝑓12
b = (ωn)2 = = = (for critically damped) or 𝑓12 = 4𝑚𝑘 (for the first system)
𝑚 4 4𝑚2
8𝑘 𝑎2 𝑓2
For the second system, b = (ωn)2 = = 2= 2 2
2𝑚 4 4×4𝑚
or 𝑓22 = 64𝑚𝑘 = 16 × 4𝑚𝑘 = 16𝑓12 =16 (0.1)2 = 0.16 or f2 = 0.4 kg/s
Example 6. A single-degree-freedom spring-mass system is subjected to a sinusoidal force of 10 N amplitude
and frequency ω along the axis of the spring. The stiffness of the spring is 150 N/m, damping factor is 0.2 and
the undamped natural frequency is 10ω. At steady state, the amplitude of vibration (in m) is approximately____.
(GATE)
(a) 0.05 (b) 0.07 (c) 0.70 (d) 0.90
Sol: (b)
𝐹 10
Amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = 𝐾
= 150
2
= 0.067 m
2 √[1−( 𝜔 )2 ] +(2×0.2𝜔)2
√[1−( 𝜔 )2 ] +(2𝜉𝜔)2 10𝜔 10𝜔
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
Example 7. A single degree of freedom spring mass system with viscous damping has a spring constant of 10
kN/m. The system is excited by a sinusoidal force of amplitude 100 N. If the damping factor (ratio) is 0.25, the
amplitude of steady state oscillation at resonance is ____mm. (GATE)
Sol:
𝐹
Amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = 𝐾
2
√[1−( 𝜔 )2 ] +(2𝜉𝜔)2
𝜔𝑛 𝜔𝑛
𝐹 100
At resonance 𝜔 = 𝜔𝑛 or amplitude 𝐴 = = = 0.02 m = 20 mm
2𝐾𝜉 2×10×103 ×0.25
Example 8. The damping ratio of a single degree of freedom spring-mass-damper system with mass of 1 kg,
stiffness 100 N/m and viscous damping coefficient of 25 N.s/m is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Mass m = 1 kg, spring stiffness K = 100 N/m, damping coefficient f = 25 N-s/m
𝐾 100 𝑎2
b = (ωn)2 = = = 1 (for critically damped) or 𝑎1 = 20 sec-1
𝑚 1 4
Critical damping coefficient f1 = a1m = 20×1 = 20 N.s/m
𝑓 25
Damping ratio ξ = ( ) = = 1.25
𝑓1 20
75
Example 9. A mass-spring-dashpot system with mass m = 10 kg, spring constant k = 6250 N/m is excited by a
harmonic excitation of 10 cos(25t) N. At the steady state, the vibration amplitude of the mass is 40 mm. The
damping coefficient (c, in N.s/m) of the dashpot is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Mass m = 10 kg, spring constant k = 6250 N/m
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 =10 cos(25t) or 𝐹 = 10 N, 𝜔 = 25 rad/s
𝐹
Amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = 2 2 2 √(𝐾−𝑚𝜔 ) +(𝑓𝜔)
10
0.04 = or f or c = 10 N-s/m
√(6250−10×252)2 +(𝑓×25)2
Example 10. A mass M of 20 kg is attached to the free end of a steel cantilever beam of length 1000 mm having
a cross-section of 25×25 mm. Assume the mass of the cantilever to be negligible and Esteel = 200GPa . If the
lateral vibration of this system is critically damped using a viscous damper, then damping constant of the
damper is_____. (GATE)
(a) 1250 Ns/m (b) 625 Ns/m (c) 312.50 Ns/m (d) 156.25 Ns/m
Sol: (a)
Load at the free end of the cantilever (W) = mg
= 20×9.81 =196.2 N
𝑑4
Moment of inertia for square beam section =
12
0.0254 −8
= = 3.25 × 10 4
m
12
𝑊𝑙3 196.2×13
Deflection at free end 𝛿 = = = 0.01 m
3𝐸𝐼 3×200×109 ×3.25×10−8
𝑔 9.81
𝑏= 𝜔𝑛2 = = = 981 sec -2
𝛿 0.01
𝑎12
For critically damped system 𝑏 = 𝜔𝑛2 = = 981
4
𝑓1
a1 = 62.64 sec = or 𝑓1 = 62.64×20 = 1252 Ns/m
-1
𝑚
Example 11. A mass m attached to a spring is subjected to a harmonic force as shown. The amplitude of the
forced motion is observed to be 50 mm. The value of m (in kg) is _____.
(a) 0.1 (b) 1.0 (c) 0.3 (d) 0.5 (GATE)
Sol: (a)
Spring constant k = 3000 N/m k = 3000 N/m
𝐹𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔𝑡 =100 cos(100t) or 𝐹 = 100 N, 𝜔 = 100 rad/s m
𝐹 F(t)=100 cos100t
Amplitude of forced vibration is 𝐴 = 2 2 2 √(𝐾−𝑚𝜔 ) +(𝑓𝜔)
100
0.05 = or m = 0.1 kg f = 0 (absence of damping force)
√(3000−𝑚×1002 )2 +(0×100) 2
3.6 Vibration isolation and resonance

Elastic suspension is used to protect nearby machines from vibrations of a machine transmitted through the
foundation. The spring force and damping force which are at 900 to each other are transmitted to the foundation.
If spring force is S and damping force is fA then force transmitted to the foundation (𝐹𝑓 ) is √𝑆 2 + 𝑓𝐴2
𝐹
(𝐾) 𝛿
The amplitude of forced vibration 𝐴 = 2 2
= = 𝐷𝛿
𝜔2 2 2 𝜔2
√𝑎 𝜔 +(1− )2 √𝑎 𝜔 +(1− )2
𝑏2 𝑏 𝑏2 𝑏
1
𝐷= 2 2
(Dynamic magnifier) and 𝛿 static deflection under load F
ω2 2
√a ω
2 +(1− )
b b
The force transmitted to foundation in an elastic suspension system is 𝐹𝑓 = √𝑆 2 + 𝑓𝐴2

𝐹
The ratio 𝑓 = 𝜖 is called transmissibility of spring support. It represents the proportion of force in relation to
𝐹
periodic force that is transmitted to the foundation. It is also expressed as
𝜔𝑛2
𝜖= 2 2 where ω is circular frequency of periodic force and ωn is natural frequency.
𝜔 −𝜔𝑛
Example 1. A machine of 250 kg mass is supported on springs of total stiffness 100 kN/m. Machine has an
unbalanced rotating force of 350 N at speed of 3600 rpm. Assuming a damping factor of 0.15, the value of
transmissibility ratio is_____. (GATE)
(A) 0.0531 (B) 0.9922 (C) 0.0162 (D) 0.0028
Sol: (D)
76
𝐾 100×103
Natural frequency ωn = √ = √ = 20 rad/s
𝑚 250
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×3600
ω (circular frequency of periodic force) = = = 377 rad/s
60 60
2
𝜔𝑛 400
Transmissibility ratio 𝜖 = 2 = = 0.0028
𝜔2 −𝜔𝑛 3772 −202
Example 2. A single degree of freedom system has a mass of 2 kg, stiffness 8 N/m and viscous damping ratio
0.02. The dynamic magnification factor at an excitation frequency of 1.5 rad/s is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝑓 𝑎𝑚 𝑎
Damping ratio ( ) = 0.2 = ( )=( )
𝑓1 𝑎1 𝑚 𝑎1
𝐾 8 𝑎12
b = (ωn) = 2
= =4= (for critically damped) or 𝑎1 = 4 sec-1 or a = 0.2×4 = 0.8 sec-1
𝑀 2 4
1 1
Dynamic magnifier, 𝐷 = 2 2
= = 1.88
ω2 2 2 2 2
√a ω
2 +(1− ) √(0.8) 2(1.5) +(1−1.5 )2
b b 4 4
3.7 Critical speeds of shafts

If a shaft is rotating at a speed which coincides with its natural frequency of transverse vibration, it is found to
develop dangerous vibrations. This particular speed of the shaft is called critical or whirling speed.
𝑦 1
= 𝑁 2
ℎ ( 𝑛) −1
𝑁
where, y = transverse deflection of the shaft
h = Initial deviation of CG of the disc from the axis of shaft
Nn = Natural frequency of vibration
N = Speed of shaft or rotor in rpm
When N= Nn, deflection y = ∞ for any value of h
This condition is known as whirling of shaft which occurs when N (rpm) = Nn (vpm)
Example 1. A flexible rotor-shaft system comprises of a 10 kg rotor disc placed in the middle of a mass-less
shaft of diameter 30 mm and length 500 mm between bearings (shaft is being taken mass-less as the equivalent
mass of the shaft is included in the rotor mass) mounted at the ends. The bearings are assumed to simulate
simply supported boundary conditions. The shaft is made of steel for which the value of E is 2.1×1011 Pa. What
is the critical speed of rotation of the shaft? (GATE)
Sol:
Considering the shaft to be simply supported with a
point load at the midpoint, the deflection at the rotor
𝑃𝑙3 10×9.81×(0.5)3 ×64 30 ϕ
(δ) is = = 0.015 mm
48𝐸𝐼 48×2.1×1011 ×𝜋×(0.03)4
Natural frequency of transverse vibration
1 𝑔 1 9.81 10 kg
𝑓𝑛 = √ = 2𝜋 √0.015×10−3 = 128 Hz = 7680 VPM
2𝜋 𝛿
Critical speed of rotation of the shaft (in RPM) = 7680
Example 2. The rotor shaft of a large electric motor supported between short bearings at both ends. Deflection
is 1.8 mm in the middle of the rotor. Assuming the rotor to be perfectly balanced and supported at knife edges at
both the ends, the likely critical speed (in rpm) of the shaft is _____. (GATE)
(A) 350 (B) 705 (C) 2810 (D) 4430
Sol: (B)
𝜔 1 𝑔 1 9.81
𝑓𝑛 = = √𝛿 = 2𝜋 √1.8×10−3 = 11.7 Hz = 11.7×60 = 705 vibrations per minute (VPM)
2𝜋 2𝜋
Critical speed of rotation of the shaft (in RPM) = Natural frequency of vibration in VPM
*******
77
4
MACHINE DESIGN
4.1 Design for static and dynamic loading
Static loads also known as gradually applied or steady loads are those which increase gradually from zero to the
maximum value and remains steady thereafter like self-weight of a structure and force exerted on the walls of a
pressure vessel.
Dynamic loads are time dependent or function of time like suddenly applied loads or load with an impact
(falling from a height) or which vary in magnitude and/or direction cyclically (fatigue or variable loads). For
example, a shaft transmitting power, a gear, springs, piston/connecting rod of engines etc.
As shown in the figure, a shaft
Tension
transmitting power through belt Shaft
drive is subjected to bending
moment. A point on the surface C T
90 180
of the shaft is under tension and 0
compression with change in
position due to rotation of the
shaft. Compression
Fatigue or dynamic loads are expressed in general form as follows:
Let the load or stress varies from+f1 to +f2 Stress varies from +f1 to +f2 cyclically
cyclically as shown. Then the steady component 1 cycle
+f2
of stress (fm) or mean stress is given as
(𝑓 +𝑓 ) fv
𝑓𝑚 = 1 2 and the variable component or stress
2 fm
(𝑓1 −𝑓2)
amplitude is given by fv = .
2 fv
Stress ratio is the ratio of minimum stress to +f1
maximum stress in one cycle of loading. Tensile 0
stresses are considered positive and compressive Completely reversed load/stress
stresses negative. +f
1 cycle
In two extreme cases, when fv is zero, fv
f1 = f2 = fm indicates steady and static load (no
fluctuation). When fm is zero, completely reversed 0 fm
(𝑓 +𝑓 )
load as 𝑓𝑚 = 0 = 1 2 or 𝑓1 = −𝑓2 and stress fv
2
(𝑓1 −𝑓2) 𝑓−(−𝑓) -f
amplitude f = v = =𝑓
2 2
All other cases of fluctuating fatigue load fall
between these two extreme limits. Repeated load/stress
Load or stress is known as repeated if it varies +f 1 cycle
from 0 to +f or 0 to –f as shown in the figure. fv
(𝑓 +𝑓 ) (0+𝑓)
Mean stress in this case is 𝑓𝑚 = 1 2 = =
2 2 fm=f/2
𝑓 (𝑓1 −𝑓2) 𝑓−0 𝑓
and also stress amplitude fv = = = fv
2 2 2 2
0
Example 1. A static load is mounted at the center of a shaft rotating at uniform angular velocity. This shaft will
be designed for (GATE)
(a) the maximum compressive stress (static) (b) the maximum tensile (static)
(c) the maximum bending moment (static) (d) fatigue loading
Sol: (d)
As the shaft is rotating, each point on the shaft is cyclically subjected to tension and compression due to the
static load.
Example 2. For the given fluctuating fatigue load, the values of stress amplitude and stress ratio are
respectively (GATE)
(A) 100 MPa and 5 (B) 250 MPa and 5 (C) 100 MPa and 0.20 (D) 250 MPa and 0.20
78
Sol: (C)
For the fatigue loading shown, mean stress 𝑓𝑚 =
(𝑓1 +𝑓2 ) 50+250
= = 150 MPa
2 2
(𝑓1 −𝑓2) (50−250)
Stress amplitude fv = =
2 2
= |−100| = 100 MPa
50
Stress ratio = = 0.20
250
4.2 Failure theories

For uniaxial loading, a factor of safety (FOS) greater than 1 is applied on yield stress or UTS to avoid failure of
the component.
𝜎 or 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆 𝜎 or 𝜎𝑈𝑇𝑆
𝐹𝑂𝑆 = 𝑦 or 𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 = 𝑦
𝜎𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝐹𝑂𝑆
But when the component is subjected to biaxial stress, five different failure theories are applicable depending on
the material and conditions.
 Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine Theory) for Brittle material
 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca’s Theory) for Ductile material
 Maximum Distortion Energy Theory (von Mises theory)
 Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venants theory)
 Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami theory)
A commonality among all these five theories is that failure of a component is related to the yield stress in
tension as found by a simple tensile test.
According to Maximum Principal Stress Theory or σy
Rankine Theory, failure occurs when the major principal
stress (σ1) equals the yield stress (σyield) determined by a τ
simple tensile stress. Hence failure can be avoided in σ1= σyield
𝝈𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
brittle materials like cast iron if σ1 < σyield or FOS = σx σx
𝝈𝟏
According to Maximum Shear Stress Theory or
Tresca’s Theory, failure occurs when the maximum shear τ
stress is equal to that of when the component is loaded up Major
to the yield point in tension. Maximum shear stress σy Principal axis
developed in a body subjected to biaxial stress is 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = σy
𝜎1 −𝜎2
where 𝜎1 and 𝜎2 are principal stresses. But the
2
maximum shear stress when the body is under uniaxial τ
𝜎1 −𝜎2 (𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 −0)
tensile test at yield point is 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =
2 2 σx
= . According to Tresca’s theory applicable for ductile σx
2
materials like mild steel, copper, aluminium failure occurs τ
𝜎 −𝜎 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝝈𝒚𝒊𝒆𝒍𝒅
when 1 2 = or (𝜎1 − 𝜎2 ) = 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 , FOS =
2 2 (𝝈𝟏 −𝝈𝟐 )
σy
According to Maximum Distortion Energy Theory
(von Mises theory) yielding will occur when the
distortional strain energy reaches the value which causes σyield σyield
yielding in a simple tensile test.
If σ1 and σ1 are principal stresses due to loading then the distortion strain energy is given by
1
𝑈 = (𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 ) and distortion strain energy for tension test at yield point is
6𝐸
1 2
(𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 ). Equating these two expressions, failure occurs according to von Mises if
6𝐸
2
(𝜎1 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 ) ≥ 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
2
2
FOS =
(𝜎12 +𝜎22 −𝜎1 𝜎2 )
Example 1. Which theory of failure will you use for aluminium components under steady loading:
(GATE)
(a) Principal stress theory (b) Principal strain theory
(c) Strain energy theory (d) Maximum shear stress theory
Sol: (d)
Aluminium being a ductile material, maximum shear stress (Tresca’s) theory is applicable.
79
Example 2. A small element at the critical section of a component is in a bi-axial state of stress with the two
principal stresses being 360 MPa and 140 MPa. The maximum working stress according to Distortion Energy
Theory is: (GATE)
Sol: (c)
2
According to Distortion Energy (von Mises) theory yielding occurs when (𝜎12 + 𝜎22 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 ) ≥ 𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 . So the
2 2
maximum working stress is (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 − 𝜎1 𝜎2 ) = (360 +140 -360×140 = 314.3 MPa
2 2
Example 3. According to Von-Mises’ distortion energy theory, the distortion energy under three dimensional
stress state is represented by_____. (GATE)
Sol:
1
Distortion energy under 3D stress state 𝑈 = [𝜎12 +𝜎22 +𝜎32 − 2𝜈(𝜎1 𝜎2 + 𝜎2 𝜎3 + 𝜎1 𝜎3 )]
2𝐸
Example 4. A shaft is subjected to pure torsional moment. The maximum shear stress developed in the shaft is
100 MPa. The yield and ultimate strengths of the shaft material in tension are 300 MPa and 450 MPa,
respectively. The factor of safety using maximum distortion energy (von-Mises) theory is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Principal stresses are given by 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( ) + 𝜏2
2 2
In this case, 𝜎𝑥 = 0 = 𝜎𝑦 and 𝜏 =100 MPa, hence 𝜎1 = 100 MPa and 𝜎2 = −100 MPa
2
𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 3002
Von-Mises based FOS = = =3
(𝜎12 +𝜎22 −𝜎1 𝜎2 ) {1002 +(−100)2 −(100)(−100)}
Example 5. A machine element is subjected to the following bi-axial state of stress: σx = 80 MPa; σy = 20 MPa;
τxy = 40 MPa. If the shear strength of the material is 100 MPa, the factor of safety as per Tresca’s maximum
shear stress theory is_____. (GATE)
(a) 1.0 (b) 2.0 (c) 2.5 (d) 3.3
Sol: (a)
Principal stresses are given by 𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( ) + 𝜏2
2 2
80+20 80−20 2
𝜎1 , 𝜎2 = ( ) ± √( ) + 402 = 100 MPa and 0
2 2
𝜎𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 100
Based on Tresca’s theory, FOS = = = 1.0
(𝜎1 −𝜎2 ) (100−0)
Example 6. A solid shaft can resist a bending moment of 3.0 kNm and a twisting moment of
4.0 kNm together, then the maximum torque that can be applied is_____. (GATE)
(a) 7.0 kNm (b) 3.5 kNm (c) 4.5 kNm (d) 5.0 kNm
Sol: (d)
Equivalent torque Te=√𝑇 2 + 𝑀2 (Guest’s formula applicable for shaft material like steel)
Te=√42 + 32 = 5.0 kNm
4.3 Fatigue strength and the S-N diagram

Fatigue strength or Endurance limit (σen) is defined as the value of stress within which even an infinite number
of stress reversal cannot cause failure in a material. For test evaluations, 10 7 cycles is treated as infinite cycle.
To find σen of a material, a test specimen with ϕ
12.5 mm at its narrowest part is subjected to a
unidirectional bending load. The experiment is
started by gradually increasing the load till the
specimen breaks under one revolution. By σ
reducing the load but increasing the number of S/N curve
stress reversals the experiment is conducted for a
wide range of load values. With the data of stress
σen
values and number of cycles before the failure
obtained a S/N curve is plotted.
No. of cycles before failure 107
The endurance limit σen found from this rotating beam fatigue test is applicable only in the conditions that the
component is of 12.5 mm ϕ with good surface finish and subjected to completely reversed bending stress. For
any other condition, correction factors A, B and C are applied on σ en to find the endurance limit of the
′
specimen as 𝜎𝑒𝑛 =𝜎𝑒𝑛 . 𝐴. 𝐵. 𝐶
80
When the component is subjected to combined loading with a mean steady stress of fm and stress
amplitude/range or variable component of fv then the following criteria are applied to predict or avoid their
failure using a factor of safety (FOS):
 Soderberg criterion (Line)
 Goodman criterion (Line)
 Gerber criterion (Parabolic)
As per Soderberg criterion,
1 𝜎 𝜎 1 Soderberg’s Line
= 𝑟+ 𝑚 Yield σy 450 2 Goodman’s Line
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑦
As per Goodman criterion 3 Modified Goodman’s Line
σe 4 Gerber’s curve
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚
= + Endurance 3
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠
As per Modified Goodman criterion 4
1 𝜎 𝜎 1
= 𝑟+ 𝑚 Stress range
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦
fr or σr 2
As per Geber criterion
𝐹𝑂𝑆×𝜎𝑟 𝐹𝑂𝑆×𝜎𝑚 2
+[ ] =1
𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠
𝜎𝑒 : Endurance limit stress
𝜎𝑟 : Stress amplitude or range Yield σy UTS σuts
𝜎𝑚 : Mean stress or steady stress Mean stress fm or σm
𝜎𝑦 : Yield stress in tension test
𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 : Ultimate tensile strength
FOS: Factor of safety
Soderberg Line is between points yield stress 𝜎𝑦 (on the mean stress axis - X) and endurance limit stress 𝜎𝑒
(on the variable stress axis-Y). All the points representing fatigue loads within the area enclosed by this
straight line and the two axes are safe from the fatigue failure.
Goodman’s line is between the points ultimate tensile strength 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 (on the mean stress axis – X) and
endurance limit stress 𝜎𝑒 (on the variable stress axis -Y). Modified Goodman’s line is at 450 with mean stress
axis from the point of yield stress 𝜎𝑦 .
Geber curve is a quadratic equation connecting UTS on mean stress axis and endurance limit on stress
amplitude axis. The points representing fatigue loads within the enclosed areas are considered as safe
according to the respective failure criterion.
Example 1. An axial residual compressive stress due to a manufacturing process is present on the outer surface
of a rotating shaft subjected to bending. Under a given bending load, the fatigue life of the shaft in the presence
of the residual compressive stress is _____. (GATE)
(a) decreased (b) increased or decreased, depending on external bending load
(c) neither decreased nor increased (d) increased
Sol: (a)
0
The residual compressive stress acts over the
whole cross section of the shaft. During the fmin= -10
rotation, one side of the shaft is under tension f v
and the other side is in compression. Hence, the fm= -20

residual compressive stress reduces the stress -f
amplitude on the side of tension while it fv
increases the stress on the compression side. fmax= -30
Suppose the residual stress is -20 MPa. Fluctuating stress due to rotation under bending is ±10 MPa.
Then minimum and maximum stresses are -10 and -30 MPa respectively. The residual stress increased the
mean stress fm and thus the fatigue life is decreased as per Soderberg or Goodman criteria.
Example 2. A bar is subjected to fluctuating tensile load from 20 kN to 100 kN. The material has yield strength
of 240 MPa and endurance limit in reversed bending is 160 MPa. According to the Soderberg principle, the area
of cross-section in mm2 of the bar for a factor of safety of 2 is_____. (GATE)
(a) 400 (b) 600 (c) 750 (d) 1000
Sol: (d)
(𝐹 +𝐹 ) (20+100)
When the load varies from 20 kN to 100 kN, mean load Fm = 1 2 = = 60 kN
2 2
(𝐹1 −𝐹2 ) (100−20)
Variable load Fv = = = 40 kN
2 2
81
𝐹𝑚 𝐹𝑣
If the area of cross-section is A mm2, then 𝜎𝑚 = and 𝜎𝑟 =
𝐴 𝐴
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 1 𝐹𝑣 𝐹𝑚 40×103 60×103
As per Soderberg criterion, = + or = + = +
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑦 2 160𝐴 240𝐴 160𝐴 240𝐴
or A =1000 mm2
Example 3. The peak bending stress at critical section of a component varies between 100 MN/m2 and 300
MN/m2. The ultimate tensile strength of the material is 700 MN/m2, yield point in tension is 500 MN/m2, and
endurance limit for reversed bending is 350 MN/m2. Find the factor of safety.
(GATE)
Sol:
When the stress varies between 100 MN/m2 and 300 MN/m2,
(𝜎 +𝜎 ) (100+300)
Mean stress σm = 1 2 = = 200 MN/m2
2 2
(𝜎1 −𝜎2 ) (300−100)
Variable stress σv = = = 100 MN/m2
2 2
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 100 200
As per Soderberg criterion, = + = + or FOS = 1.45
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑦 350 500
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 100 200
As per Goodman criterion, = + = + or FOS = 1.75
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 350 700
Hence, FOS is 1.75 as the higher value is to be taken.
Example 4. A rotating steel shaft is supported at the ends. It is subjected to a point load at the centre. The
maximum bending stress developed is 100 MPa. If the yield, ultimate and corrected endurance strength of the
shaft material is 300 MPa, 500 MPa and 200 MPa, respectively, then the factor of safety for the shaft is _____.
(GATE)
Sol:
The maximum bending stress developed in the shaft is 100 MPa. This maximum stress is occurring in both
tension and compression.
100+(−100)
Hence the mean stress σm = = 0 MN/m2
2
(𝜎1 −𝜎2 ) 100−(−100)
2 2
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 100 0
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 100 0
Hence, Factor of safety is 2.
Example 5. A thin spherical pressure vessel of 200 mm diameter and 1 mm thickness is subjected to an internal
pressure varying from 4 to 8 MPa. Assume that the yield, ultimate and endurance strength of material are 600,
800 and 400 MPa respectively. The factor of safety as per Goodman’s relation is_____. (GATE)
(a) 2 (b) 1.6 (c) 1.4 (d) 1.2
Sol:
𝑝 𝑑 𝑝 𝑑 4×200 8×200
Stress on the wall of the pressure vessel varies between 1 to 2 = to or 200 to 400 MPa. Hence,
4𝑡 4𝑡 4×1 4×1
(200+400)
the mean stress σm = 2
= 300 MN/m2
(𝜎1 −𝜎2 ) (400−200)
2 2
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 100 300
Example 6. In a structural member under fatigue loading, the minimum and maximum stresses developed at the
critical point are 50 MPa and 150 MPa respectively. The endurance, yield, and the ultimate strengths of the
material are 200 MPa, 300 MPa and 400 MPa respectively. The factor of safety using modified Goodman
criterion is____. (GATE)
Sol:
In the modified Goodman’s criterion, a straight line is drawn from the point representing yield stress σ y instead
of UTS on the mean stress axis at an angle of 45 0. The FOS in this case is obtained after satisfying following
two conditions:
1 𝜎 𝜎 1 𝜎 𝜎
= 𝑟 + 𝑚 (Goodman criterion) and = 𝑟 + 𝑚 (Modified Goodman criterion)
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑢𝑡𝑠 𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑦
50+150
In this case, mean stress σm = = 100 MPa
2
150−50
Variable stress σv = = 50 MPa
2
82
1 50 100 1 50 100
= + (Goodman criterion) and = + (Modified Goodman criterion)
𝐹𝑂𝑆 200 400 𝐹𝑂𝑆 300 300
FOS = 2.0 (Goodman criterion) and FOS = 2.0 (Modified Goodman criterion)
Example 7. A forged steel link with uniform diameter of 30 mm at the centre is subjected to an axial force that
varies from 40 kN in compression to 160 kN in tension. The tensile (Su), yield (Sy) and corrected endurance (Se)
strengths of the steel material are 600 MPa, 420 MPa and 240 MPa respectively. The factor of safety against
fatigue endurance as per Soderberg’s criterion is_____. (GATE)
(a) 1.26 (b) 1.37 (c) 1.45 (d) 2.00
Sol: (a)
−40+160
Mean Force Fm = = 60 kN
2
160−(−40)
Variable Force Fv = = 100 kN
2
Area of cross section A = π/4 (30)2 = 706.85 mm2
60×103
Mean stress σm = = 85 MPa
706.85
100×103
Variable stress σv = = 141 MPa
706.85
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 141 85
Example 8. The yield strength of a steel shaft is twice its endurance limit. Which of the following torque
fluctuations represent the most critical situation according to Soderberg criterion?
(GATE)
(a) –T to +T (b) –T/2 to T (c) 0 to T (d) T/2 to T
Sol: (a)
1 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎 𝜎
Soderberg criterion, = 𝑟 + 𝑚 = 𝑟 + 𝑚 or 𝑒 = 𝜎𝑟 + 𝑚
𝐹𝑂𝑆 𝜎𝑒 𝜎𝑦 𝜎𝑒 2𝜎𝑒 𝐹𝑂𝑆 2
𝜎𝑚
FOS is minimum for maximum value of RHS, (𝜎𝑟 + ). RHS is maximum when loading is –T to T because 𝜎𝑟
2
is then T and 𝜎𝑚 is zero.
Example 9. For ball bearings, the fatigue life L measured in number of revolutions and the radial load F are
related by 𝐹𝐿1/3 =𝐾, where K is a constant. It withstands a radial load of 2 kN for a life of 540 million
revolutions. The load (in kN) for a life of one million revolutions is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Given equation 𝐹𝐿1/3 = 𝐾 or 2(540)1/3 = 𝐹(1)1/3 or F = 16.28 kN
Example 10. A machine component made of a ductile material is subjected to a variable loading with σ min = -50
MPa and σmax = 50 MPa. If the corrected endurance limit and the yield strength for the material are σ e’=100
MPa and σy =300 MPa respectively, the factor of safety is ______. (GATE)
Sol:
(𝜎 +𝜎 ) (−50+50)
Mean stress 𝜎𝑚 = 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑎𝑥 = =0
2 2
(𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝜎𝑚𝑖𝑛 ) 50−(−50)
Variable stress 𝜎𝑣 = = = 50
2 2
1 𝜎𝑟 𝜎𝑚 50 0
Soderberg criterion, = + = + or FOS = 2.0
83
4.4 Principles of the design of machine elements

4.4.1 Bolted joints
A bracket plate supporting an eccentric load is fixed to a vertical column by bolts. The different cases are given
here.
Case (i) Load perpendicular to bolt axis P
Bolts are subjected to
 Direct shear load Fs= (P/n)
 Tensile load due to tilting moment 𝑃. 𝑒
𝑃. 𝑒 𝑃. 𝑒 l2
𝐹𝑡 = . 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = . 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥
∑ 𝑛𝑙 2 𝑛1 𝑙12 + 𝑛2 𝑙22
Equivalent tensile load 𝐹𝑡 (Max)
l1
𝐹𝑡 𝐹
𝐹𝑡 (Max) = + √( 𝑡 )2 + 𝐹𝑠2
2 2 e
Equivalent shear load 𝐹𝑠 (Max)
𝐹
𝐹𝑠 (Max) =√( 𝑡 )2 + 𝐹𝑠2 n1 = No. of bolts in the row at l1 = 2
2
𝜋 𝜋 n2 = No. of bolts in the row at l2 = 2
Then 𝐹𝑡 (Max)= 𝜎𝑡 . 𝑑 2 and 𝐹𝑠 (Max) = τ. 𝑑 2 n = Total number of bolts = 4
4 4
Design diameter of bolts is the maximum value. lmax = l2 as l2 > l1
Case (ii) Load parallel to bolt axis

Bolts are subjected to P
 Direct Tensile load Ft1 = (P/n)
e
 Indirect tensile load due to tilting moment l2 G
𝑃. 𝑒 𝑃. 𝑒
𝐹𝑡2 = . 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 = .𝑙
∑ 𝑛𝑙 2 𝑛1 𝑙1 + 𝑛2 𝑙22 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
𝜋
Total tensile load = Ft1 + 𝐹𝑡2 = 𝜎𝑡 . 𝑑 2 l1
4
Safe design diameter for the bolts can be
obtained. G is the centroid of bolt distributions
e is the distance of G from the load P
Case (iii) Load inclined to bolt axis

Bolts are subjected to
𝑃
 Direct shear load due to vertical component of load (PV), Fs = 𝑉
𝑛
𝑃
 Direct tensile load due to horizontal component of load (PH), Ft1 = 𝐻
𝑛
 Indirect tensile load due to combined tilting moments of PV and PH
(𝑃 𝑒 +𝑃 𝑒 )
𝐹𝑡2 = 𝑉 ∑𝑉 2𝐻 𝐻 . 𝑙𝑚𝑎𝑥 where eV and eH are moment arms for PV and PH respectively
𝑛𝑙
Total tensile load Ft = Ft1 + 𝐹𝑡2
Bolt diameter can be found using Ft and Fs as in Case (i).
Example 1. For the three bolt system shown in the figure, the bolt material has shear yield strength of 200 MPa.
For a factor of safety of 2, the minimum metric specification required for the bolt is____. (GATE)
(a) M8 (b) M10 (c) M12 (d) M16
19 kN
Sol: (b)
𝜋 2 19 kN
Total shear area is 3( 𝑑 ), if the diameter of the bolt
4
is d. Shear stress developed in the material of the bolt
𝐹 19×1000×4 𝜏𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 200×106
is 𝜏 = = = =
𝐴 3×𝜋×𝑑 2 𝐹𝑂𝑆 2
d = 8.97 mm or M10 bolt
Example 2. A bolt of major diameter 12 mm is required to clamp two steel plates. Cross sectional area of the
threaded portion of the bolt is 84.3 mm2. The length of the threaded portion in grip is 30 mm, while the length of
the unthreaded portion in grip is 8 mm. Young's modulus of material is 200 GPa. The effective stiffness (in
MN/m) of the bolt in the clamped zone is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
𝐴𝐸 84.3×10−6 ×200×109
Stiffness of threaded portion = = = 562 MN/m
𝑙 0.03
𝐴𝐸 𝜋×0.0122 ×200×109
Stiffness of unthreaded portion = = = 2827 MN/m
𝑙 4×0.008
84
562×2827
Effective stiffness of the bolt = = 468.8 MN/m
562+2827
Example 3. The bolts in a rigid flanged coupling connecting two shafts transmitting power are subjected to (a)
shear force and bending moment (b) axial force (c) torsion (d) torsion and bending moment
(GATE)
Sol: (a)
Example 4. Bolts in the flanged end of pressure vessel are usually pre-tensioned. Indicate which of the
following statements is NOT TRUE. (GATE)
(a) Pre-tensioning helps to seal the pressure vessel
(b) Pre-tensioning increases the fatigue life of the bolts
(c) Pre-tensioning reduces the maximum tensile stress in the bolts
(d) Pre-tensioning helps to reduce the effect of pressure pulsations in the pressure vessel
Sol: (c)
4.4.2 Riveted joints

Rivets are subjected to shear and crushing stress. Rivet hole d ϕ
Pitch (p) should be between 2.5 to 4 times the diameter
2.5d<p<4d
of the rivet. Practical consideration is p = (2d + 12) mm
Margin (m) or clearance between the edge of the plate

and outermost row of rivets should not be less than 2d. m >2d
Example 1. A horizontal plate has been joined to a vertical post using four rivets arranged as shown in the
figure. The magnitude of the load on the worst loaded rivet (in N) is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Direct or primary shear load on each rivet is Fs1
Fs1 = (P/n) = 400/4 = 100 N (↓)
The secondary shear load due to eccentric
moment P.e is directly proportional to distance
of rivet from centroid and acts at 900 to the line
joining centroid to the rivet.
Secondary shear load on each rivet is Fs2
𝑃.𝑒 400×0.5 0.04
Fs2 = ∑ 2 . 𝑙𝑛 = 2. = 1767.7 N
𝑙 2×0.04 √2
The four rivets are loaded as shown. The
resultant of these two shear loads is maximum Fs2
when the angle between them is minimum.
Hence, the two rivets on the right side are most Fs1
heavily loaded.
The resultant load on these two rivets are Fs
Fs1 (↓)
Fs = √1767.72 + 1002 + 2 × 1767.7 × 100𝑐𝑜𝑠45
= 1839.7 N
Example 2. A large uniform plate containing a rivet-hole as shown is subjected to uniform uniaxial tension of
95 MPa. The maximum stress in the plate is____. (GATE)
(a) 100 MPa
(b) 285 MPa 95 MPa 100 5ϕ 95 MPa
(c) 190 MPa
(d) Indeterminate
85
Sol:
Axial stress is more in the transverse sections passing through the hole. As the thickness of
plate can be assumed constant, the stress in a section is inversely proportional to its width.
The maximum stress 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 occurs in the section through the hole.
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 100
= or 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥 =100 MPa
95MPa (100−5)
Example 3. A single riveted lap joint of two similar plates as shown in the figure has the
following geometrical and material details:
Width of the plate w = 200 mm, thickness of the plate t = 5 mm, number of rivets n = 3,
diameter of the rivet dr =10mm, diameter of the rivet hole dh = 11mm, allowable tensile
stress of the plate σp =200 MPa, allowable shear stress of the rivet σS =100 MPa and
allowable bearing stress of the σC =150 MPa
If the rivets are to be designed to avoid crushing failure, the maximum permissible
load P in kN is (a) 7.50 (b) 15.00 (c) 22.50 (d) 30.00
If the plates are to be designed to avoid tearing failure, the maximum permissible
load P in kN is (a) 83 (b) 125 (c) 167 (d) 501 (GATE)
Sol: (c) and (c)
Area of crushing AC = 3 × dia. of rivets ×
thickness of plate = 3.d.t = 3×10×5 = 150 mm2
Maximum load to avoid crushing failure =σC. w
P P
AC
6 -6
= 150×10 ×150×10 = 22.5 kN (c)
Tearing area across the rivet holes AT = (w-3d)t
t
= (200 - 33)5 = 835 mm2
Maximum load to avoid tearing failure = σp. AT
= 200×106×835×10-6 =167 kN (c)
Example 4. Consider the schematic of a riveted lap joint subjected to tensile load F, as shown. Let d be the
diameter of the rivets and Sf be the maximum permissible tensile stress in the plates. What should be the
minimum value for the thickness of the plates to guard against tensile failure of the plates? Assume the plates to
be identical. (GATE)
Sol:
Let the thickness of the plates be t
w/4
Then the minimum area of cross-section along
the two rivet holes is (w-2d)t F w w/2 F
𝐹
Permissible tensile stress Sf =
(𝑤−2𝑑)𝑡
𝐹
t =
(𝑤−2𝑑)𝑆𝑓
4.4.3 Welded joints

Lap or fillet welded joints are of three types; (a) Parallel fillet weld (b) Transverse fillet weld (c) Combined
Double parallel Double transverse

Fillet weld subjected to Fillet weld subjected to
SHEAR P TENSION P
Geometry of fillet weld:

Narrowest part
Size or leg of weld (S) Throat t =S/√2
P S
P t
Effective throat area = l.t
l is the effective length of the weld
S
86
𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
Load P = 𝑆𝐶𝐹 × 𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 (𝑙. 𝑡)
Stress concentration factor (SCF) is taken as 1 (for static load), 2.7 (dynamic load for parallel fillet in shear) and
1.5 (dynamic load for transverse fillet in tension)
Moment of inertia (M.I) of welds:

MI is needed only for welded joints subjected to torsion, bending and eccentric loading.
L
Weld in BENDING P
Weld in TORSION
Y t
t
D/2
D/2 X
X
l a
X
Case (i) Welds subjected to bending

𝑃 𝑃𝐿 𝐷
(a) Direct shear stress 𝜏 = (b) Bending stress 𝜎𝑏 = ( )
𝜋𝐷𝑡 𝐼𝑋𝑋 2
Case (ii) Welds subjected to torsion
𝑇𝐷 𝐷 𝜋𝐷3 𝑡
Shear stress 𝜏 = 𝐽𝑊 is the polar MI of weld = 𝜋𝐷𝑡. ( )2 =
2.𝐽𝑊 2 4
1
When weld is straight, it is treated as a rectangle. Then 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = [ 𝑙𝑡 3 + 𝑙𝑡. 𝑎2 ] ≅ 𝑙𝑡. 𝑎2 (neglecting t3 term)
12
1
𝐼𝑌𝑌 = 𝑡𝑙 3 , 𝐽𝑊 = 𝐼𝑋𝑋 + 𝐼𝑌𝑌
12
Case (iii) Welds subjected to eccentric load e P
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑃
Primary shear stress 𝜏1 = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑃.𝑒
2𝑙𝑡 𝜏2
Secondary shear stress 𝜏2 = .𝑟 G
𝐽𝑊
𝜏
Maximum resultant shear stress 𝜏 = [𝜏12 + 𝜏22 + 2𝜏1 𝜏2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃]1/2
This 𝜏 should not be more than the safe shear stress of about 50 N/mm2.
Example 1. A fillet welded joint is subjected to transverse loading F as shown. Both legs of the fillet are of 10
mm size and the weld length is 30 mm. If the allowable shear stress of the weld is 94 MPa, considering the
minimum throat area of the weld, the maximum allowable transverse load in kN is ______. (GATE)
(a) 14.44 (b) 17.92 (c) 19.93 (d) 22.16
Sol: (c)
l = 30 mm, leg (S) = 10 mm, throat t = S/√2 = 10/√2 mm F
Effective throat area = lt = 30×10/√2 = 212.13 mm2
Maximum allowable transverse load = 𝜏𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 . 2𝑙𝑡 F
= (94×212.13) N = 19.94 kN
4.4.4 Shafts
Shafts are usually subjected to
(a) Twisting moment (T) and
(b) Bending moment (M) but if a shaft carries bevel gears, helical gears, worm gears or turbine rotors it is also
subjected to an
(c) Axial load (F)
The design considerations for a shaft are
 Torsional strength (Ability to transmit power without shear stress exceeding a limit)
 Torsional rigidity (Ability to transmit torque without excessive twist)
 Minimum weight
Case (i) Shafts subjected to T and M (Steady loads)
Equivalent torque Te=√𝑇 2 + 𝑀2 (Guest’s formula applicable for ductile material like steel)
1
Equivalent bending moment Me= [𝑀 + √𝑇 2 + 𝑀2 ] (Rankine’s formula)
2
87
The diameter for the shaft (d) can be found using the following two conditions:
𝜋 𝜋 𝐷4 −𝑑 4
 𝑇𝑒 = . 𝜏. 𝑑 3 (For solid shaft) or 𝑇𝑒 = . 𝜏. [ ] (For hollow shaft)
16 16 𝐷
𝑀
 𝑀𝑒 = 𝜎𝑡 . ( ) = 𝜎𝑡 . 𝑧
𝐼
The larger of the two diameters is to be selected for the shaft.
Case (ii) Shafts subjected to T and M (dynamic/fatigue loads)
1
Te=√(𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 + (𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2 and Me= [𝐾𝑚 𝑀 + √(𝐾𝑡 𝑇)2 + (𝐾𝑚 𝑀)2
2
Kt and Km are combined shock and fatigue factor in torsion and bending whose values lie between 1 and 2. For
steady loads these factors are taken as one.
Case (iii) Shafts carrying pulleys with belt drives
T1: Tension on tight side Pulley
T2: Tension on loose side
θ: Angle of lap in radian θ
μ: Coefficient of friction r
T2
r: Radius of the pulley α
R: Resultant force at centre of pulley T2
T1
𝑅 = √𝑇12 + 𝑇22 + 2𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 T1
If angle of lap θ is 1800 (belt ends are parallel) then 𝛼 is zero
and R = (T1+T2) R
T: Torque in the shaft
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 (𝑘𝑊)×60×1000
T (N.m) =
2𝜋𝑁
N: Rotation per minute
Belt tensions T1 and T2 can be found using following relations:
𝑇
Torque, T = (T1 - T2).r and 1 = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃
𝑇2
Belt pull on the shaft is √𝑇12 + 𝑇22 + 2𝑇1 𝑇2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛼 or (T1+T2) if θ is 1800.
Case (iv) Shafts carrying spur gears
Ft = Tangential tooth load that produces the torque Fr
Fr = Radial tooth load or separating force R
ψ = Pressure angle
𝐹 Ft
tan ψ = 𝑟
𝐹𝑡
Torque T = (Ft × Pitch circle radius) Ft
𝑘𝑊×60×1000 ψ
Torque T (in N.m ) =
2𝜋𝑁 R
If ψ is not given, Fr can be neglected. Fr
Example 1. A cast gear wheel is driven by a pinion and transmits 100 kW at 375 rpm. No. of teeth on gear is
200, ψ = 200. Gear mounted at centre of 0.4 m long shaft. The gear weighs 2000 N. The PCD of the gear is 1.2
m. Design the gear shaft of C-20 steel with limiting shear stress of 40 N/mm2. Assume that the gear and pinion
lie on same horizontal plane.
Sol:
𝐾𝑊×60×1000 100×60×1000
Torque transmitted by shaft, 𝑇 = = = 2.54 × 106 N.mm
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×375
2.54×106
Torque = Ft × Pitch circle radius or Ft = = 4244 N
600
Fr = Ft tan ψ = 4244 tan 20 = 1545 N
0
Net vertical load at the centre of the shaft = Ft + weight of the gear = 4244 + 2000 = 6244 N
Horizontal load at the centre of the shaft = Fr = 1545 N
88
Vertical reactions at the supports, 6244 N

6244
VA= VB = = 3122 N
2
Maximum vertical bending moment is at the centre 3122 N V.L.D 3122 N
of the shaft = 3122×200 = 624400 N.mm
624400 (Max BM)
Horizontal reactions at the supports,
1546
HA= HB = = 773 N V. B. M. D
2
Maximum horizontal bending moment is at the
centre of the shaft = 773×200 = 154600 N.mm
1545 N
Maximum resultant bending moment (M) is at the
centre of the shaft = √𝑉𝐵𝑀2 + 𝐻𝐵𝑀2 = 3122 N V.L.D 3122 N
√6244002 + 1546002 = 643200 N.mm 154600 (Max BM)
Hence, the design load for the shaft is
T = 2.54 × 106 N.mm and M = 643200 N.mm H. B. M. D
643200 N.mm
Using Guest’s formula, equivalent torque (Te) is Resultant
given by 𝑇𝑒 = √𝑇 2 + 𝑀2 = 2.62× 106 N.mm B. M. D
If the diameter of the shaft is d mm, then
𝜋
𝑇𝑒 = 𝜏𝑑 3 or d = 69 mm ≈ 70 mm (standard size)
16
Example 2. The figure shows an electric motor driving a machine under steady conditions by means of three
straight tooth spur gears having 25, 32 and 26 teeth. The diametral pitch is 4 teeth/cm and the pressure angle is
20°. For the direction of motor rotation shown, determine the radial load acting on the shaft carrying the idler.
(GATE)
Sol:
The pitch circle diameters (PCD) of the three
gears are 25/4, 32/4 and 26/4 cm or 6.25, 8
and 6.5 cm respectively.
Ft between gears (25T and 32T) is torque in
the motor shaft divided by radius of pitch
circle for gear of 25T.
1500×2
So, Ft = = 480 N
6.25
Fr = Ft tan 200 = 174.7 N
Torque in the idler shaft, Ft × (8/2) = 1920 N
Ft1 between gears (32T and 26T) is torque in the idler shaft divided by radius of pitch circle
for gear of 26T.
1920×2
So, Ft1 = = 590 N and Fr1 = Ft1 tan 200 = 214.7 N
6.5
The resultant radial force on the idler shaft is √(174.7)2 + (214.7)2 = 276.8 N
Example 3. Two mating spur gears have 40 and 120 teeth respectively. The pinion rotates at 1200 rpm and
transmits a torque of 20 N.m. The torque transmitted by the gear is____. (GATE)
(a) 6.6 Nm (b) 20 Nm (c) 40 Nm (d) 60 Nm
Sol: (d)
RPM of a gear is inversely proportional to its number of teeth.

𝑁 𝑍 1200 120
Hence, 𝑃 = 𝐺 or = or NG = 400 rpm
𝑁𝐺 𝑍𝑃 𝑁𝐺 40
Torque transmitted in a shaft is also inversely proportional to its rpm.
𝑇𝑃 𝑁 20 400
= 𝐺 or = or 𝑇𝐺 = 60 N.m
𝑇𝐺 𝑁𝑃 𝑇𝐺 1200
Example 4. A spur pinion of pitch diameter 50 mm rotates at 200 rad/s and transmits 3 kW power. The pressure
angle of the tooth of the pinion is 20°. Assuming that only one pair of the teeth is in contact, the total force (in
newton) exerted by a tooth of the pinion on the tooth on a mating gear is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
89
200×180×60
Rotational speed of 200 rad/s = = 1909.8 rpm
𝜋×360
𝐾𝑊×60×1000 3×60×1000
Torque transmitted by pinion shaft, 𝑇 = = = 15 N.m
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×1909.8
15
Torque = Ft × Pitch circle radius or Ft = = 600 N
0.025
Radial tooth load, Fr = Ft tan ψ = 600 tan 20 = 218.38 N
0
Resultant tooth load = √(600)2 + (218.38)2 = 638.5 N
Example 5. Square key of side d/4 each and length l is used to transmit torque T from the shaft of diameter d to
the hub of a pulley. Assuming the length of the key to be equal to the thickness of the pulley, the average shear
stress developed in the key is given by____. (GATE)
Sol:
Torque to be transmitted is equal to the product of
shearing force at the mid-section of the key (at the shaft- l
pulley interface) and the radius of the shaft.
T = FS × (d/2) or FS = 2T/d l
Area of square key resisting this shear force = (l× d/4)
𝐹 2𝑇×4 8𝑇
Average shear stress τ = 𝑆 = = 2 d/4
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑑×𝑙×𝑑 𝑙𝑑
Example 6. A key connecting a flange coupling to a shaft
d/4
is likely to fail in____. (GATE)
(a) shear (b) tension (c) torsion (d) bending
Sol: (a)
4.4.5 Gears
Gears are commonly classified as follows:
 Spur gears (Used for transmitting power between shafts whose axes are parallel. Operation is noisy
because of sudden engagement and disengagement of teeth. Not suitable for pitch line speed more than
20 ms-1)
 Helical gears (Used for transmitting power between shafts whose axes are parallel. Can operate
smoothly at higher pitch line speed greater than 20 ms -1 because of gradual engagement and
disengagement of teeth. An unbalanced axial force in helical gears requires thrust bearing for gear
shaft. Replacement cost is high as the gears are ‘matched’ and replaced in pair)
 Bevel gears (Used for connecting shafts whose axes intersect at an angle. When the angle is 90 0, the
bevel gear is known as ‘metre’)
 Worm gears (Used for connecting shafts whose axes are non-parallel and non-intersecting. In these
gears, velocity ratio VR doesn’t depend upon size of the gears. Very large VR up to 100 can be
obtained. Can be designed to be self-locking as used in lifting machines. Tooth wear is excessive as
sliding action is more prominent than rolling. Transmission efficiency is low and not recommended for
continuous operation)
 Crossed helical and spiral gears (Used for non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts)
 Double helical and herringbone gears (Axial load cancels as two components act in opposite
directions)
Fr
Ft A α
h b
t Ft Fa
Fa
Fa
Fr
Cantilever Beam
N
Helical Double Helical/Herringbone
Strength of a spur gear tooth is found using Lewis equation considering it as a loaded cantilever beam.
90
𝑀 𝐹𝑡 .ℎ 𝜎𝑤 .𝑏.𝑡 2 𝑡2
Maximum bending stress in gear tooth 𝜎𝑤 = = 𝑏𝑡2
𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑡 = = 𝜎𝑤 . 𝑏( )𝑝𝑐
𝑧 ( ) 6ℎ 6ℎ𝑝𝑐
6
𝑡2
𝑦= is known as Lewis form factor/tooth form factor
6ℎ𝑝𝑐
𝜋𝐷
𝑝𝑐 is the circular pitch given by = 𝜋𝑚
𝑇
∴ 𝐹𝑡 = 𝜎𝑤 . 𝑏. 𝑝𝑐 . 𝑦 (Lewis equation, RHS is beam strength ≥ LHS for design load)
𝜎𝑤 (working stress) = 𝜎0 (static stress). Cv
𝜎0 is the static or working stress at zero pitch line speed
Cv is Barth’s velocity factor
3 200
Cv = = (up to 10 ms-1 pitch line speed, v in ms-1 and V in m/min)
3+𝑣 200+𝑉
Example 1. A 1.5 kW motor is running at 1440 rev/min. It is to be connected to a stirrer running at 36 rev/min.
The gearing arrangement suitable for this application is
(a) differential gear (b) helical gear (c) spur gear (d) worm gear (GATE)
Sol: (d)
1440
Speed reduction is about = 40
36
For such high velocity ratio, worm gears are applicable
Example 2. To make a worm drive reversible, it is necessary to increase

(a) centre distance (b) worm diameter factor (c) number of starts (d) reduction ratio
Sol: (c)
Example 3. Large speed reductions (greater than 20) in one stage of a gear train are possible
through (GATE)
(a) Spur gearing (b) Worm gearing (c) Bevel gearing (d) Helical gearing
Sol: (b)
Example 4. A pair of spur gears with module 5 mm and a center distance of 450 mm is used for a speed
reduction of 5:1. The number of teeth on pinion is ____. (GATE)
Sol:
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅
Module 𝑚 = 𝐺 = 𝑃 = 5 and Velocity ratio = 5 = 𝐺
𝑇𝐺 𝑇𝑃 𝑅𝑃
Distance between centres 𝑅𝐺 + 𝑅𝑃 = 450 mm or 6 𝑅𝑃 = 450 or 𝑅𝑃 = 75 mm
2𝑅
Substituting in 𝑃 = 5, 𝑇𝑃 = 30
𝑇𝑃
Example 5. A spur gear has a module of 3 mm, number of teeth 16, a face width of 36 mm and a pressure angle
of 200. It is transmitting a power of 3 kW at 20 rev/s. Taking a velocity factor of 1.5, and a form factor of 0.3,
the stress in the gear tooth is about ____. (GATE)
Sol: (c)
𝐾𝑊×60×1000 3×1000
Torque 𝑇 = = = 23.87 Nm
2𝜋𝑁 2𝜋×20
2𝑅𝑃 2𝑅𝑃
Module 𝑚 = = = 3 or 𝑅𝑃 = 24 mm
𝑇𝑃 16
𝑇 23.87
Tangential tooth load 𝐹𝑡 = = = 994.5 N
𝑅𝑃 0.024
Lewis equation 𝐹𝑡 = 𝜎𝑤 . 𝑏. 𝑝𝑐 . 𝑦 =𝜎0 .Cv. 𝑏. 𝑝𝑐 . 𝑦
Cv = 1.5, y = 0.3, b = 0.036 m, 𝑝𝑐 = 𝜋. 𝑚= 3𝜋 mm
994.5×1000
𝜎0 = = 65.14 MPa
1.5×0.036×3𝜋×0.3
Example 6. The following are the data for two crossed helical gears used for speed reduction:
Gear I: Pitch circle diameter in the plane of rotation 80mm and helix angle 300
Gear II: Pitch circle diameter in the plane of rotation 120mm and helix angle 22.5 0
If the input speed is 1440 rpm, the output speed in rpm is____. (GATE)
(A) 1200 (B) 900 (C) 875 (D) 720
Sol: (B)
𝐷 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑1 80𝑐𝑜𝑠30 𝑁 𝑁
For helical gears the velocity ratio = 1 = = 0.625 = 2 = 2 or 𝑁2 = 900 rpm
𝐷2 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑2 120𝑐𝑜𝑠22.5 𝑁1 1440
91
4.4.6 Rolling and sliding contact bearings

In rolling contact bearing, the relative motion between the rotating member and the bearing is one of pure
rolling with low starting friction. For example, ball and roller bearing. Sliding contact bearing are those in
which the relative motion between the moving member and the bearing is one of pure sliding characterized by
high sliding friction. For example, plain slider bearing, thrust bearing, journal bearing etc. Thrust bearings are
used for supporting shafts which carry axial loads. Journal bearings are sliding contact type which supports
shafts carrying loads at right angles to axis. The portion of the shaft located inside the bearing is called ‘journal’.
In hydrostatic bearings, a lubricant under a high pressure is pumped or forced into the clearance space between
shaft and bearing thus lifting the shaft to avoid metal to metal contact even before rotation. Hence, the static
friction is low. In hydrodynamic bearings, lubricants develop high pressure after the shaft rotates at high speed.
The friction at start is high due to metal to metal contact. Low running cost as the consumption of lubricant is
less.
Bearing pressure (pb) is the load per unit projected area.
𝑊 W
𝑝𝑏 =
𝑙.𝑑
Bearing characteristic number (BCN) is a dimensionless number whose
𝑍𝑁
magnitude is given by 𝐵𝐶𝑁 =
𝑝𝑏 cmin
Z: Viscosity of oil in centipoise d
N: Speed of journal in RPM l
Projected area
pmax
4.4.7 Brakes and clutches

The main design considerations for brakes are amount of braking torque to be applied, intensity of pressure at
contact surface and dissipation of the heat generated. Brakes are classified as
 Shoe brakes (external and internal)
 Band brakes (simple and differential)
Shoe brake (External) R P
Braking torque found from power in kW to be absorbed l
a
using the relation
𝑘𝑊×60×1000
𝑇𝐵 = N.m and 𝑇𝐵 = 𝜇𝑅. 𝑟 b μR
2𝜋𝑁
(i) For the clock-wise rotation of the brake drum (solid μR
line), taking moment about the fulcrum r
𝑅
P.l = R.a + 𝜇𝑅. 𝑏 or P = (𝑎 + 𝜇𝑏)
𝑙
(ii) For the anti-clockwise rotation of the drum (dotted Brake drum
𝑅
line), P.l + 𝜇𝑅. 𝑏 = R.a or P = (𝑎 − 𝜇𝑏)
𝑙
If 𝜇𝑏 ≥ 𝑎, then P is zero or negative when the brake is called self-locking or self-energizing.
If b = 0, the brake will not be able to self-locking for any of the direction of rotation.
Band brake (External)

In a simple band brake as shown, one end of the band is
fixed to the fulcrum of the lever. In case of differential θ
band brake, both ends of the band are fixed away from
the fulcrum. The value of force P depends on the RD T2
T1
direction of rotation. In the figure, solid lines and dotted
T2 T1 P
lines are used for the clock wise and counter clock wise
direction of rotation.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟(𝑘𝑊)×60×1000
Torque in the drum shaft is T = N.m a
2𝜋𝑁 Fulcrum l
But braking torque TB =𝑇 and 𝑇𝐵 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ). 𝑅𝐷
𝑇1
The ratio of tensions = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃
𝑇2
μ is the coefficient of friction between friction band and the drum.
After finding 𝑇1 and 𝑇2 , the force P can be found taking moment about the fulcrum.
P.l = 𝑇1 . 𝑎 or P.l = 𝑇2 . 𝑎
Note: As none of the two tensions is passing through the fulcrum in differential band brake,
hence by taking moment about the fulcrum,
92
P.l + 𝑇1 . 𝑏 = 𝑇2 . 𝑎 or P.l + 𝑇2 . 𝑏 = 𝑇1 . 𝑎 where b is the normal distance of the tension from

fulcrum. It can be seen that the effort P required is reduced in differential band brake.
Example 1. A single block brake with a 300 mm diameter brake shown in figure is used to absorb a torque of 75
Nm. The coefficient of friction between the drum and the lining is 0.35. The pressure on the blocks is uniform.
Calculate the force P. (GATE)
Sol:
Torque 𝑇𝐵 = 𝜇𝑅. 𝑟
75 = 0.35R×0.15 or R = 1428.5 N
For the clock wise rotation of the drum the
friction force 𝜇𝑅 on the brake shoe acts
towards right at the point of contact. Taking
moment about the fulcrum,
P×450 + 𝜇𝑅×50 = R × 200

1428.5×200−0.35×1428.5×50
P= = 579.3 N
450
Example 2. A band brake consists of a lever attached to one end of the band. The other end of the band is fixed
to the ground. The wheel has a radius of 200 mm and the wrap angle of the band is 270°. The braking force
applied to the lever is limited to 100N, and the coefficient of friction between the band and the wheel is 0.5.
The maximum tension that can be generated in the band during braking is
(a) 1200 N (b) 2110 N (c) 3224 N (d) 4420 N
The maximum wheel torque that can be completely braked is
(a) 200 Nm (b) 382 Nm (c) 604 Nm (d) 844 Nm (GATE)
Sol: (b) and (b)
3𝜋
𝑇1
Ratio of tensions = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 𝑒 0.5×( 2 ) = 10.5
𝑇2
𝑇
Braking torque 𝑇𝐵 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ). 𝑅𝐷 = (𝑇1 − 1 ) . (0.2)
10.5
𝑇𝐵 = 0.18𝑇1
Taking moment about the fulcrum, 100×2 = 𝑇1 ×1 or 100N
𝑇1 = 200 N. The maximum tension can be 10.5 times of
200 N depending on the direction of rotation of the drum.
Tmax is either 𝑇1 or 𝑇2 = 200×10.5 =2110 N
Maximum TB = 0.18𝑇1 = 0.18×2110= 380 Nm
Example 3. A drum brake is shown in the figure. The drum is rotating in anticlockwise direction. The
coefficient of friction between drum and shoe is 0.2. The dimensions are in mm. The braking torque (in Nm) for
the brake shoe is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
When the drum rotates anti-clock wise, the
frictional force at the brake shoe acts towards left.
Let the normal reaction at the point of contact
between brake shoe and drum be R. Then, taking
moment about the fulcrum,
1000×800 = (0.2R)×100 + R×480 or R = 1600 N
Braking torque TB = 𝜇𝑅. 𝑟 = 0.2×1600×0.2 = 64 Nm
Example 4. A force of 400 N is applied to the brake drum of 0.5 diameter in a band brake system as shown in
the figure, where the wrapping angle is 1800. If the coefficient of friction between the drum and the band is 0.25,
the braking torque applied in Nm is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
Ratio of tensions in band on both sides of the brake drum is
𝑇1
= 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 𝑒 0.25×𝜋 = 2.19 400 N
𝑇2
As the direction of rotation of the drum is not given, assuming the maximum
possible condition when T2 is 400 N. Thus T1 is 2.19 times T2 or 876 N.
Braking torque 𝑇𝐵 = (𝑇1 − 𝑇2 ). 𝑅𝐷 = (876 − 400)(0.25) = 119 Nm
93
Example 5. The forces F1 and F2 in a brake band and the direction of rotation of the drum are as shown in the
figure. The coefficient of friction is 0.25. The angle of wrap is 3π/2 radians. It is given that R = 1 m and F2 = 1
N. The torque (in Nm) exerted on the drum is _____. (GATE)
Sol:
For the given direction of rotation of the drum, F1> F2.
3𝜋
𝐹1
The ratio of forces (tensions) = = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 𝑒 0.25×( 2 ) = 3.24
𝐹2
F1 = 3.24 F2 = 3.24×1=3.24 N
Braking torque TB = (F1- F2)R = (3.24-1)(1) = 2.24 Nm
Example 6. For the brake shown in the figure, which one of the following is TRUE? (GATE)
(a) Self energizing for clockwise rotation of the
drum
(b) Self energizing for anti-clockwise rotation of the
drum
(c) Self energizing for rotation in either direction of
the drum
(d) Not of the self-energizing type
Sol: (a)
For clock-wise rotation of the drum, the friction force is rightwards at the brake shoe. When
taking moments about the fulcrum, both F and friction force produces moments in the same
direction. Hence it can be self-energizing when the moment of normal reaction R is equal to
the moment of friction force μR.
Example 6. In a band brake the ratio of tight side band tension to the tension on the slack side is 3. If the angle
of overlap of band on the drum is 180° the coefficient of friction required between drum and the band is _____.
(GATE)
(a) 0.20 (b) 0.25 (c) 0.30 (d) 0.35
Sol: (d)
𝑇
In a band brake the ratio of tensions 1 = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 3 or 𝜇𝜃 =ln 3 or 𝜇 = (ln 3)/π = 0.349
𝑇2
Example 7. The percentage improvement in power capacity of a flat belt drive, when the wrap angle at the
driving pulley is increased from 150° to 210° by an idler arrangement for a friction coefficient of 0.3 is_____.
(GATE)
(a) 25.21 (b) 33.92 (c) 40.17 (d) 67.85
Sol: (d)
Similar to band brakes, the ratio of tensions in flat belt drives is also given by
𝑇1
= 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 where, 𝜇 is the coefficient of friction and 𝜃 is the angle of wrap. θ
𝑇2
Power transmitted by belt drive is proportional to (T1 – T2) or P = k(T1 – T2)
150𝜋
𝑇1
= 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 𝑒 0.3× 180 = 2.19 or T1 = 2.19 T2 or P = k(1.19 T2) T1 (Tight) T2 (Slack)
𝑇2
210𝜋
𝑇1 0.3×
When angle of wrap increased to 210°, = 𝑒 𝜇𝜃 = 𝑒 180 = 3.0
𝑇2
T1 = 3T2 or P’ = k(2T2)
𝑃′ −𝑃 𝑘(2𝑇2)−𝑘(1.19 𝑇2)
Percentage improvement = × 100 = × 100 = 68%
𝑃 𝑘(1.19 𝑇2)
4.4.8 Springs
Springs are made of materials like high carbon steel, alloy steel (Ni-Cr, Cr-Va, Silico-manganese, stainless
steel), phosphor bronze etc. The following types of springs are used:
 Helical spring subjected to axial load W Flat spiral
 Helical (torsion) spring
 Conical spring
 Flat spiral spring (used in watches) Disc spring
 Disc or Belvilli spring (used in foundation)
 Leaf spring (used in railways, heavy vehicles) W α
Disc springs are capable of supporting large loads with Axially loaded
small deflection and exhibit a non-linear relation helical spring
between load W and deflection δ.
94
Helical springs are classified into open coil (helix angle α > 10 0) type and closed coil (helix angle α < 100) type
based on their helix angle.
For closed coiled helical spring with axial loading, the following relations are applicable:
𝑊 4𝑊
Direct shear stress τ1 is found using 𝜋 2 = 2 where d is the diameter of spring wire
𝑑 𝜋𝑑
4
𝐷 𝜋 8𝑊𝐷
Torsional shear stress τ2 is found using 𝑊 × = . 𝜏2 . 𝑑 3 or 𝜏2 = 3 where D is the diameter of the spring coil
2 16 𝜋𝑑
(D>d and D/d=c)
8𝑊𝐷 𝑑 8𝑊𝐷 𝑑 1
Total shear stress τ = τ1+ τ2 = 3 [1 + ] = 3 . 𝐾𝑠 where 𝐾𝑠 =[1 + ] = [1 + ] is known as the shear
𝜋𝑑 2𝐷 𝜋𝑑 2𝐷 2𝑐
stress factor.
8𝑊𝐷
If the stress due to curvature effect is considered then τ = 3 . 𝐾
𝜋𝑑
4𝑐−1 0.615
(Whal’s factor = + )
4𝑐−4 𝑐
If δ is the deflection of the helical spring and n is the number of active coils then deflection/coil = δ/n and
𝐺𝑑 4 𝛿
number of coils n =
8𝑊𝐷3
𝑊 𝐺𝑑 4
On substituting = 𝑠 (spring constant), n =
𝛿 8𝑠𝐷3
Note: During impact loads
Case (i) when a moving mass with KE of ½ mv2 impacts with helical buffer spring(s), the KE is converted into
strain energy (SE) in the spring(s). If the compression (deflection) in the spring(s) is δ, then
0+𝑊
½ mv2 = x ( ). δ where x is the number of helical springs used in parallel to stop the moving load, W is the
2
equivalent gradually applied load which produces same deflection as the impact load. This load of W is to be
taken as the design load for the spring.
Case (ii) when a load P dropped from a height h on a helical spring (axially), the PE lost by the body is
converted into SE in the spring.
0+𝑊
𝑃(ℎ + 𝛿) = 𝑥( )𝛿, design load for spring W can be found from this relation.
2
Example 1. The deflection of a spring with 20 active turns under a load of 1000 N is 10 mm. The spring is made
into two pieces each of 10 active coils and placed in parallel under the same load. The deflection of the system
is____. (GATE)
(a) 20 mm (b) 10 mm (c) 5 mm (d) 2.5 mm
Sol: (d)
Spring constant of original spring k = 1000/10 = 100 N/mm
By cutting the spring into two halves, spring constant of each part becomes 2k = 200 N/mm
1
(Because 𝑠 ∝ )
𝑛
Equivalent spring constant for springs in parallel is seq = s1 + s2 = 200 + 200 = 400 N/mm
𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑 1000
The deflection of the new system = = = 2.5 𝑚𝑚
𝑠𝑒𝑞 400
Example 2. Design a helical spring for a maximum compression load of 1200 N and a deflection of 30 mm. The
permissible shear stress in the spring material is 400 MPa and the modulus of rigidity is 80 Gpa.
4𝑐−1 0.615
Take the spring index C as 5 and the Whal’s factor 𝐾 = + (GATE)
4𝑐−4 𝑐
Sol:
W = 1200 N, δ = 30 mm, τ (permissible) = 400 MPa, G = 80 GPa, C = D/d =5
Design of the helical spring means finding safe dimensions for n, d and D.
20−1 0.615
Whal’s factor K = + = 1.31
20−4 5
8𝑊𝐷 𝐷 400×106 ×𝜋 𝐶 5
Using shear stress τ = . 𝐾 or == = 99923.4 = = or d = 7 mm
𝜋𝑑 3 𝑑3 8×1200×1.31 𝑑2 𝑑2
𝐺𝑑 4 𝛿 𝐺𝑑𝛿 80×109 ×0.007×0.03
Using number of coils n = = = = 14 turns
8𝑊𝐷3 8𝑊𝐶 3 8×1200×53
Diameter of spring coil D =5d =35 mm
Example 3. Two helical tensile springs of the same material and also having identical mean coil diameter and
weight, have wire diameters d and d/2 .The ratio of their stiffness is
(a) 1 (b) 4 (c) 64 (d) 128
Sol: (c)
𝜋 𝜋
When the weights of both springs are equal, 𝑑 2 (𝜋𝐷)𝑛1 = (0.5𝑑)2 (𝜋𝐷)𝑛2
4 4
𝑛1 = 0.25𝑛2 or 4𝑛1 = 𝑛2
𝐺𝑑 4 𝐺𝑑 4 𝑑4
Number of active coils n = or s = or s ∝ (when D and G are unchanged)
8𝑠𝐷3 8𝑛𝐷3 𝑛
95
𝑠1 𝑛2 𝑑14 4𝑑 4
= = = 64: 1
𝑠2 𝑛1 𝑑24 𝑑 4 /16
Example 4. A weighing machine consists of a 2 kg pan resting on a spring. In this condition, the pan resting on
the spring, the length of the spring is 200 mm. When a mass of 20 kg is placed on the pan, the length of the
spring becomes 100 mm. For the spring, the un-deformed length l0 and the spring constant k (stiffness) are____
and ____. (GATE)
Sol:
Using F = kx, 2 = k (l0 – 200) and 22 = k (l0 – 100)
On subtracting, 20 = 100k or k = 20 N/m
On substituting value of k, 2 = 0.2 (l0 – 200) or l0 = 210 mm
Example 5. A helical compression spring made of a wire of circular cross section is subjected to a compressive
load. The maximum shear stress induced in the cross-section of the wire is 24 MPa. For the same compressive
load, if both the wire diameter and the mean coil diameter are doubled, the maximum shear stress (in MPa)
induced in the cross-section of the wire is____. (GATE)
Sol:
8𝑊𝐷 𝑑
Total shear stress in the spring wire τ = τ1+ τ2 = 3 [1 + ] = 24 MPa
𝜋𝑑 2𝐷
8𝑊(2𝐷) 2𝑑 1 8𝑊𝐷 𝑑 1
When D’= 2D and d’= 2d, τ’ = [1 + ]= . [1 + ]= . 24 = 6 MPa
8𝜋𝑑 3 4𝐷 4 𝜋𝑑 3 2𝐷 4
*******
96

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Applied Mechanics and Design

About the author

L N Pattanaik (born 1969) is presently Associate Professor in the Department of Production

More about the author at https://sites.google.com/site/lnpattana

From the Author

Corrections or suggestions from the readers are solicited.

APPLIED MECHANICS AND DESIGN

CHAPTER 4 MACHINE DESIGN

4.4.1 Bolted joints

 Newton’s three laws of motion

1.1 Free-body diagrams and equilibrium

Support types Reactions Support types Reactions

Fixed end support Vertical/horizontal Collar on smooth Reaction normal to

Sphere, cylinder, Reaction is equal to Bar or rod inside a Reactions normal to

Two Normal reactions at Roller and hinged Reactions at support

Fixed end or built-in A reaction couple at A ladder rests on a Friction at wall is

𝑇. 𝑐𝑜𝑠 20 = 𝑊 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑇. 𝑠𝑖𝑛 20 = 𝑅

Reaction (R) 𝑇 = 53.2𝑘𝑁 𝑅 = 18.1𝑘𝑁

Law of force/vector Illustration Law of force/vector Illustration

1.2 Trusses and frames

Special situations in truss Quick Solution

Rule 2: “If three members meet at a D

Note: Find FKN taking angle LMN as 300

(A) j = 2m – 3 (B) m = 2j + 1 (C) m = 2j – 3 (D) m = 2j – 1 Sol: (C)

Q3. 3kN 2kN

1.3 Virtual work

1.4 Kinematics and dynamics of particles

Rectilinear motion Curvilinear motion

Substituting in equation for maximum height, u = 171.45 m/s

𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 𝑏ℎ3 diameter)

The moment of the area about X-X is 𝐼𝑋𝑋 = ∫𝐴 𝑦 2 𝑑 A X X

Conservation of linear momentum: mA

Coefficient of restitution: vA=10m/s v’A=7m/s

metal collar of mass 8kg which was at rest on a spring of

F=R (reaction) F=R (reaction) F X

Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS)

2.3 Mohr’s circle for plane stress and plane strain

Normal stresses (σx, σy) and shear stress τ act as shown on an

(A) 20 (B) 25 (C) 50 (D) 100

75 = 40 + √400 + 𝜏𝑥𝑦 2 𝑜𝑟 35 = 400 + 𝜏 2 𝑜𝑟 𝜏

2.4 Thin and thick cylinders

2.5 Shear force and bending moment diagrams

For the loaded beam shown here, RA and RB are

Magnitude of shear force at x = 10 is 10×10+10 = 110 N

Consider the cantilever beam with a load P at the

When areas of square and circle are same a:d = 0.88:1

Moment Area method:

Beam and Diagram Elastic curve Maximum Slope θ

Cantilever with w per unit length

Simply support w/l

2.8 Torsion of circular shafts

Example 10. Consider a stepped shaft subjected to a twisting moment applied at B as

Example 11. A hollow shaft of 1 m length is designed to transmit a power of 30 kW at 700

2𝜋𝑁𝑇 60𝑃 60×30×103

2.9 Euler’s theory of columns

2.10 Energy methods

2.11 Thermal stresses

(a) σr = 0 and σz = 0 (b) σr ≠ 0 and σz = 0 (c) σr = 0 and σz ≠ 0 (d) σr ≠ 0 and σz ≠ 0

Due to increase in temperature of 100 0C, the thermal elongation of

2.12 Strain gauges and rosettes

2.13 Testing of materials with universal testing machine