Calculus 1 A Simplified Text in Differential Calcu PDF

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Calculus 1: A Simpliﬁed Text in Differential Calculus
Book · March 2015
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Harold Jan Terano

Camarines Sur Plytechnic Colleges
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Preface
The discovery of Calculus had been of the greatest interest during the
seventeenth century. This is the time of discovery and inventions, but with the
inadequate and insufficient ideas and concepts of the classical mathematics about
these emerging theories and incapable of explaining these theories in terms of
mathematical formulation, Calculus was born.
Calculus was the product of the knowledge of the two greatest mathematicians
of all time, Isaac Newton of England and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz of Germany.
These two mathematicians worked independently with their discovery and until now,
they were considered to be the Fathers of Calculus.
The word “calculus” was derived from the Latin word for stone or pebble.
During ancient times, pebbles were used for counting and calculus was defined to be
a method or system of calculation. This method of calculation developed by Newton
and Leibniz was the currently known as the CALCULUS.
Calculus had been one of the most important courses taught in mathematics
related degree programs in almost all colleges and universities throughout the world.
This comprises of two major fields, namely, Differential Calculus and Integral
Calculus.
Differential Calculus primarily concern with the study of differentiation
techniques and its applications. It includes explicit and implicit differentiation of
algebraic and transcendental functions with applications to curve sketching,
optimization problems, business and economics and related rates.
This book considers the simplification of the discussions of the basic and
important topics in differential calculus. This offers a simplified approach on the
discussions but substantial in contents for the purpose of the learning of the students.
The most important part in studying is to learn and understand the underlying
ideas and concepts that a certain field of study have. These are the essentials of
studying to undergo a productive and effective learning and to go beyond the
practical applications of this knowledge in the outside world.
As what Howard Anton, Irl Bivens and Stephen Davis stated in their book,
“Calculus, Early Transcendental”,
“Calculus involves equations and formulas. However, if you
successfully learn to use all the formulas and solve all of the
i
Author: Harold Jan R. Terano, ECE, ME
problems in this text but don’t master the underlying ideas, you will
have missed the most important part of Calculus. Keep in mind that
every single problem in this text has already been solved by
somebody, so your ability to solve those problems gives you
nothing unique. However, if you master the ideas of calculus, then
you will have the tools to go beyond what the other people have
done, limited by your own talents and creativity,”
By this text, anyone can go through the ideas of Newton and Leibniz and
experience their entire discoveries and apply all these knowledge in the particular
applications in the present phenomenon that happens in the present world.
To all, welcome to the most interesting and important field of mathematics,
CALCULUS.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my sincere gratitude and thanks to all my co-instructors
and professors both from Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges, Nabua, Camarines
Sur, Bicol University Polangui Campus, Polangui, Albay and University of
Northeastern Philippines, Iriga City, to my students, friends and relatives, to my
family and most of all to the Almighty God for their continual supports and
encouragement for the completion of this work. Without them, this work will never
been in reality.
To all, my sincere thanks and May God bless you!!!
HAROLD JAN R. TERANO, ECE, MET

Faculty Member
College of Engineering and Graduate School
Camarines Sur Polytechnic Colleges, Nabua, Camarines Sur
2015
ii
Table of Contents
Page
Preface i
Chapter 1: FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1

1.1 Functions 2
1.2 Functional Notation 3
1.3 Graphs of Functions 5
1.4 Odd and Even Functions 6
1.5 Limits 7
1.6 Limit Theorems 8
1.7 Continuity 10
Exercise 1.1 11
Chapter 2: DERIVATIVES 13
2.1 The Derivative 14
Exercise 2.1 16
2.2 Slope 17
Exercise 2.2 19
2.3 Rate of Change 20
Exercise 2.3 22
Chapter 3: ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 23

3.1 Basic Derivative Formulas 24
Exercise 3.1 27
3.2 The Chain Rule 28
Exercise 3.2 29
3.3 Higher Order Derivatives 29
Exercise 3.3 30
3.4 Derivatives of Implicit Functions 31
Exercise 3.4 32
Chapter 4: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 35

4.1 Slope of a Curve 36
4.2 Tangents and Normals to the Plane Curves 37
Exercise 4.1 40
4.3 Maxima and Minima 41
4.4 Inflection Points 44
4.5 Sketching of Polynomial Curves 44
Exercise 4.2 46
4.6 Optimization Problems: Applications of
Maxima and Minima 46
Exercise 4.3 50
4.7 Time Rates 51
Exercise 4.4 54
4.8 Differentials, Approximations and Newton’s Method 56
Exercise 4.5 62
iii
Chapter 5: TRIGONOMETRIC AND
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 65
5.1 Trigonometric Functions: A Review 66
5.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions 67
5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions 68
Exercise 5.1 71
5.4 Applications of the Derivatives of
Trigonometric Functions 72
Exercise 5.2 75
5.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and its Graphs 76
5.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 77
Exercise 5.3 82
Chapter 6: EXPONENTIAL AND

LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS 85
6.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: A Review 86
6.2 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 87
Exercise 6.1 92
Chapter 7: HYPERBOLIC AND

INVERSE HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS 95
7.1 Hyperbolic Functions: A Review 96
7.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions 96
7.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions 99
Exercise 7.1 103
Chapter 8: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 105

8.1 Parametric Equations 106
8.2 Graphs of Parametric Equations 107
8.3 Derivatives of Parametric Equations 109
Exercises 8.1 110
Chapter 9: CURVATURE 113

9.1 Curvature: An Introduction 114
9.2 Curvature and Radius of Curvature 114
9.3 Circle of Curvature 116
Exercise 9.1 118
Chapter 10: INDETERMINATE FORMS 121

10.1 Indeterminate Forms 122
10.2 The L’hopital’s Rule 122
଴
10.3 The Indeterminate Forms, ଴ and 122
10.4 The Indeterminate Form, 0 ή 123
10.5 The Indeterminate Form, െ 123
10.6 The Indeterminate Forms, 0଴ ,଴ and 1 123
Exercise 10.1 125
iv
Chapter 11: INTRODUCTION TO
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION 127
11.1 Limits 128
11.2 Partial Derivatives 128
11.3 Higher Order Partial Derivatives 129
Exercise 11.1 131
References 133
v
Chapter 1
FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND

CONTINUITY
Outline:
1.1 Functions
1.2 Functional Notation
1.3 Graphs of Functions
1.4 Odd and Even Functions
1.5 Limits
1.6 Limit Theorems
1.7 Continuity
Overview:
One of the ideas of differential calculus lies on the notion of limit. Limit
explains the behavior of a function at a certain point or near at that point. The study
of limits gives importance in determining the continuity or discontinuity of a certain
function.
This chapter begins with the study of function, its properties and graphs. This
will also introduce functional notation, limits and limit theorems and continuity.
Objectives:
Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:

1. Define functions, domain and range and functional notation.
2. Evaluate functional notations.
3. Sketch the graph of the curve of a given function.
4. Determine whether a function is an odd or even function.
5. Define limits.
6. Identify the importance of limits in Calculus.
7. Compute the limit of a function by approximation.
8. Identify the limit theorems.
9. Compute the limit of a function using limit theorems.
10. Define continuity.
11. Determine the continuity and discontinuity of a function.
1
1.1 Functions
A function is a relationship between two variables such that to each value of
the independent variable there corresponds exactly one value of the independent
variable.
Consider ‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬, which is a relationship between two variables ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬,
where ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is the independent variable and ‫ ݕ‬is the dependent variable.
The collection of all values assumed by the independent variable is called the
domain of the function, and the collection of all values assumed by the dependent
variable is called the range of the function.
Example(a).
From the following equations, identify which define functional relationships
between the variables ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬.
a. ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 3 c. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ = ݕ‬1
b. ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬2 d. ‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬ଶ = 5
Solution:
To determine if an equation defines a functional relationship between its
variables, isolate the dependent variable on the left side and the
independent variable on the right side.
Considering ‫ ݕ‬as the dependent variable and ‫ ݔ‬as the independent

variable, we have,
For a.,
‫ = ݕ‬± ξ3 െ ‫ݔ‬, this is not a function since there are two values of
‫ ݕ‬for some values of ‫ݔ‬.
For b.,
‫ = ݕ‬2 െ ‫ݔ‬, this is a function since there is only one value for ‫ݕ‬
for every values of ‫ݔ‬.
For c.,
‫ = ݕ‬1 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , this is a function.
For d.,
‫ = ݕ‬± ξ5 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , this is not a function.
Considering ‫ݔ‬ as the dependent variable and ‫ݕ‬ as the

independent variable, we have,
For a.,
‫ = ݔ‬3 െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ , this is a function.
For b.,
‫ = ݔ‬2 െ ‫ݕ‬, this is a function.
For c.,
‫ = ݔ‬± ඥ1 െ ‫ݕ‬, this is not a function.
For d.,
‫ = ݔ‬± ඥ5 െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ, this is not a function.
Example(b).
ଵ
Determine the domain and range for the function defined by ‫= ݕ‬ ௫ିଷ
.
2
Solution:
The domain is all real numbers ‫ ് ݔ‬3.
The function has a zero denominator when ‫ = ݔ‬3, thus, the domain
is restricted to all real numbers except ‫ = ݔ‬3. The range is all real numbers,
‫ ് ݕ‬0.
Example(c).
Determine the domain and range of the equation, ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬െ 1.
Solution:
The domain is all real numbers ‫ ݔ‬൒ 1.
The equation ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 defines ‫ ݕ‬as a function of ‫ݔ‬. The function
has negative values inside the square root if ‫ ݔ‬൑ െ1, thus, the domain of the
function is all real numbers greater than or equal to 1. The range of the
function is never negative, therefore the range is all real numbers ‫ ݕ‬൒ 0.
1.2 Functional Notation

The equation ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 1 is a function where ‫ ݕ‬is the dependent variable and
‫ ݔ‬is the independent variable. In functional notation, this equation has the form,
݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ െ 1
Functional notation ݂(‫)ݔ‬, which is the dependent variable is read, "݂ of ‫"ݔ‬
and denoted that ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is a function of ‫ݔ‬.
The following examples show how to evaluate functional notations.
Example(a).
Let ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 7. Find, ݂(െ2),݂(0),݂(4),݂(3‫ )ݔ‬and ݂(2‫)ݕ‬.
Solution:
݂(െ2) = (െ2) ଶ + 3(െ2) െ 7 = െ9
݂(0) = (0) ଶ + 3(0) െ 7 = െ7
݂(4) = (4) ଶ + 3(4) െ 7 = 21
݂(െ3‫( = )ݔ‬െ3‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 3(െ3‫ )ݔ‬െ 7 = 9‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9‫ ݔ‬െ 7
݂(2‫( = )ݕ‬2‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + 3(2‫ )ݕ‬െ 7 = 4‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݕ‬െ 7
The values, ݂(െ2),݂(0),݂(4),݂(െ3‫)ݔ‬ and ݂(2‫)ݕ‬ are called
functional values, and they lie in the range of ݂. This means that the
values, ݂(െ2),݂(0),݂(4),݂(െ3‫ )ݔ‬and ݂(2‫ )ݕ‬are ‫ݕ‬-values and thus the
points, ൫െ2,݂(െ2)൯, ൫0,݂(0)൯, ൫4,݂(4)൯, ൫െ3‫ݔ‬, ݂(െ3‫)ݔ‬൯ and ൫2‫ݕ‬,݂(2‫)ݕ‬൯ lie
on the graph of ݂.
Example(b).
గ
Let ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬sin 2‫ ݔ‬െ cos‫ݔ‬. Find, ݃(ߨ),݃ ቀ ቁ ,݃(ߨ + ‫)ݔ‬,݃(െ‫ )ݔ‬and ݃(0).
ଶ
Solution:
݃(ߨ) = sin 2ߨ െ cos ߨ = 0 െ (െ1) = 1
గ గ గ
݃ ቀ ଶ ቁ = sin 2 ቀଶ ቁ െ cosቀଶ ቁ = 0 െ 0 = 0
3
݃(ߨ + ‫ = )ݔ‬sin 2(ߨ + ‫ )ݔ‬െ cos(ߨ + ‫)ݔ‬
= sin 2ߨ cos 2‫ ݔ‬+ cos2ߨ sin 2‫ ݔ‬െ (cosߨ cos‫ ݔ‬െ sin ߨ sin ‫)ݔ‬
= sin 2ߨ cos2‫ ݔ‬+ cos2ߨ sin 2‫ ݔ‬െ cosߨ cos‫ ݔ‬+ sin ߨ sin ‫ݔ‬
= sin 2‫ ݔ‬+ cos‫ݔ‬
݃(െ‫ = )ݔ‬sin 2(െ‫ )ݔ‬െ cos(െ‫)ݔ‬
= െ sin 2‫ ݔ‬െ cos‫ݔ‬
݃(0) = sin 2(0) െ cos(0) = െ1
Example(c).
Let ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5 and ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬5‫ ݔ‬െ 1, find (݂ ‫()݃ ל‬2),(݂ ‫)ݔ()݃ ל‬,(݃ ‫ל‬
݂)(‫ )ݔ‬and (݃ ‫)ݔ()݃ ל‬.
Solution:
The composition of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬and ݃(‫ )ݔ‬is (݂ ‫݂ = )ݔ()݃ ל‬൫݃(‫)ݔ‬൯. This is
called as function composition.
For (݂ ‫()݃ ל‬2),
(݂ ‫()݃ ל‬2) = ݂൫݃(2)൯
But, ݃(2) = 5(2) െ 1 = 9, then,
݂൫݃(2)൯ = ݂(9) = 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5
= 2(9) ଶ െ 9 + 5
(݂ ‫()݃ ל‬2) = 158
For (݂ ‫)ݔ()݃ ל‬,
(݂ ‫݂ = )ݔ()݃ ל‬൫݃(‫)ݔ‬൯
But, ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬5‫ ݔ‬െ 1, then,
݂൫݃(‫)ݔ‬൯ = ݂(5‫ ݔ‬െ 1) = 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5
= 2(5‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଶ െ (5‫ ݔ‬െ 1) + 5
= 50‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 25‫ ݔ‬+ 8
For (݃ ‫)ݔ()݂ ל‬,
(݃ ‫݃ = )ݔ()݂ ל‬൫݂(‫)ݔ‬൯
But, ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5, then,
݃൫݂ (‫)ݔ‬൯ = ݃(2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5) = 5‫ ݔ‬െ 1
= 5(2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5) െ 1
= 10‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5‫ ݔ‬+ 24
For (݃ ‫)ݔ()݃ ל‬,
(݃ ‫݃ = )ݔ()݃ ל‬൫݃(‫)ݔ‬൯
But, ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬5‫ ݔ‬െ 1, then,

݃൫݃(‫)ݔ‬൯ = ݃(5‫ ݔ‬െ 1) = 5‫ ݔ‬െ 1
= 5(5‫ ݔ‬െ 1) െ 1
= 25‫ ݔ‬െ 6
4
1.3 Graphs of Functions
In this section, we will discuss functions from a geometric or graphic
perspective. The graph of a function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬consists of all points ൫‫ݔ‬,݂( ‫ ) ݔ‬൯, where
‫ ݔ‬is the directed distance from the ‫ݕ‬-axis and ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is the directed distance from the
‫ݔ‬-axis.
Example(a).
Graph the equation of the parabola ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 1.
Solution:
‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 1
When, ‫ = ݔ‬െ2; ‫ = ݕ‬5
‫ = ݔ‬െ1; ‫ = ݕ‬2
‫ = ݔ‬0; ‫ = ݕ‬1
‫ = ݔ‬1; ‫ = ݕ‬2
‫ = ݔ‬2; ‫ = ݕ‬5
࢟
૞ ࢟ = ࢞૛ + ૚
૝
૚
࢞
െ૛ െ૚ ૙ ૚ ૛
Example(b).
Express the altitude of a right circular cone as a function of the volume with a
fixed radius of 3 inches. Graph the function.
Solution:
࢘
From the formula of the volume of a cone,

ଵ
ܸ= ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄
ଷ
ଵ
ܸ= ߨ(3) ଶ ݄
ଷ
ଵ
݄= ଷగ
ܸ
5
ଵ
Graphing the function ݄ = ܸ.
ଷగ
When,
ܸ = 0; ݄ = 0
ܸ = 1; ݄ = 0.106
ܸ = 2; ݄ = 0.212
ࢎ
1 ૚
ࢎ= ࢂ
૜࣊
0 1 2 ࢂ
1.4 Odd and Even Functions

The function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬is even if
݂(െ‫)ݔ(݂ = )ݔ‬
The function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬is odd if
݂(െ‫ = )ݔ‬െ݂(‫)ݔ‬
Example(a).
Determine whether the following functions are even, odd or neither.
a. ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 2 c. ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ െ 1
b. ݃(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ െ ‫ݔ‬ d. ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
Solution:
a. The function is even since,
݂(െ‫( = )ݔ‬െ‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 2 = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2 = ݂(‫)ݔ‬
b. The function is odd since,
݃(െ‫( = )ݔ‬െ‫ )ݔ‬ଷ െ (െ‫ = )ݔ‬െ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬െ(‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ ‫ = )ݔ‬െ݃(‫)ݔ‬
c. By substituting െ‫ ݔ‬for ‫ݔ‬, we have,
݂ (െ‫( = )ݔ‬െ‫ )ݔ‬ଷ െ 1 = െ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 1 = െ(‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 1)
Thus, ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ െ 1 and െ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬െ(‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 1),
݂(െ‫ )ݔ(݂ ് )ݔ‬and ݂(െ‫ ് )ݔ‬െ݂(‫)ݔ‬
Therefore, the function is neither even nor odd.
d. The function is even since from trigonometry, cos(െ‫ = )ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬.
6
1.5 Limits
Let ݂(‫ )ݔ‬be the function of ‫ݔ‬, and let "ܽ" be a constant.
We say that the limit of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is ‫ ܮ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܽ and write this as,
‫࢞ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ ࢌ(࢞) = ࡸ or ࢌ(࢞) ՜ ࡸas࢞ ՜ ࢇ
can read as, “the limit of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬equals ‫ ܮ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܽ, provided we can
make ݂(‫ )ݔ‬as close to ‫ ܮ‬as we want for all ‫ ݔ‬sufficiently close to ܽ from both
sides, without actually letting ‫ ݔ‬be ܽ.
The notion of limit explains the behavior of a function near ܽ, not at ܽ.
Consider the function,
௫ మିସ
݂(‫= )ݔ‬ ௫ିଶ
This function is not defined at ‫ = ݔ‬2 since at this point, ݂(‫ )ݔ‬will be equal to
଴
which is undefined and meaningless. However, we can still know what happens to
଴
݂(‫ )ݔ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches 2. To know what happens to ݂(‫ )ݔ‬as ‫ ݔ‬approaches 2, we
should calculate the values of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬for ‫ ݔ‬near 2.
Example(a).
௫ మ ିସ
Evaluate the lim௫՜ଶ .
௫ିଶ
Solution:
௫ మିସ
lim௫՜ଶ
௫ିଶ
Notice that the function is not defined at 2. The result of plugging 2
଴
directly to ‫ ݔ‬is ଴ which is undefined.
Examine the table below and notice what will happens to ݂(‫ )ݔ‬as ‫ݔ‬
approaches 2.
‫ݔ‬ ݂(‫)ݔ‬
2.000001 4.000001
2.00001 4.00001
2.0001 4.0001
2.001 4.001
2.01 4.01
2.1 4.1
From the table, we noticed that the limit approaches 4 as ‫ݔ‬

approaches 2. As ‫ ݔ‬get closer and closer to 2, ‫ ܮ‬also get closer and
closer to 4.
Example(b).
ଵ
Approximate the lim௫՜଴ .
௫
Solution:
Use ‫ = ݔ‬0.0001,
ଵ ଵ
lim௫՜଴.଴଴଴ଵ = ൎ 10,000 ൎ
௫ ଴.଴଴଴ଵ
7
Example(c).
௫ య ାଷ௫ మା௫ାଷ
Approximate the lim௫՜ିଷ .
௫ାଷ
Solution:
Use ‫ = ݔ‬െ3.0001,
௫ యାଷ௫ మ ା௫ାଷ (ିଷ.଴଴଴ଵ) య ାଷ(ିଷ.଴଴଴ଵ) మ ା(ିଷ.଴଴଴ଵ) ାଷ
lim௫՜ିଷ.଴଴଴ଵ ௫ାଷ
= ିଷ.଴଴଴ଵାଷ
ൎ 10
Example(d).
ୱ୧୬ ௫
Approximate the lim௫՜଴ .
௫
Solution:
Use ‫ = ݔ‬0.0001,
ୱ୧୬ ௫ ୱ୧୬(଴.଴଴଴ଵ)
lim௫՜଴.଴଴଴ଵ ௫ = ଴.଴଴଴ଵ
ൎ 0.9999 ൎ 1
Therefore,
ୱ୧୬ ௫
lim௫՜଴ = 1
௫
1.6 Limit Theorems

The following are the limit theorems.
Theorem 1. Uniqueness of Limits.
A function can have at most one limit at ܽ.

݂(‫ )ݔ‬՜ ‫ܮ‬ଵ as ‫ ݔ‬՜ ܽ and ݂(‫ )ݔ‬՜ ‫ܮ‬ଶ as ‫ ݔ‬՜ ܽ, then,
‫ܮ‬ଵ = ‫ܮ‬ଶ .
Theorem 2. Limit of a Constant.
The limit of a constant function ܿ, is equal to that constant.

lim௫՜௔ ܿ = ܿ.
Theorem 3. Limit of the Identity.
The limit of the identity function ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬at any number ܽ is ܽ.

lim௫՜௔ ‫ܽ = ݔ‬.
Theorem 4. Limit of a Sum and Difference.
The limit of a sum and difference of two or more functions is equal to the sum
and difference of their limits.
lim௫՜௔ [݂(‫ )ݔ‬± ݃(‫ = ])ݔ‬lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬± lim௫՜௔ ݃(‫)ݔ‬.
Theorem 5. Limit of a Product.
The limit of a product of two or more functions is equal to the product of their
limits.
lim௫՜௔ [݂(‫ = ])ݔ(݃)ݔ‬lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬ή lim௫՜௔ ݃(‫)ݔ‬.
8
Theorem 6. Limit of a Quotient.
The limit off two functions is equal to the quotient of their limits, provided that
the limit of the denominator is not zero.
௙(௫) ୪୧୫ ೣ՜ೌ ௙(௫)
lim௫՜௔ ቂ ቃ= , provided that the lim௫՜௔ ݃(‫ ് )ݔ‬0.
௚(௫) ୪୧୫ೣ՜ೌ ௚(௫)
Theorem 7. Limit of a Polynomial.
The limit of a polynomial at any number ܽ is the value of that polynomial at

ܽ.
lim௫՜௔ (݂௡ ‫ ݔ‬௡ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݂ଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ ݂଴ ) = ݂௡ ܽ ௡ + ‫ ڮ‬+ ݂ଵ ܽ + ݂଴.
Theorem 8. Limit of a Root.
The limit of the root of a function is equal to the root of their limits.
lim௫՜௔ ೙ඥ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬೙ඥlim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬.
Example(a).
Evaluate the lim௫՜ଶ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫)ݔ‬.
Solution:
By Theorem 4,
lim௫՜ଶ(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ = )ݔ‬lim௫՜ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + lim௫՜ଶ 3‫ݔ‬
Then, by Theorem 5,
lim௫՜ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + lim௫՜ଶ 3‫( = ݔ‬lim௫՜ଶ ‫ ݔ‬ή lim௫՜ଶ ‫ )ݔ‬+ (lim௫՜ଶ 3 ή lim௫՜ଶ ‫)ݔ‬
= (2)(2) + (3)(2) = 10
Example(b).
௫ యାଷ௫ మ ା௫ିଵ
Evaluate the lim௫՜ସ ቀ ௫ మା଺௫ାଷ ቁ.
Solution:
By Theorems 6 and 7,
௫ యାଷ௫ మା௫ିଵ ୪୧୫ೣ՜ర ௫ యାଷ௫ మ ା௫ିଵ
lim௫՜ସ ቀ మ ቁ=
௫ ା଺௫ାଷ ୪୧୫ೣ՜ర ௫ మ ା଺௫ାଷ
(ସ) యାଷ(ସ) మ ାସିଵ ଵଵହ
= =
(ସ) మା଺(ସ)ାଷ ସଷ
Example(c).
ర
Evaluate the lim௫՜ଵ ξ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 8.
Solution:
By Theorem 8,
ర ర
lim௫՜ଵ ξ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 8 = ඥlim௫՜ଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 8
ర
= ඥ(1) ଶ + 6(1) + 8
ర
= ξ15
Example(d).
ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
Evaluate the limఏ՜ഏ .
ర ୱ୧୬ ఏ ୲ୟ୬ ఏ
Solution:
By Theorem 6,
ഏ
ୡ୭ୱ ఏ ୡ୭ୱ
ర
limఏ՜ഏ = ഏ ഏ = 1
ర ୱ୧୬ ఏ ୲ୟ୬ ఏ ୱ୧୬ ୲ୟ୬
ర ర
9
1.7 Continuity
Consider the figures below,
࢟ ࢟ ࢟
ࢇ ࢞ ࢇ ࢞ ࢞
ࢇ
At the first figure, the lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬does not exists. For the second, the
lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬exists but the lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ܽ(݂ ് )ݔ‬and at the third figure, the graph
exhibits continuity at ܽ, therefore, lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫)ܽ(݂ = )ݔ‬.
A function ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is said to be continuous at ‫ܽ = ݔ‬, if the following conditions

are satisfied.
lim௫՜௔ ݂(ܽ) exists;
lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫ )ݔ‬exists;
lim௫՜௔ ݂(‫)ܽ(݂ = )ݔ‬.
Example(a).
Show that ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 1 is continuous at ‫ = ݔ‬3.
Solution:
At ‫ = ݔ‬3, ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 1 is continuous because lim௫՜ଷ(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1) = 10,
݂(3) = (3) ଶ + 1 = 10.
Example(b).
Show that ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1 is continuous at ‫ = ݔ‬2.
Solution:
At ‫ = ݔ‬2, ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1 is continuous because lim௫՜ଶ ξ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1 = ξ5.
݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ඥ(2) ଶ + 1 = ξ5
Right hand continuity exists when,

lim௫՜௔శ ݂(‫ )ܽ(݂ = )ݔ‬and
Left hand continuity exists when,
lim௫՜௔ష ݂(‫)ܽ(݂ = )ݔ‬.
Example(c).
What continuity exists in the function ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ξ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
For ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬at ‫ = ݔ‬0, the function has a right hand continuity at
‫ = ݔ‬0, because the limit exists when ‫ > ݔ‬0. For ‫ < ݔ‬0,݂(‫ )ݔ‬is not defined.
If the stated conditions above are not satisfied, the function ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is said to be
discontinuous at ‫ܽ = ݔ‬, or have a discontinuity at ‫ܽ = ݔ‬.
10
Example(d).
௫ మିଽ
Find the point of discontinuity of the function ݂(‫= )ݔ‬ .
௫ିଷ
Solution:
The function is undefined at ‫ = ݔ‬3, since both the numerator and the
denominator is equal to zero having an undefined value, but,
௫ మିଽ ( ௫ିଷ)(௫ାଷ)
lim௫՜ଷ = lim௫՜ଷ = lim௫՜ଷ(‫ ݔ‬+ 3) = 6
௫ିଷ ௫ିଷ
Since,
௫ మିଽ
= ‫ ݔ‬+ 3,‫ ് ݔ‬3,
௫ିଷ
௫ మିଽ
The graph of the function ݂(‫= )ݔ‬ ௫ିଷ
is the line ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 3, except for an
invisible break at ‫ = ݔ‬3.
Example(e).
Find the point of discontinuity of the function ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬tan ߠ.
Solution:
௡గ
The function has a discontinuity at ߠ = ଶ , where ݊ is any odd
integer.
Exercises 1.1
I. Find the domain and range of the given functions.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬െ2‫ݔ‬
2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 1
ଵ
4. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫మ
5. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 2
II. Perform the indicated operations in each exercise.

1. If ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 5, find ݂(0),݂(3),݂(െ5),݂(െ3‫ )ݔ‬and ݂(‫ ݔ‬+ 1).
2. If ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬9 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , find ݂(െ2),݂(2),݂(െ‫)ݕ‬,݂(4‫ )ݕ‬and ݂(‫ ݕ‬+ 1).
3. If ‫ = )ݔ(ܨ‬sin ‫ ݕ‬+ cos‫ݕ‬, find ‫)ߨ(ܨ‬,‫(ܨ‬0),‫(ܨ‬2ߨ),‫(ܨ‬െ‫ )ݕ‬and ‫ ߨ(ܨ‬+ ‫)ݔ‬.
4. If ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬+ 2 and ݃(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ െ 1, find (݂ ‫()݃ ל‬3),(݂ ‫)ݔ()݃ ל‬,(݂ ‫ל‬
ଶ ),(݃
݃)(‫ݔ‬ ‫ )ݔ()݂ ל‬and (݂ ‫)ݔ()݂ ל‬.
5. If ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬ln ‫ݔ‬, find ݂(1),݂(݁), ݂(݁ ଶ ),݂(݁ ି௫ ) and ݂(cos2ߨ).
6. Express the area of a triangle as a function of its altitude having a base of 4
units. Graph the function.
7. Express the volume of a right circular cone with an altitude of 6 units as a
function of its radius. Graph the function.
8. Express the height of a right circular cylinder as a function of its volume
having a radius of 4 cm. Graph the function.
11
9. A parabola has an altitude of 4 units. Express the length of its base as a
function of its area. Graph the function.
10. A population of a certain place is given by ܲ = 8000݁ ଴.ସହ଻௧ , where ܲ is the
present population and ‫ ݐ‬is the time in years. Express the time ‫ ݐ‬as a
function of the population ܲ. Graph the function.
III. For the given functions, sketch the graph of the curves and determine
whether the functions are even, odd or neither.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 1
2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 5
3. ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫
4. ‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
5. ‫ ݎߨ = ܣ‬ଶ
IV. Evaluate the following limits.

1. lim௫՜భ (5‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 10)
మ
2. lim௫՜ଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5) ଻(‫ ݔ‬+ 3)

3. lim௫՜ିଶ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 6)
ହ௧ మ ି௧ା଺
4. lim௧՜ସ ௧ା଺
௧ మ ା଺௧ିଵ
5. lim௧՜ିହ
ξ௧ାଵଶ
௫ିସ
6. lim௫՜ସ ௫ మି௫ିଵଶ
ඥ௬ మାଷ
7. lim௬՜ିଶ ௬ య ା௬ మିଷ
భ
ୱ୧୬ ఏ
మ
8. limఏ՜గ
ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
௘ షೣ
9. lim௫՜
௫
ଵିୱ୧୬మ ఏ
10. limఏ՜భగ ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
ర
II. Find all points of discontinuities of the following functions.

ସ௫ାଶ
1. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫ మି଺௫ାଽ
௫ାଶ
2. ‫= ݕ‬
௫ యିସ௫ మିଷ௫ାଵ଼
ଷ(௫ାଶ) మ
3. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫ యାସ௫ మା௫ି଺
4. ‫ = ݕ‬sin ߠ
5. ‫ = ݕ‬cosߠ
12
Chapter 2
DERIVATIVES
Outline:
2.1 The Derivative
2.2 Slope
2.3 Rate of Change
Overview:
Everything changes. As the volume of a balloon changes, there is a
corresponding change in its radius. Population changes with time. A motion of a
certain object changes its position as time changes. Nothing is permanent, that’s why
the study of these phenomena gives birth to derivatives.
Derivative describes the rate of change of a certain thing. This also describes
the behavior of the tangent lines to a graph which can tell what the shape of that
graph is.
This chapter deals with the idea of derivatives, the slope and rate of change.
Objectives:
1. Define derivative.
2. Find the derivative of a given function.
3. Find the slope of a given curve using derivatives.
4. Solve practical problems involving rate of change using derivatives.
13
2.1 The Derivative
Consider a function ‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬.
To obtain the derivative of a given function, follow the procedure below.

1. For the function ‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬, add ο‫ ݔ‬to ‫ ݔ‬and ο‫ ݕ‬to ‫ݕ‬. (ο or delta, called
increment)
‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬ ĺ
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬+ ο‫)ݔ‬ ĺ
2. Substitute the value of ‫ ݕ‬in 1 to the value of ‫ ݕ‬in 2. Transpose the value of ‫ ݕ‬to
the other side obtaining a formula of ο‫ ݕ‬in terms of ‫ ݔ‬and ǻ‫ݔ‬.
From 2,
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬+ ο‫)ݔ‬
݂(‫ )ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬+ ο‫)ݔ‬
ο‫ ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ ݂(‫)ݔ‬ ĺ
3. Perform the suitable algebraic transformation (combine fractions and rationalize)
and simplify.
ο௬
4. From equation 3, write the quotient ο௫
by dividing both sides of the equation By
ο‫ݔ‬.
ο௬ ௙(௫ାο௫)ି௙(௫)
ο௫
= ο௫
5. Evaluate the limit as ο‫ ݔ‬approaches zero.

ௗ௬ ο௬ ௙( ௫ାο௫)ି௙(௫)
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ቂ ο௫
ቃ
ௗ௬ ௗ
The derivative is symbolized by ௗ௫
,‫ ݕ‬ƍ , ݂ ƍ(‫)ݔ‬,‫ܦ‬௫ ‫ ݕ‬and ௗ௫
݂(‫)ݔ‬.
By definition of the derivative:
ο௬
The derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬, is the limit of the ratio ο௫
, when ο‫ݔ‬
approaches zero.
ࢊ࢟ ο࢟
= ‫ ܕܑܔ‬ο࢞՜૙
ࢊ࢞ ο࢞
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 3(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫)ݔ‬
2. ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 3(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ ‫ݕ‬
ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 3(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫)ݔ‬
3. ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ݔ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3ο‫ݔ‬
ο௬ ଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାଷο௫
4. ο௫
= ο௫
ο௬
ο௫
= 2‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3
ௗ௬ ο௬
5. = limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ [2‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3]
ௗ௫ ο௫
ௗ௬
6. = 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3
ௗ௫
14
Example(b).
ଵ
Differentiate the function ‫= ݕ‬ .
ξ௫
Solution:
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬
ξ௫
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬
ξ௫ାο௫
ଵ ଵ
ο‫= ݕ‬ െ
ξ௫ାο௫ ξ௫
ξ௫–ξ௫ାο௫ ξ௫ାξ௫ାο௫
ο‫= ݕ‬ ή
ξ௫ మା௫ο௫ ξ௫ାξ௫ାο௫
ିο௫
ο‫= ݕ‬
ඥ௫( ௫ାο௫)൫ξ௫ାξ௫ାο௫൯
ο௬ ିଵ
=
ο௫ ඥ௫( ௫ାο௫)൫ξ௫ାξ௫ାο௫൯
ௗ௬ ο௬ ିଵ
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ൤ ൨
ඥ௫(௫ାο௫)൫ξ௫ାξ௫ାο௫൯
ௗ௬ ିଵ ଵ
= = െ య
ௗ௫ ௫൫ଶξ௫൯ ଶ௫ ൗమ
Example(c).
ଵ
Differentiate the function ‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାଶ) మ
.
Solution:
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬ ( ௫ାଶ) మ
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାο௫ାଶ) మ
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬
௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ
ଵ ଵ
ο‫= ݕ‬ െ
௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ ௫ మାସ௫ାସ
൫௫ మାସ௫ାସ൯ି൫௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ൯
ο‫= ݕ‬ ( ௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ)(௫ మାସ௫ାସ)
ିଶ௫ο௫ିସο௫ିο௫ మ
ο‫= ݕ‬ (௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ)(௫ మାସ௫ାସ)
ο௬ ିଶ௫ିସିο௫
= ( ௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ)(௫ మାସ௫ାସ)
ο௫
ௗ௬ ο௬ ିଶ௫ିସିο௫
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ቂ(௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మାସ௫ାସο௫ାସ)( ௫ మାସ௫ାସ) ቃ
ௗ௬ ିଶ(௫ାଶ) ଶ
= ( ௫ାଶ) ర
= െ (௫ାଶ) య
ௗ௫
Example(d).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬cos(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫)ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݔ‬cosο‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ο‫ݔ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݔ‬cos ο‫ ݔ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ο‫ ݔ‬െ cos‫ݔ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ο‫ ݔ‬െ cos‫(ݔ‬1 െ cosο‫)ݔ‬
From the trigonometric identity,
ଵ
sin 2‫ = ݔ‬ଶ (1 െ cos2‫)ݔ‬
ଵ
1 െ cos‫ = ݔ‬2sinଶ ቀ ‫ݔ‬ቁ
ଶ
Then,
ଵ
ο‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ο‫ ݔ‬െ cos‫ ݔ‬ቂ2sinଶ ቀଶ ο‫ݔ‬ቁቃ
15
ଵ
ο‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ο‫ ݔ‬െ 2cos‫ ݔ‬ቂsinଶ ቀ ο‫ݔ‬ቁቃ
ଶ
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௫ ୱ୧୬మቀ ο௫ቁ
= െ sin ‫ݔ‬ െ 2 cos‫ݔ‬ మ
ο௫ ο௫ ο௫
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௫ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௫ቁ ଵ
= െ sin ‫ݔ‬ െ cos‫ݔ‬ భ
మ
ቂsin ቀ ο‫ݔ‬ቁቃ
ο௫ ο௫ ο௫ ଶ
మ
భ
ௗ௬ ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௫ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௫ቁ ଵ
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ቊെ sin ‫ ݔ‬ቀ ο௫
ቁ െ cos‫ ݔ‬ቈ భ
మ
቉ ቂsin ቀଶ ο‫ݔ‬ቁቃቋ
ο௫
మ
ௗ௬
= െ sin ‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
Exercise 2.1
Differentiate the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 1
2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 3
3. ‫( = ݕ‬2 + ‫ )ݔ‬ଶ
4. ‫ ݔ(ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 2)
5. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 3
6. ‫ = ݕ‬1 െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ
7. ‫ = ݔ‬ඥ2 െ ‫ݕ‬
8. ‫ = ݕ‬2 + 3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ି ݔ‬ଵ
9. ‫ ݕ( = ݔ‬ଶ + 3) ଶ
10. ‫ = ݒ‬2‫ ݔ‬െ ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 1
ଵ
11. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫
+ ‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ
ଵ
12. ‫ = ݐ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ +
ξ௫
௫ାଷ
13. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫ିଷ
14. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ2 െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ

ଵ
15. ‫= ݔ‬
௧య
16. ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫
17. ‫ି ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௫
18. ‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
19. ‫ = ݕ‬tan ‫ݔ‬
20. ‫ = ݕ‬cot ‫ݔ‬
16
2.2 Slope
࢟ ࢟
࢟ = ࢌ(࢞) ࢟ = ࢌ(࢞)
ࡼᇱ ( ࢞ + ο࢞,࢟ + ο࢟)
ο࢟ = (࢟ + ο࢟ െ ࢟)
ࡼ(࢞,࢟) ࢀ
ࡼ(࢞,࢟) ࢀ
࢞ ࢞
ο࢞
Figure A Figure B
Slope of ࡼ is
ο࢟ (࢟ାο࢟)ି࢟
=
ο࢞ ο࢞
Figure A shows the graph of a function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬and a line ܶ, which is

tangent to the curve at point (‫ݔ‬,‫)ݕ‬. We will find for the slope of the tangent line ܶ.
Figure B shows the graph similar to Figure A, but with a point (‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬along
the ‫ݔ‬-axis and a line ܲ through the point (‫ݔ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬and (‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫)ݕ‬.
The slope of ܲ is,
ο࢟ (࢟ାο࢟)ି࢟
=
ο࢞ ο࢞
ο௬
The line ܲ, joining the points (‫ݔ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬and (‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݕ‬has the slope ο௫.
As ο‫ ݔ‬approaches zero, ܲƍ approaches ܲ along the curve, the slope would
approach the slope ܶ. The tangent line of the curve at (‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬has a slope,
(࢟ାο࢟)ି࢟
࢓ = ‫ܕܑܔ‬ο࢞՜૙ ቂ ቃ
ο࢞
ࢊ࢟
࢓=
ࢊ࢞
The slope of the curve at point (‫ݔ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬and the slope of the line at point (‫ݔ‬,‫)ݕ‬
is likely the same. The equation of the line of slope ݉ is,
‫ ݔ݉ = ݕ‬+ ܾ
Differentiating the equation,

‫ ݔ݉ = ݕ‬+ ܾ
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ(݉ = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬+ ܾ
ο‫ ݔ݉ = ݕ‬+ ݉ο‫ ݔ‬+ ܾ െ ݉‫ ݔ‬െ ܾ
ο௬ ௠ο௫
ο௫
= ο௫
ௗ௬ ο௬
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ݉
ௗ௬
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ݉
ௗ௫
Thus, the derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬, of the equation of a line is its
slope ݉.
17
Example(a).
Find the slope of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 8 at point (1,9).
Solution:
Differentiate the function,
‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 8
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଷ + 8
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ο‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 8
ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶο‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ο‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 8 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 8
ο‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ο‫ ݔ‬ଷ
ο௬
ο௫
= 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ
ௗ௬ ο௬
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ (3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ)
ௗ௫ ο௫
ௗ௬ ƍ ଶ
= ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
At point, (1,9),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3(1) ଶ = 3
Thus, the slope of the curve at point (1,9) is 3.
Example(b).
Find the slope of the curve ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 1 at point (െ3,8).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 1
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬3(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 6(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ 1
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 6ο‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ο‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 6ο‫ ݔ‬െ 1 െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬+ 1
ο‫ = ݕ‬6‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6ο‫ݔ‬
ο௬
ο௫
= 6‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬+ 6
ௗ௬ ο௬
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ (6‫ ݔ‬+ 3ο‫ ݔ‬+ 6)
ௗ௬
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬+ 6
ௗ௫
At point (െ3,8),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6(െ3) + 6
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ12
Example(c).
௫
Find the slope of the curve ‫ = ݕ‬௫ మିଵ at the origin.
Solution:
௫
‫ = ݕ‬௫ మିଵ
௫ାο௫
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାο௫) మିଵ
௫ାο௫
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬
௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ
௫ାο௫ ௫
ο‫= ݕ‬ െ
௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ ௫ మ ିଵ
(௫ାο௫)൫௫ మିଵ൯ି௫൫௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ൯
ο‫= ݕ‬ (௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ)(௫ మିଵ)
௫ యା௫ మο௫ି௫ିο௫ି௫ య ିଶ௫ మο௫ି௫ο௫ మା௫
ο‫= ݕ‬ ( ௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ) (௫ మିଵ)
ο௬ ି௫ మିଵି௫ο௫
ο௫
= (௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మ ିଵ)(௫ మିଵ)
18
ௗ௬ ο௬ ି௫ మ ିଵି௫ο௫
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ቂ(௫ మାଶ௫ο௫ାο௫ మିଵ)(௫ మିଵ) ቃ
ௗ௬ ௫ మାଵ
ௗ௫
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ (௫ మିଵ) మ
At point (0,0),
(଴) మାଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ [(଴) మିଵ] మ = െ1
Example(d).
Find the slope of the parabola ‫ ݕ = ݔ‬ଶ at point (4,2).
Solution:
‫ݕ = ݔ‬ଶ
‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݕ( = ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݕ‬ଶ
ο‫ ݕ = ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ݕ‬ο‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
ο‫ = ݔ‬2‫ݕ‬ο‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݕ‬ଶ
ο௫
= 2‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ݕ‬
ο௬
ௗ௫ ο௫
ௗ௬
= limο௬՜଴ ο௬ = limο௬՜଴ (2‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫)ݕ‬
ௗ௫
= 2‫ݕ‬
ௗ௬
ௗ௬
Since the slope is ௗ௫
, thus,
ௗ௫ ƍ ଵ
ௗ௬
= ‫= ݕ‬ ଶ௬
At point (4,2),
ௗ௫ ଵ ଵ
ௗ௬
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ଶ(ଶ)
= ସ
Exercise 2.2
Find the slope of the given curves.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬2 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ , at (1,3)
2. ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଶ, at (2,16)
3. ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݔ‬, at (2,10)
4. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1, at (0,1)
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ = ‫ ݕ‬െ 3, at (1,4)
ଵ ଵ
6. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫మ
, at ቀ4, ଵ଺ቁ
7. ‫ = ݕ‬9‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5, at (1,4)

8. ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 9, at (0,9)
ଷ ହ
9. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 1, at ቀଶ , െ ସቁ
10. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 3, at (0,െ3)

11. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ݔ‬, at (1,1)
12. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1, at (0,െ1)
19
ଵ ଵ
13. ‫ = ݕ‬4 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݔ‬, at (0,4)
ଶ ସ
14. ‫ = ݕ‬5 + 2‫ݔ‬, at (െ3, െ1)

ଶ௫
15. ‫= ݕ‬ , at (െ3,3)
௫ାଵ
ଵ
16. ‫ = ݕ‬4 + 6‫ ݔ‬െ , at (1,9)
௫
17. ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ ξ‫ݔ‬, at (4,14)

ఱ
18. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬మ , at (1,1)
19. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 3, at (6,3)
20. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ െ 1) ଶ , at (2,9)
2.3 Rate of Change

Given a function,
‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬
The derivative of the function which is,

ௗ௬ ο௬
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫
is the instantaneous rate of change of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬.

ο௬
The ratio ο௫ is the average rate of change over the interval ο‫ݔ‬. As ο‫ݔ‬
approaches zero, the ratio is defined as the instantaneous rate of change.
Example(a).
Find the rate of change of the circumference of a circle increases as the radius
increases.
Solution:
The circumference of a circle is defined by the formula,
‫ = ܥ‬2ߨ‫ݎ‬
Differentiating ‫ ܥ‬with respect to ‫ ݎ‬arrived to,
‫ ܥ‬+ ο‫ = ܥ‬2ߨ(‫ ݎ‬+ ο‫)ݎ‬
ο‫ = ܥ‬2ߨ‫ ݎ‬+ 2ߨο‫ ݎ‬െ 2ߨ‫ݎ‬
ο‫ = ܥ‬2ߨο‫ݎ‬
ο஼
= 2ߨ
ο௥
ௗ஼ ο஼
= limο௥՜଴ = limο௥՜଴ 2ߨ = 2ߨ
ௗ௥ ο௥
which is the rate of change of the circumference with respect to the radius.
Example(b).
Find how fast the volume of a right circular cylinder increases as the radius
increases.
Solution:
The volume of a right circular cylinder is,
ܸ = ߨ‫ݎ‬ଶ ݄
20
Differentiate ܸ with respect to ‫ݎ‬,
ܸ + οܸ = ߨ(‫ ݎ‬+ ο‫ )ݎ‬ଶ ݄
ܸ + οܸ = ߨ( ‫ݎ‬ଶ + 2‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݎ‬+ ο‫ ݎ‬ଶ ) ݄
οܸ = ߨ‫ݎ‬ଶ ݄ + 2ߨ‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݄ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄ െ ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄
οܸ = 2ߨ‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݄ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄
ο௏
ο௥
= 2ߨ‫ ݄ݎ‬+ ߨο‫݄ݎ‬
ௗ௏ ο௏
= limο௥՜଴ = limο௥՜଴ (2ߨ‫ ݄ݎ‬+ ߨο‫)݄ݎ‬
ௗ௥ ο௥
ௗ௏
= 2ߨ‫݄ݎ‬
ௗ௥
Example(c).
Find the rate of change of the ordinate of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3 with
respect to its abscissa at point (െ2,െ3).
Solution:
Differentiating the function,
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + 2(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ 3
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2ο‫ ݔ‬െ 3
ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2ο‫ ݔ‬െ 3 െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3
ο‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2ο‫ݔ‬
ο௬
ο௫
= 2‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 2
ௗ௬ ο௬
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ (2‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
ௗ௬
= 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2
ௗ௫
At point (െ2, െ3),
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= 2(െ2) + 2
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= െ2 units
Example(d).
The area of a circle initially zero increases uniformly at a rate of 5cm2 per
second. Find the rate at which the radius is increasing at the end of 10 seconds.
Solution:
The area of a circle is,
‫ݎߨ = ܣ‬ଶ
Differentiating the function,
‫ ܣ‬+ ο‫ ݎ(ߨ = ܣ‬+ ο‫ )ݎ‬ଶ
‫ ܣ‬+ ο‫ ݎߨ = ܣ‬ଶ + 2ߨ‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ ݎ‬ଶ
ο‫ݎߨ = ܣ‬ଶ + 2ߨ‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ݎ‬ଶ െ ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ
ο‫ = ܣ‬2ߨ‫ݎ‬ο‫ ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ ݎ‬ଶ
ο஺
ο௥
= 2ߨ‫ ݎ‬+ ߨο‫ݎ‬
ௗ஺ ο஺
= limο௥՜଴ = limο௥՜଴ (2ߨ‫ ݎ‬+ ߨο‫)ݎ‬
ௗ௥ ο௥
ௗ஺
= 2ߨ‫ݎ‬
ௗ௥
Since the problem involves time rates, thus,
ௗ஺ ௗ௥
ௗ௧
= 2ߨ‫ ݎ‬ௗ௧
ௗ஺
When = 5 cm2 per second and after 10 seconds,
ௗ௧
‫ = ܣ‬50 cm2 , ‫ = ݎ‬3.99 cm
21
Then,
ௗ௥ ହ
ௗ௧
= ଶగ(ଷ.ଽଽ)
= 0.20 cm. per sec.
Exercise 2.3
Solve the following problems.
1. Find how fast the area of a triangle increases as the length of the base of the
triangle increases with a fixed height of 3 cm.
2. Find how fast the volume of a sphere increases as the radius also increases.
3. Find how fast the surface area of a sphere increases as the radius also
increases when ‫ = ݎ‬6 inches.
4. Find how fast the area of a square increases when its side is 4 units.
5. Find how fast the volume of a cube increases as the dimension of the side
also increases.
6. Find the rate of change of the total surface area of a right circular cylinder with
a fixed height of 20 cm with respect to the radius.
7. Find the rate of change of the area of an ellipse with respect to the major axis.
8. Find how fast the lateral surface area of a right circular cylinder increases as
the radius also increases when the altitude is 4 inches.
9. Find the rate of change of the area of an equilateral triangle with respect to its
side.
10. Find the rate of change of the ordinate of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1 with
respect to the abscissa at point (1,3).
11. Find the point on the parabola ‫ ݔ‬ଶ = 16‫ ݕ‬at which the rate of change of the
ordinate and abscissa are equal.
12. Find the point on the curve ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬at which the rate of change of the
ordinate is twice as the rate of the abscissa.
13. A box has a dimensions of ‫ݔ‬, ‫ ݔ‬ଶ and 2‫ݔ‬. Find how fast the total surface area
increases as ‫ ݔ‬also increases.
14. The height of the right circular cylinder is 10 ft and its radius initially is zero,
increases at a rate of 4 ft. per min., find how fast the volume is increasing after
30 seconds.
15. The volume of a right circular cone, initially zero, increases uniformly at a rate
of 4 cm3 per sec. Find the rate at which the radius is increasing when the
altitude of the cone is 20 cm at the end of 5 sec.
22
Chapter 3
ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS
Outline:
3.1 Basic Derivative Formulas
3.2 The Chain Rule
3.3 Higher Order Derivatives
3.4 Derivatives of Implicit Functions
Overview:
The ideas of derivatives had already been discussed in the previous chapter.
Finding for the derivative of a certain function using the concept of limit is much
complicated since this method needs mastery of some algebraic techniques to obtain
the final answer.
This chapter gives solution to these problems. Computations of derivatives
can now be done by just using formulas for the derivatives of basic algebraic
functions. This will now ease you in finding for the derivative of a function without
computing the limits.
These formulas are proved based on the ideas of derivatives introduced on
the previous chapter and some of these proofs were introduced in this chapter.
Also, other topics included in this chapter are the chain rule, higher order
derivatives and the derivatives of implicit functions.
Objectives:
1. Identify the basic derivative formulas of algebraic functions.
2. Find the derivatives of functions involving algebraic functions.
3. Differentiate functions using the chain rule and implicit differentiation.
4. Solve for the higher order derivatives.
23
3.1 Basic Derivative Formulas
I. Derivative of a Constant
Given the function,

‫ܿ = ݕ‬, where ܿ is constant
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
ࢉ= ૙
The derivative of any constant is zero.

Proof:
‫ܿ =ݕ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ܿ = ݕ‬
ο௬
= 0
ο௫
ௗ௬ ο௬
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ 0
ௗ௫ ο௫
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
ࢉ= ૙
II. Derivative of a Sum
Given ‫ ݑ‬and ‫ ݒ‬as functions of ‫ݔ‬, the derivative of a sum is,

‫ݑ =ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬
ࢊ ࢊ࢛ ࢊ࢜
(࢛ + ࢜) = +
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
The derivative of the sum of two functions is equal to the sum of their
derivatives.
Proof:
‫ݑ =ݕ‬+ ‫ݒ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݑ = ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ ݒ‬+ ο‫ݒ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬ο‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫ݒ‬
ο௬ ο௨ାο௩
=
ο௫ ο௫
ௗ௬ ο௬ ο௨ାο௩
ௗ௫
= limο௫՜଴ ο௫ = limο௫՜଴ ቀ ο௫
ቁ
ࢊ࢟ ࢊ࢛ ࢊ࢜
ࢊ࢞
= ࢊ࢞
+ ࢊ࢞
III. Derivative of a Product
Given ‫ ݑ‬and ‫ ݒ‬as functions of ‫ݔ‬, the derivative of a product is,

‫ݒݑ = ݕ‬
ࢊ ࢊ࢜ ࢊ࢛
(࢛࢜) = ࢛ + ࢜
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
The derivative of the product of two functions is equal to the first function times
the derivative of the second function plus the second function times the derivative of
the first function.
Proof:
‫ݒݑ = ݕ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݑ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݒ()ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݒ‬
ο‫ݒ = ݕ‬ο‫ ݑ‬+ ‫ݑ‬ο‫ ݒ‬+ ο‫ݑ‬ο‫ݒ‬
ο௬ ௩ο௨ା௨ο௩ାο௨ο௩
=
ο௫ ο௫
24
ௗ௬ ο௬ ௩ο௨ା௨ο௩ାο௨ο௩
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ ቀ ቁ
ௗ௫ ο௫ ο௫
ࢊ࢟ ࢊ࢜ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
= ࢛ ࢊ࢞ + ࢜ ࢊ࢞
IV. Derivative of a Quotient
Given ‫ ݑ‬and ‫ ݒ‬as a function of ‫ݔ‬, the derivative of a quotient is,

௨
‫=ݕ‬
௩
ࢊ࢛ ࢊ࢜
ࢊ ࢛ ࢜ ି࢛
ቀ ቁ= ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ࢜ ࢜૛
The derivative of the quotient of two functions is equal to the denominator

times the derivative of the numerator minus the numerator times the derivative of the
denominator all over the square of the denominator.
Proof:
௨
‫ =ݕ‬௩
௨ାο௨
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫= ݕ‬ ௩ାο௩
௨ାο௨ ௨
ο‫= ݕ‬ ௩ାο௩ ௩
െ
௩(௨ାο௨)ି௨(௩ାο௩)
ο‫= ݕ‬
௩(௩ାο௩)
௩ο௨ି௨ο௩
ο‫= ݕ‬ ௩ మା௩ο௩
οೠ οೡ
ο௬ ௩ ି௨
οೣ οೣ
=
ο௫ ௩ మା௩ο௩
οೠ οೡ
ௗ௬ ο௬ ௩ ି௨
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ ቆ οೣ οೣ
ቇ
ௗ௫ ο௫ ௩ మା௩ο௩
ࢊ࢛ ࢊ࢜
ࢊ࢟ ࢜ ି࢛
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
= ૛
ࢊ࢞ ࢜
V. Derivative of ࢞࢔
Given the function,

‫ݔ = ݕ‬௡
ࢊ࢟
ࢊ࢞
= ࢔࢞࢔ି૚
This is the general power formula.

The derivative of a function raised to an integer is equal to the integer times
the function raised to the integer minus one.
Proof:
‫ݔ = ݕ‬௡
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬௡
By Taylor’s Theorem, the expansion is
௡(௡ିଵ) ௡ିଶ
(‫ ݔ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬௡ = ‫ ݔ‬௡ + ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ (ο‫ )ݔ‬+ ‫ݔ‬ (ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ (ο‫ )ݔ‬௡
ଶ!
௡(௡ିଵ)
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ ݔ = ݕ‬௡ + ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ(ο‫ )ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬௡ିଶ (ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ڮ‬+ (ο‫ )ݔ‬௡
ଶ!
௡ିଵ (ο‫)ݔ‬ ௡(௡ିଵ) ௡ିଶ (ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ
ο‫ݔ݊ = ݕ‬ + ‫ݔ‬ + ‫ ڮ‬+ (ο‫ )ݔ‬௡
ଶ!
ο௬ ௡(௡ିଵ)
ο௫
= ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ + ଶ!
‫ݔ‬ ௡ିଶ (ο‫)ݔ‬
+ ‫ ڮ‬+ (ο‫ )ݔ‬௡ିଵ
ௗ௬ ο௬ ௡( ௡ିଵ)
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ ቂ݊‫ ݔ‬௡ିଵ + ‫ ݔ‬௡ିଶ (ο‫ )ݔ‬+ ‫ ڮ‬+ (ο‫ )ݔ‬௡ିଵ ቃ
ௗ௫ ο௫ ଶ!
ௗ௬ ௡ିଵ
= ݊‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
25
Other Formulas
VI. Derivative of a Product of a Constant and a Function

ࢊ ࢊ࢜
(ࢉ࢜) = ࢉ
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
VII. Derivative of a Quotient of a Constant and a Function

ࢊ࢜
ࢊ ࢉ ࢉ
ቀ ቁ= െ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ࢜ ࢜૛
VIII. Derivative of a Square Root

ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
൫ξ࢛൯ = ૛ξ࢛
ࢊ࢞
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫ݑ‬
௨ାο௨ି௨
ο‫= ݕ‬
ξ௨ାο௨ାξ௨
οೠ
ο௬ οೣ
=
ο௫ ξ௨ାο௨ାξ௨
οೠ
ௗ௬ ο௬
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ ቆ οೣ
ቇ
ௗ௫ ο௫ ξ௨ାο௨ାξ௨
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢟ ࢊ࢞
=
ࢊ࢞ ૛ξ࢛
Example(a).
Derive the function ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5‫ ݔ‬െ 2.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5‫ ݔ‬െ 2
By the general power formula,
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬+ 5
Example(b).
௫ మାଵ
Derive the function ‫= ݕ‬ .
௫య
Solution:
௫ మାଵ
‫ =ݕ‬య
௫
By the derivative of a quotient,
௫ య(ଶ௫ௗ௫) ି൫௫ మାଵ൯൫ଷ௫ మ ௗ௫൯
݀‫= ݕ‬ (௫ య) మ
ଶ௫ ర ௗ௫ିଷ௫ ర ௗ௫ିଷ௫ మ ௗ௫
݀‫= ݕ‬
௫ల
൫ି௫ రିଷ௫ మ ൯ௗ௫
݀‫= ݕ‬ ௫ల
ௗ௬ ௫ మାଷ
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = െ
ௗ௫ ௫ర
Example(c).
ଵ ଶ
Derive the function ‫ = ݕ‬మ + .
௫ ௫య
Solution:
ଵ ଶ
‫ = ݕ‬௫మ + ௫య
26
By the derivative of a quotient of a constant and a function,
(ଶ௫ௗ௫) ଶ൫ଷ௫ మ ൯ௗ௫
݀‫ = ݕ‬െ െ
௫ర ௫ల
ௗ௬ ଶ ଺
= െ െ
ௗ௫ ௫య ௫ర
Example(d).
Derive the function ‫ ݐ( = ݕ‬ଶ + 5)(‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݐ‬+ 3).
Solution:
‫ ݐ( = ݕ‬ଶ + 5)(‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݐ‬+ 3)
By the derivative of a product,
݀‫ ݐ( = ݕ‬ଶ + 5)(2‫ ݐ‬െ 1)݀‫ ݐ‬+ (‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݐ‬+ 3)(2‫ݐ݀)ݐ‬
ௗ௬
ௗ௧
= 2‫ ݐ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 10‫ ݐ‬െ 5 + 2‫ ݐ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 6‫ݐ‬
ௗ௬
= 4‫ ݐ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 16‫ ݐ‬െ 5
ௗ௧
Exercise 3.1
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 1
2. ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 1
3. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬െ 1) ଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
4. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ
ହ ଷ ହ
5. ‫= ݕ‬ െ +
௫ ௫మ ௫య
௫ାଵ
6. ‫= ݕ‬
௫ మ ା௫ିଶ
7. ‫ ݔ = ݓ‬ଷ (‫ ݔ‬െ 3) ଶ
య భ
8. ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬మ െ 5‫ ݔ‬మ + 3‫ݔ‬
భ య భ
9. ‫ି ݔ = ݐ‬మ + 3‫ି ݔ‬మ + 4‫ ݔ‬మ
ଵ ଶ
10. ‫= ݔ‬ +
ξ௧ ௧మ
11. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5‫ݔ‬

ଵ
12. ‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାଵ)(௫ାଶ)
ଶ(௫ିଵ)
13. ‫= ݕ‬
௫ మ (௫ାଵ)
ସ௫
14. ‫= ݕ‬ ( ௫ାଵ) (௫ିଶ)
ଵ
15. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ξ‫ ݔ( –ݔ‬+ 3) ଶ
ଷ
27
3.2 The Chain Rule
ହ
For a given function such as ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ଺ ,‫ = ݕ‬൫ξ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݔ‬൯ and ‫=ݕ‬
(‫ ݔ‬ଶ+ ‫ ݔ‬െ 10) ଵ଴ , there is no possible method discussed in the previous topics to find
the derivative of those functions.
For a function ݂(‫ )ݔ‬௡, the derivative can be obtained by using the general
power formula, but in case a function such as [݂(‫ )ݔ‬௡ ] ௥ , a Chain Rule can be used.
ࢊ
[ࢌ(࢞) ࢔ ] ࢘ = ࢘[ࢌ(࢞) ࢔ ] ࢘ି૚ ࢌƍ(࢞) ࢔
ࢊ࢞
Without the chain rule, we cannot actually multiply a function by itself ݊‫݄ݐ‬
times and differentiating the result resulting to a larger degree polynomial.
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ଺.
Solution:
By the Chain Rule,
‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ଺
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6(‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ହ
Example(b).
Differentiate the function ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 10) ଵ଴ .
Solution:
‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 10) ଵ଴
By Chain Rule,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 10(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 10) ଽ (2‫ ݔ‬+ 1) = 10(2‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 10) ଽ
Example(c).
(௫ାଵ) మ
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬௫ య .
Solution:
(௫ାଵ) మ
‫=ݕ‬
௫య
௫ య (ଶ)(௫ାଵ)ି(௫ାଵ) మ ൫ଷ௫ మ ൯
‫ݕ‬ƍ = ( ௫ య) మ
ଶ௫ య (௫ାଵ)ିଷ௫ మ(௫ାଵ) మ
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
௫ల
௫ మ (௫ାଵ)(ି௫ିଷ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = ௫ర
(௫ାଵ)(ି௫ିଷ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = ௫ర
(௫ାଵ)(௫ାଷ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = െ
௫ర
Example(d).
Differentiate the function ‫( = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ (‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଷ .
Solution:
‫( = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ ( ‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଷ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = (3‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ (3)(‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଶ + (‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଷ (2)(3‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(3)
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3(3‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ(‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଶ + 6(‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଷ (3‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3(3‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଶ (5‫ ݔ‬െ 1)
28
Exercise 3.2
1. ‫( = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬െ 3) ସ
2. ‫( = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4) ଷ
3. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଺
4. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ(ݔ‬െ 1) ଷ
௧మ
5. ‫= ݔ‬ (௧ మିଵ)( ௧ିଵ)
௫ାଶ
6. ‫= ݕ‬ (௫ିଵ) య
7. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଷ
8. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1) ଶ + (‫ ݔ‬+ 3) ହ
9. ‫ ݕ( = ݔ‬െ 1)(‫ ݕ‬+ 6) ଺
ସ
10. ‫= ݕ‬ (ଵା଺௫) య
భ
௫ାଵ య
11. ‫ = ݓ‬ቀ ቁ
௫ మିଶ௫ିହ
భ
12. ‫ ݔ[ = ݕ‬+ 3 + (‫ ݔ‬െ 5) ଷ ] ିమ
13. ‫ ݕ( = ݖ‬ଷ െ 3)൫1 െ ඥ‫ݕ‬൯
భ
௫మ య
14. ‫ = ݕ‬ቀ ቁ
ଵ଴ି௫
15. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬െ 3) ଷ(‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ
3.3 Higher Order Derivatives

The derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬, or simply ‫ݕ‬ƍ, is at first derivative. The
derivative of the first derivative is called the second derivative and is written in the
ௗమ ௬ ௗయ ௬ ௗ ర ௬ ௗ ೙ ௬
form , ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ , ݂ƍƍ(‫ )ݔ‬or ‫ ܦ‬ଶ௫ ‫ݕ‬. Further differentiation, , , , …,etc.
ௗ௫ మ ௗ௫ య ௗ௫ ర ௗ௫ ೙
Example(a).
Find the second derivative of ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 4
Example(b).
Find the third derivative of ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 2.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 2
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 12‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 12‫ ݔ‬+ 1
29
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 24‫ ݔ‬+ 12
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍ = 24
Example(c).
(௫ାଵ) మ
Find the second derivative of ‫= ݕ‬ ௫ିଵ
.
Solution:
(௫ାଵ) మ
‫=ݕ‬ ௫ିଵ
(௫ିଵ)(ଶ)(௫ାଵ)ି(௫ାଵ) మ(ଵ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = (௫ିଵ) మ
(௫ାଵ)[ଶ(௫ିଵ)ି(௫ାଵ)]
‫ݕ‬ƍ = (௫ିଵ) మ
(௫ାଵ)(௫ିଷ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = (௫ିଵ) మ
ƍ ௫ మ ିଶ௫ିଷ
‫= ݕ‬ (௫ିଵ) మ
ƍƍ (௫ିଵ) మ (ଶ௫ିଶ)ି൫௫ మିଶ௫ିଷ൯(ଶ)(௫ିଵ)( ଵ)
‫= ݕ‬ (௫ିଵ) ర
ƍƍ (௫ିଵ)ൣ( ௫ିଵ)(ଶ௫ିଶ) ିଶ(௫ మିଶ௫ିଷ)൧
‫= ݕ‬ (௫ିଵ) ర
଼
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = (௫ିଵ) య
Example(d).
Find the first four derivative of the function ‫ ଺ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬ହ െ 4‫ ݔ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ +
9‫ ݔ‬െ 10.
Solution:
‫ ଺ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬ହ െ 4‫ ݔ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 9‫ ݔ‬െ 10
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬ହ + 15‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 16‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 9
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 30‫ ݔ‬ସ + 60‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 48‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 4
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍ = 120‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 180‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 96‫ ݔ‬+ 6
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍƍ = 360‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 360‫ ݔ‬െ 96 = 24(15‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 15‫ ݔ‬െ 4)
Exercise 3.3
I. Find the second derivatives of the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1
2. ‫( = ݕ‬2 െ 3‫ )ݔ‬ହ
3. ‫( = ݕ‬1 + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ଶ
4. ‫ = ݐ‬ξ16 + ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
5. ‫ ݔ = ݐ‬ଶ (3‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ
భ
൫௫ మିଷ൯మ
6. ‫= ݕ‬ ௫
ଵ
7. ‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାଵ) మ
+‫ݔ‬
మ
8. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݐ‬య + 4
9. ‫ ݓ = ݔ‬ଷ (3‫ ݓ‬+ 5) ଶ
൫௫ మାଶ൯
10. ‫= ݕ‬
ξ௫
30
II. Find the third derivative of the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 8‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬+ 1
2. ‫( = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଷ
3. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ସ
4. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ݔ‬
5. ‫ ݐ( = ݔ‬െ 3)(‫ ݐ‬+ 5) ଷ
3.4 Derivatives of Implicit Functions
For functions such as, ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕݔ‬,‫ݔ‬ඥ‫ = ݕ‬9‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬and (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ = 3‫ݕݔ‬, the
values of ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬are connected together in an equation. Finding for the derivative
of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬, implicit differentiation can be applied. The ‫ ݕ‬is called the
implicit function of ‫ݔ‬.
Example(a).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ of the equation ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕݔ‬.
Solution:
First, differentiate each term of the equation.
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕݔ‬
2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ݀ݕ‬4(‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ ‫)ݔ݀ݕ‬
‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ݀ݕ‬2‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ 2‫ݔ݀ݕ‬
Then, combine the terms containing the same differential making the
terms of ݀‫ ݕ‬on the left side and the terms of ݀‫ ݔ‬on the other side on the
equation, then factor out the terms.
‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬െ 2‫ = ݕ݀ݔ‬2‫ ݔ݀ݕ‬െ ‫ݔ݀ݔ‬
(‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫( = ݕ݀)ݔ‬2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݔ݀)ݔ‬
Divide both sides of the equation by the terms that will remain
ௗ௬
only ௗ௫ on the left side and all other terms on the other side.
ଵ
[(‫ ݕ‬െ 2‫( = ݕ݀)ݔ‬2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫]ݔ݀)ݔ‬
(௬ିଶ௫)ௗ௫
ௗ௬ ଶ௬ି௫
ௗ௫
= ௬ିଶ௫
ƍ ௗ௬ ଶ௬ି௫
‫= ݕ‬ =
ௗ௫ ௬ିଶ௫
Example(b).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ of the equation (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ = 3‫ݕݔ‬.
Solution:
(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ = 3‫ݕݔ‬
2(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ݀()ݕ‬+ ݀‫ = )ݕ‬3(‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ ‫)ݔ݀ݕ‬
2‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ 2‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ݀ݔ‬3‫ ݔ݀ݕ‬െ 2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ 2‫ݔ݀ݕ‬
(2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݕ( = ݕ݀)ݔ‬െ 2‫ݔ݀)ݔ‬
ௗ௬ (௬ିଶ௫)
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = (ଶ௬ି௫)
ௗ௫
Example(c).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ƍ of the equation ‫ ݕ‬ଷ = ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଶ.
31
Solution:
‫ ݕ‬ଷ = ܽ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
3‫ ݕ‬ଶ ݀‫ = ݕ‬2ܽ‫ݔ݀ݔ‬
ௗ௬ ଶ௔௫
ௗ௫
= ଷ௬ మ
ௗమ ௬
For ௗ௫ మ
,
ௗమ ௬ ௗ ௗ௬
= ቀ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ ௗ௫ ௗ௫
ௗ௬ ଶ௔௫
Since ௗ௫
= ଷ௬ మ
, then,
ௗమ ௬ ௗ ଶ௔௫
= ቀ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ ௗ௫ ଷ௬ మ
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ௗ ௫
= ቀ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ ଷ ௗ௫ ௬ మ
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ௬ మௗ௫ି௫(ଶ௬ௗ௬)
= ቂ ቃ
ௗ௫ మ ଷௗ௫ ௬ర
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ௗ௫ ଶ௫ௗ௬
= ቀ െ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ ଷௗ௫ ௬ మ ௬య
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ଵ ଶ௫ ௗ௬
= ቂ െ ቀ ቁቃ
ௗ௫ మ ଷ ௬మ ௬ య ௗ௫
ௗ௬ ଶ௔௫
And ௗ௫
= ଷ௬ మ
, thus,
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ଵ ଶ௫ ଶ௔௫
= ቂ െ ௬య ቀଷ௬మ ቁቃ
ௗ௫ మ ଷ ௬మ
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ସ௔௫ మ
= ቀ1 െ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ ଷ௬ మ ଷ௬ య
ଷ ଶ
But ‫ ݔܽ = ݕ‬, therefore,
ௗమ ௬ ଶ௔ ସ௔௫ మ
= మ ቀ1 െ ቁ
ௗ௫ మ య
ଷቀ ξ௔௫ మ ቁ ଷ௔௫ మ
య
ௗమ ௬ ଶ ξ௔
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ ర
ௗ௫ మ
ଽ௫ య
Example(d).
Find the derivative of ‫ ݐ‬with respect to ‫ ݔ‬of the function (‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 6) ଶ = ‫ ݐݔ‬+ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ .
Solution:
(‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 6) ଶ = ‫ ݐݔ‬+ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
2(‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 6)(2‫ ݐ݀ݔ = )ݐ݀ݐ‬+ ‫ ݔ݀ݐ‬+ 2‫ݐ݀ݐ‬
4‫ ݐ(ݐ‬ଶ + 6)݀‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ ݐ݀ݔ‬െ 2‫ݔ݀ݐ = ݐ݀ݐ‬
(4‫ ݐ‬ଷ + 22‫ ݐ‬െ ‫ݔ݀ݐ = ݐ݀)ݔ‬
ௗ௧ ௧
ௗ௫
= ସ௧ య ାଶଶ௧ି௫
Exercise 3.4
I. Find ࢟ƍ of the given implicit functions.
1. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 5
2. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕ‬
3. 3‫ ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ = )ݕ‬െ ‫ݕ‬
4. (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) ଶ = ‫ݕݔ‬
5. (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬െ 1 = 0
32
భ భ
6. ‫ ݔ‬మ + ‫ ݕ‬మ = ‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ
7. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 3‫ ݕ‬ଶ ξ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕݔ‬
మ
൫௫ మା௬൯
8. 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ =
௬
9. (‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ )ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ ݕݔ‬+ ξ‫ݔ‬

௫మ
10. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = ௫ା௬
II. Find ࢟ƍƍ of the following implicit equations.

1. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 25
2. ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݕݔ‬9‫ݕ‬
3. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 2‫ݔ‬
4. ξ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ = ݕ‬ଶ
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݕ‬ଷ = 3
33
34
Chapter 4
APPLICATIONS OF
DERIVATIVES
Outline:
4.1 Slope of a Curve
4.2 Tangents and Normals to the Plane Curves
4.3 Maxima and Minima
4.4 Inflection Points
4.5 Sketching of Polynomial Curves
4.6 Optimization Problems: Applications of Maxima
and Minima
4.7 Time Rates
4.8 Differentials, Approximations and Newton’s
Method
Overview:
The previous chapters discussed the idea of derivatives and how to find for the
derivative of a certain function. This chapter will now introduce the ideas of
derivatives in putting these into some applications.
In chapter 2, slope and rate of change had already been introduced using the
ideas of limits. But in this chapter, these applications will be introduced again in much
easier way using the formulas of the derivatives of algebraic functions.
This chapter will introduce applications on determining the tangents and
normals to the plane curves, critical and inflection points and its applications on curve
sketching, the concepts of maxima and minima and its applications, time rates,
differentials, approximations and Newton’s method for finding the roots of a function.
Objectives:
1. Determine some applications of derivatives including slopes, tangents
and normals to a given curves, critical points and inflection points of given
curves.
2. Sketch polynomial curves.
3. Define maxima and minima.
4. Solve practical applications of maxima and minima.
5. Solve time related problems.
35
4.1 Slope of a Curve
The discussion of the slope had already done in chapter 2. The slope of a
curve is very important in the preceding discussion since it is applicable for finding
the tangents and normals to the plane curves.
The slope of the curve is the derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ ݔ‬for a function
‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬.
Example(a).
Find the slope of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 7 at point (2,1).
Solution:
Since ‫ ݕ‬ƍ is the slope, then,
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 7
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 1
At point (2,1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3(2) ଶ െ 6(2) െ 1
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ1
Example(b).
ଵ
Find the slope of the curve ‫ = ݕ‬ଶ (2 + 5‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ ) at point (2,െ1).
Solution:
ଵ
‫( = ݕ‬2 + 5‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଷ )
ଶ
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = (10‫ ݔ‬െ 9‫ ݔ‬ଶ)
ଶ
At point (2,െ1),
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = [10(2) െ 9(2) ଶ ]
ଶ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ8
Example(c).
Find the points ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬if the slope of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 5 is
െ3.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 5
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 3
Since ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ3, then,
െ3 = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 3
3‫ ݔ(ݔ‬െ 2) = 0
‫ = ݔ‬0 and ‫ = ݔ‬2.
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬5.
When ‫ = ݔ‬2,‫ = ݕ‬െ5.
The points are (0,5) and (2,െ5).
Example(d).
Find the slope of ‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ = 8 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ at point (1,3).
Solution:
‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ = 8 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
‫(ݔ‬2‫ )ݕ݀ݕ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ݀‫ = ݔ‬2‫ݔ݀ݔ‬
2‫ = ݕ݀ݕݔ‬2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ݀‫ݔ‬
36
ௗ௬ ଶ௫ି௬ మ
ௗ௫
= ଶ௫௬
At point (1,3),
ଶ(ଵ)ି(ଷ) మ
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ଶ(ଵ)(ଷ)
଻
‫ݕ‬ƍ = െ ଺
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= 0
4.2 Tangents and Normals to the Plane Curves

࢟ ࢟ = ࢌ(࢞)
ࡼ(࢞૚ ,࢟૚ )
࢞
૙
The equation of a line with a slope ݉, through the point (‫ݔ‬ଵ ,‫ݕ‬ଵ ) is,
࢟ െ ࢟૚ = ࢓(࢞ െ ࢞૚ )
To find for the tangent at any point on a plane curve, we have to find first the
slope ݉ of the curve at that point and substitute the slope ݉ and the point (‫ݔ‬ଵ , ‫ݕ‬ଵ )
in the equation of the line (equation above). Whatever the slope of the curve is, it is
also the slope of the tangent to that curve at that point.
Also, the normal to the curve which is perpendicular to that curve, from
geometry, the slope of the perpendicular line to the other is the negative reciprocal of
the slope of one line.
૚
࢓૚ = െ
࢓૛
Example(a).
Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 5 at
point (2,െ1).
Solution:
0 1 2
-1 (૛,െ૚)
ࡺ
-2
-3
࢟ = ࢞૛ െ ૞
-4
-5 ࢀ
37
For the slope of the curve,
‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 5
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2‫ݔ‬
At point (2,െ1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2(2) = 4
For the tangent line, the equation is,
‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ݕ‬ଵ = ்݉ (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬ଵ)
Since ்݉ = ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4 at point (2,െ1),
‫ ݕ‬+ 1 = 4(‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
4‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬9
For the normal line:
ଵ
Since ݉ே = െ ,
௠೅
ଵ
݉ே = െ ସ at (2,െ1),
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ 1 = െ ସ (‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
‫ ݔ‬+ 4‫ = ݕ‬െ2
Example(b).
Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the circle ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 25 at
point (3,4).
Solution:
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 25
2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬+ 2‫ = ݕ݀ݕ‬0
ௗ௬ ௫
ௗ௫
= െ௬
At point (3,4),
ଷ
‫ݕ‬ƍ = െ ସ
ଷ ସ
்݉ = െ ସ ; ݉ே = ଷ
For the tangent line:

At point (3,4),
ଷ
‫ ݕ‬െ 4 = െ (‫ ݔ‬െ 3)
ସ
3‫ ݔ‬+ 4‫ = ݕ‬25
At point (3,4),
ସ
‫ ݕ‬െ 4 = ଷ (‫ ݔ‬െ 3)
4‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬0
Example(c).
Find the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1 parallel
to the line ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ 2.
Solution:
Since the curve is parallel to the line ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ 2, the slope of the
tangent to the curve is equal to the slope of the line ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ 2, therefore, the
slope of the line is,
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 3
For the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 3
Substitute ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3, and solve for the values of ‫ݔ‬,
3 = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 3
38
3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ = ݔ‬0
3‫ ݔ(ݔ‬+ 2) = 0
‫ = ݔ‬0 and ‫ = ݔ‬െ2
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬െ1.
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ2,‫ = ݕ‬െ3.
The points of tangencies are (0,െ1) and (െ2,െ3).

At point (0,െ1),்݉ = 3,
‫ ݕ‬+ 1 = 3(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬1
ଵ
At point (0,െ1),݉ே = െ ,
ଷ
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ 1 = െ (‫ ݔ‬+ 0)
ଷ
‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬െ3

At point (െ2, െ3), ݉ ் = 3,
‫ ݕ‬+ 3 = 3(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
3‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬െ3
ଵ
At point (െ2, െ3),݉ே = െ ଷ,
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ 3 = െ ଷ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ = ݕ‬െ11
Example(d).
Find the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2 with a
slope of 1.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 2
Since ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1, then,
1 = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 2
3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1 = 0
(3‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) = 0
ଵ
‫ = ݔ‬െ and ‫ = ݔ‬െ1
ଷ
ଵ ଺଻
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ , ‫ = ݕ‬െ .
ଷ ଶ଻
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ1,‫ = ݕ‬െ3.
ଵ ଺଻
The points of tangencies are ቀെ ,െ ቁ and (െ1,െ3).
ଷ ଶ଻

ଵ ଺଻
At point ቀെ ଷ , െ ଶ଻ቁ , ்݉ = 1,
଺଻ ଵ
‫ ݕ‬+ ଶ଻ = ቀ‫ ݔ‬+ ଷቁ
27‫ ݔ‬െ 27‫ = ݕ‬58
ଵ ଺଻
At point ቀെ , െ ቁ , ݉ே = െ1,
ଷ ଶ଻
39
଺଻ ଵ
‫ݕ‬+ = െ ቀ‫ ݔ‬+ ቁ
ଶ଻ ଷ
27‫ ݔ‬+ 27‫ = ݕ‬െ76

At point (െ1, െ3),݉ ் = 1,
‫ ݕ‬+ 3 = (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
‫ݔ‬െ‫ =ݕ‬2
At point (െ1, െ3),݉ே = െ1,
‫ ݕ‬+ 3 = െ(‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬െ4
Exercise 4.1
I. Find the slope of the curves at the points indicated.
1. ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ݔ‬ଶ + 5‫ ݔ‬െ 3, at (െ1,െ6)

௫మ ାଷ
2. ‫= ݕ‬ , at ( 1,4)
ξ௫
௫ିହ
3. ‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫= ݕ‬ ଽξ௫
, at ( 5,0)
ଷ
4. (‫ ݔ‬+ 5) = ‫ݕݔ‬, at ቀെ2,െ ଶቁ
(௫ାଷ) మ
5. ‫= ݕ‬ , at (െ1,െ4)
௫
ξ௫ ଵ
6. ‫= ݕ‬ (௫ାଵ) య
, at ቀ1, ቁ
଼
ଶ
7. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1) ଷ ൫ξ‫ ݔ‬+ 1൯ , at (1,32)
8. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 5( ‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ, at ( 1,6)
(௫ାଶ) మ ଽ
9. ξ‫= ݕݔ‬ , at ቀ4, ቁ
ସ ଶ
10. ‫ ݔ(ݔ = ݕ‬+ 2) ଶ , at (െ3,െ3)
II. Find the equations of the tangent and normal lines to the curve at the points
indicated.
1. ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2, at ( 0,െ2)
2. ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 2‫ݔ‬ଶ + 5, at (െ1,2)
3. ‫ = ݕ‬3 + 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3‫ݔ‬ଶ , at ( 0,3)
4. ‫ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 5‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 2‫ = ݔ‬0, at ( 0,0)
5. ‫ ݔ ( = ݕ‬+ 3) ଶ, at (െ2,1)
III. Answer the following problems.
1. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1 with a
slope of 1.
40
2. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬+ 9, at its
point of intersection with the line ‫ = ݕ‬0.
3. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve, ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 9,
at its point of intersection with the ‫ ݔ‬െ axis.
4. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕݔ‬+ 3 at its point
of intersection at (െ1,െ2).
5. Find the equation of the tangent line to the circle ‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4 perpendicular to the
line ‫ݔ = ݕ‬.
6. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the parabola ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 2
parallel to the line ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 1.
7. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3
parallel to the line ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 5.
8. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ସ + 2‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 2
perpendicular to the line ‫ = ݕ‬5 െ ‫ݔ‬.
9. Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 5 perpendicular to
the line 2‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 2.
10. Find the equation of the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬െ 2 with a
slope of 2.
4.3 Maxima and Minima

Consider the function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬defined on the interval [ܽ, ܾ] whose graph
appears in the figure below.
࢟
࢞
ࢇ ࢞૚ ࢞૛ ࢞૜ ࢞૝ ࢞૞ ࢞૟ ࢈
In the interval, the value of the function at ‫ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ݔ‬ସ ,‫ݔ‬ହ and ‫ ଺ݔ‬is greatest. We
say that at ‫ݔ‬ଶ , ‫ݔ‬ସ ,‫ݔ‬ହ and ‫ ଺ݔ‬, ݂(‫ )ݔ‬has local maximum. Also, ݂(‫ )ݔ‬has a local
minimum at ‫ݔ‬ଵ and ‫ݔ‬ଷ.
On the closed interval [ܽ, ܾ], the value of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬at ‫ ଺ݔ‬has the largest value
while the value of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬at ‫ݔ‬ଷ has the smallest value. These points on the graph are
called the absolute maximum and absolute minimum of ݂(‫ )ݔ‬on [ܽ,ܾ].
41
Local maxima and minima are also called local extreme values or local
extrema. Local extreme values occur only at points where ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0. From the figure,
the points where ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0 is the line that has a slope of zero, therefore, these lines are
the tangent lines to the point that is parallel to the ‫ݔ‬-axis. The points at which ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0
are called the critical points and the corresponding values of ‫ ݔ‬are the critical
values.
Test for maxima and Minima
There is a test for maxima and minima called the second derivative test.
The second derivative is the rate of change of the first derivative. When ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ƍ is
positive, ‫ ݕ‬ƍ is increasing, the curve will concave upward and when ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ƍ is negative, ‫ ݕ‬ƍ
is decreasing, the curve will concave downward.
If ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0 and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ < 0, the point is a maximum point and it concave downward.
If ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0 and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ > 0, the point is a minimum point and it concave upward.
If ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0 and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 0, the test fails.
Example(a).
Locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima of the curve
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬+ 7.
Solution:
First, find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
Then, set ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0,
0 = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
(3‫ ݔ‬+ 2)(‫ ݔ‬+ 2) = 0
ଶ
‫ = ݔ‬െ ,‫ = ݔ‬െ2
ଷ
ଶ
The critical values are ‫ = ݔ‬െ and ‫ = ݔ‬െ2.
ଷ
ଶ ଵହ଻
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ , ‫= ݕ‬ .
ଷ ଶ଻
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ2,‫ = ݕ‬7.
ଶ ଵହ଻
The critical points are ቀെ , ቁ and (െ2,7).
ଷ ଶ଻
For maxima and minima,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬+ 8
ଶ ଵହ଻
At point ቀെ , ቁ,
ଷ ଶ଻
ଶ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6 ቀെ ଷቁ + 8
ƍƍ
‫ = ݕ‬4
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ > 0,‫ ݕ‬is minimum.
At point (െ2,7),
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6(െ2) + 8
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ4
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ < 0,‫ ݕ‬is maximum.
Example(b).
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬െ 1.
42
Solution:
‫=ݕ‬ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ‬െ 1
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
0= 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
0= (3‫ ݔ‬െ 2)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
ଶ
‫=ݔ‬ ଷ
,‫ = ݔ‬2
ଶ
The critical values are ‫= ݔ‬ and ‫ = ݔ‬2.
ଷ
ଶ ହ
When ‫ = ݔ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬.
ଷ ଶ଻
When ‫ = ݔ‬2,‫ = ݕ‬െ1.
ଶ ହ
The critical points are ቀଷ , ଶ଻ቁ and (2,െ1).
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ݔ‬ଶ െ 8‫ ݔ‬+ 4
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬െ 8
ଶ ହ
At point ቀଷ , ଶ଻ቁ,
ଶ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6 ቀ ቁ െ 8 = െ4
ଷ
At point (2,െ1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6(2) െ 8 = 4
Example(c).
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ െ 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬
0 = 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬
‫ ݔ(ݔ‬ଶ െ 1) = 0
‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݔ‬± 1
The critical values are ‫ = ݔ‬0, ‫ = ݔ‬െ1 and ‫ = ݔ‬1.
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬1.
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ1,‫ = ݕ‬0.
When ‫ = ݔ‬1,‫ = ݕ‬0.
The critical points are (0,1),(െ1,0) and (1,0).
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 4‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4
At point (0,1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12(0) ଶ െ 4 = െ4
At point (െ1,0),
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12(െ1) ଶ െ 4 = 8
At point (1,0),
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12(1) ଶ െ 4 = 8
43
4.4 Inflection Points
Inflection points are the points at which the curve changes from concave
downward to concave upward or vice – versa.
At inflection points, the second derivative of the slope is zero ൫‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 0൯.
To get the inflection points of a curve, find the second derivative of ‫ ݕ‬and set
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 0, then get the values.
Example(a).
Find the inflection points of the curve 3‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9‫ ݔ‬െ 15.
Solution:
3‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 9‫ ݔ‬െ 15
3‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 9
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 3
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2
0 = 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2
‫ = ݔ‬െ1
ସ
When ‫ = ݔ‬െ1,‫ = ݕ‬െ ଷ.
ସ
The inflection point is ቀെ1,െ ଷቁ.
Example(b).
Find the inflection points of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ (5 െ ‫)ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ(5 െ ‫)ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 20‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 5‫ ݔ‬ସ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 60‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 20‫ ݔ‬ଷ
0 = 60‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 20‫ ݔ‬ଷ
‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݔ‬3
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬0.
When ‫ = ݔ‬3,‫ = ݕ‬162.
The inflection points are (0,0) and (3,162).
4.5 Sketching of Polynomial Curves

In constructing a graph of a given function, the method of plotting by separate
points is much applicable. But this method fails to exhibit the general properties of a
function even though this method is very useful.
But stronger method of graphing curves will be discussed in this section that
focused more on the first and second derivatives of a function. The following are the
steps in sketching polynomial curves.
1. Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ , to locate the critical points and determine the maxima and minima of
the function.
2. Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ , to locate and determine the inflection points and draw a tangent at
each of these points.
3. Plot additional points for more accurate sketching.
44
Example(a).
Sketch the curve ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 12‫ ݔ‬+ 7.
Solution:
1. ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 6‫ ݔ‬െ 12
0 = (‫ ݔ‬െ 1)(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
The critical points are (1,0) and (െ2,27). The curve rise to a
maximum at (െ2,27) and fall to a minimum at, (1,0).
ଵ
2. ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 12‫ ݔ‬+ 6, equating it to 0, we get ‫ = ݔ‬െ ଶ, thus the inflection
ଵ ଶ଻ ଶ଻
point is ቀെ , ቁ and the slope at that point is െ .
ଶ ଶ ଶ
3. Sketch the curve using the known points.
࢟
(െ૛,૛ૠ)
૚ ૛ૠ
൬െ , ൰
૛ ૛
࢞
(૚,૙)
Example(b).
Sketch the curve ‫ ݔ(ݔ = ݕ‬+ 1) ଶ .
Solution:
ଵ ସ
1. ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)(3‫ ݔ‬+ 1), the critical points are (െ1,0) and ቀെ ଷ ,െ ଶ଻ቁ.
The curve rise to a maximum at (െ1,0) and fall to a minimum at
ଵ ସ
ቀെ , െ ቁ.
ଷ ଶ଻
ଶ ଶ
2. ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 6‫ ݔ‬+ 4, the inflection point is at ቀെ , െ ቁ and the slope at
ଷ ଶ଻
ଵ
that point is െ .
ଷ
3. Sketch the curve using the known points.
࢟
૛ ૛
൬െ ,െ ൰
૜ ૛ૠ
(െ૚,૙)
࢞
૙
૚ ૝
൬െ ,െ ൰
૜ ૛ૠ
45
Exercise 4.2
I. Find the critical points and determine the maxima and minima.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 5

2. ‫ = ݕ‬5‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5‫ ݔ‬െ 1
3. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ଶ
4. ‫ ݔ(ݔ = ݕ‬+ 2) ଶ
5. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ
6. 12‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬ସ െ 16‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 36‫ ݔ‬െ 1
7. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଷ
8. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ
9. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬െ 1) ଷ
10. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1) ଶ(‫ ݔ‬െ 1)
II. Determine the inflection points of the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ െ 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 3

2. ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 4‫ ݔ‬+ 8
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1
4. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + (‫ ݔ‬െ 1) ଶ
5. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ + 1) ଷ + ‫ݔ‬
III. Sketch the graph of the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ െ 3) ଶ
2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ହ െ 30‫ ݔ‬ଷ + 15
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 6‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ଵ
4. ‫= ݕ‬ (‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 6)
ଷ
5. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 24)
4.6 Optimization Problems: Applications of Maxima and

Minima
The idea of maxima and minima can put into practical problems. Any problem
in engineering, business, medicine and other sciences that can put into functional
form, derivatives can be used to find the maximum and minimum values of that
function.
46
Consider in a business that uses can for the products. How can we compute
for the least amount of tin sheets that can be used for a volume of one liter? This
simple problem brought a great impact in a business industry for economical aspects.
How can we compute the least amount of fencing that can cover a lot with a given
area? These problems are the main focus in this section.
Steps in solving optimization problems:
1. Analyze the problem and determine what is to be maximized or minimized, say

area ‫ܣ‬.
2. Draw the diagram, if appropriate.
3. Formulate a function from their common relationships.
4. Locate the critical points.
5. Test the critical points.
Example(a).
What are the dimensions of the largest rectangle that can be inscribed in a
right triangle?
Solution:
1. Analyzed the problem.
The area of a rectangle is to be maximized under the condition that it is
to be inscribed in a right triangle.
2. Draw a diagram.
࢞
࢈
3. From the diagram, the area of the rectangle is,

‫ݕݔ = ܣ‬
By similar triangle, the relationship is,
௔ି௫ ௔
=
௬ ௕
௕
‫=ݕ‬ (ܽ െ ‫)ݔ‬
௔
௕
Substitute ‫= ݕ‬ (ܽ െ ‫ )ݔ‬to ‫ݕݔ = ܣ‬,
௔
௕
‫ ݔ = ܣ‬ቂ (ܽ െ ‫)ݔ‬ቃ
௔
௕
‫ ݔܽ( = ܣ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ )
௔
4. Locate the critical points.
Differentiate ‫ ܣ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬,
௕
‫ ݔܽ( = ܣ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ )
௔
ௗ஺ ௕
= (ܽ െ 2‫)ݔ‬
ௗ௫ ௔
ௗ஺
Substitute ௗ௫
= 0,
௕
0= (ܽ െ 2‫)ݔ‬
௔
௔
‫ = ݔ‬ଶ.
47
௔ ௕
When ‫ = ݔ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬.
ଶ ଶ
The dimensions of the rectangle are,
௔ ௕
‫ = ݔ‬ଶ and ‫ = ݕ‬ଶ.
5. Test the critical points.
ௗమ ஺ ௕
మ =
(െ2)
ௗ௫ ௔
ௗమ ஺ ଶ௕
= െ
ௗ௫ మ ௔
ௗమ ஺
ௗ௫ మ
< 0, the area ‫ܣ‬, is maximum.
Example(b).
The sum of two numbers is 10. Find the minimum values of the sum of their
square.
Solution:
Let ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬, be the numbers,
‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = ݕ‬10
‫ = ݕ‬10 െ ‫ݔ‬
The sum of the square is,
ܵ = ‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬ଶ
Substitute ‫ = ݕ‬10 െ ‫ݔ‬,
ܵ = ‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬ଶ
ܵ = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + (10 െ ‫ )ݔ‬ଶ
Differentiate,
ௗௌ
ௗ௫
= 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2(10 െ ‫()ݔ‬െ1)
ௗௌ
= 4‫ ݔ‬െ 20
ௗ௫
Locate the critical points,
0 = 4‫ ݔ‬െ 20
‫ =ݔ‬5
When ‫ = ݔ‬5,‫ = ݕ‬5.
ܵ = ‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬ଶ
ܵ = (5) ଶ + (5) ଶ
ܵ = 50
The minimum value of the sum of the square is 50.
Test the critical point,
ௗమ ௌ
= 4
ௗ௫ మ
ௗమ ௌ
ௗ௫ మ
> 0, the sum, ܵ, is minimum.
Example(c).
A cylinder has a volume of 100ft3. The cost of the metal sheets to make a
cylinder should be minimized. What should be its diameter?
Solution:
48
The volume of the cylinder is,
గௗ మ ௛
ܸ=
ସ
గௗ మ ௛
100 = ସ
ସ଴଴
݄ = గௗమ
For the cost to be minimized, the total surface area ‫ܣ‬, should be
minimized.
గௗమ
‫ ݄݀ߨ = ܣ‬+
ଶ
ସ଴଴ గௗ మ
‫ ݀ߨ = ܣ‬ቀగௗమ ቁ + ଶ
ௗ஺ ସ଴଴
ௗௗ
= െ ௗమ
+ ߨ݀
ସ଴଴
0 = െ మ + ߨ݀
ௗ
݀ = 5.03 ft.
The diameter of the cylinder is 5.03 ft.
ௗమ ஺ ଼଴଴
ௗௗ మ
= ௗయ
+ߨ
ௗమ ஺
= 9.43
ௗௗ మ
ௗమ ஺
ௗௗ మ
> 0, the area, ‫ܣ‬, is minimum.
Example(d).
A box with a square base and open at the top is to have a capacity of 300 m3.
Find the height of the box that requires the minimum amount of material needed.
Solution:
The volume of the box is,

ܸ = ܾଶ ݄
Therefore,
300 = ܾ ଶ ݄
ଷ଴଴
݄= మ
௕
‫ܾ = ܣ‬ଶ + 4ܾ݄
ଷ଴଴
‫ܾ = ܣ‬ଶ + 4ܾ ቀ మ ቁ
௕
ௗ஺ ଵଶ଴଴
ௗ௕
= 2ܾ െ ௕మ
ଵଶ଴଴
0 = 2ܾ െ ௕మ
ܾ = 8.43 meters
When ܾ = 8.43 m, ݄ = 4.22 m.
The height of the box is 4.22 meters.
ௗమ ஺ ଶ( ଵଶ଴଴)
ௗ௕ మ
= 2+ ௕య
ௗమ ஺
= 6
ௗ௕ మ
ௗమ ஺
ௗ௕ మ
> 0, the area, ‫ܣ‬, is minimum.
49
Exercise 4.3
I. Solve the following problems.
1. The sum of two numbers is 32. Find the minimum value of the sum of their
squares.
2. The sum of two numbers is 18. Find the numbers if the product of one by the
square of the other is to be maximum.
3. A cylindrical tank has a capacity of 350.53 m3. Find the minimum total surface
area of the tank.
4. A right circular cone has a slant height of 7cm. Find the radius of the cone in
order to have maximum volume.
5. A rectangular lot bounded by an already fenced side on its back is to be
fenced. If the area of the lot is 10,000 m2, what is the least amount of fencing
that will enclosed the lot?
6. Compute the maximum area of a rectangle that can inscribe in an ellipse
having an equation 9‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 36.
7. A rectangular box with square base and top has a capacity of 10,000 cm3.
Find the height of the box that requires minimum amount of material.
8. From the figure below, compute for the minimum length of the wire used.
wire 30m
18m
55m
9. Find the height of a right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius 10 cm.
10. A rectangular lot is to be enclosed by a fence. It has an area of 1 hectare.
What is the least amount of fencing that will enclosed the lot having an
opening of 2 meters in front?
11. What is the volume of the largest box that can be made by cutting equal
squares out of the corners of a piece of cardboard and turning up the sides if
the dimensions are 20 cm and 35 cm.
50
12. Find the longest beam that can pass through the corridor from the figure
shown.
૞ft
beam
૜ft
13. Find the height of a right circular cylinder of maximum volume that can be
inscribed in a sphere of radius 10 cm.
14. An isosceles triangle has a perimeter of 34 cm, find the maximum area.
15. What is the volume of the largest box that can be made by cutting equal
squares out of the corners of a piece of cardboard and turning up the sides if
the dimensions are 20 cm and 35 cm.
16. A norman window is in a shape of a rectangle surmounted by a semi-circle. It
has a total perimeter of 20 meters. Find the maximum area if it admits the
maximum amount of light.
17. Find the area of the rectangle having a maximum perimeter that can be
inscribed in a circle having an equation of ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 36.
18. Find the shortest distance from the point (2,1) to the line ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 2.
19. Find the shortest distance from the point (3,0) to the curve ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = ‫ ݔ‬ଷ .
20. The cost of a product ‫ ݔ = ܥ‬ଶ െ 10,000‫ ݔ‬+ 50 is a function of an item ‫ݔ‬. Find
the item ‫ݔ‬, for which the cost is minimum.
4.7 Time Rates

ௗ௫
The time rate of change of quantity ‫ ݔ‬as a function of time ‫ ݐ‬is ௗ௧
.
Consider the equation,
ܸ = ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݄
this defines the volume of a right circular cylinder as a function of its radius and
height. Considering one of the variable as a constant, say ݄, thus, the rate of
change of ܸ with respect to ‫ ݎ‬is related to ‫ ݎ‬by the equation,
ܸ݀ = 2ߨ‫ݎ݄݀ݎ‬
ௗ௏
= 2ߨ‫݄ݎ‬
ௗ௥
51
Supposed that ‫ ݎ‬is a function of another variable ‫ݐ‬, the rate of change of ܸ
with respect to ‫ ݐ‬is related to the rate of change of ‫ ݎ‬by the chain rule,
ௗ௏ ௗ௏ ௗ௥
ௗ௧
= ௗ௥
ή ௗ௧
Considering the example above, the time rate of change of ܸ is,

ௗ௏ ௗ௥
= 2ߨ‫݄ݎ‬
ௗ௧ ௗ௧
Example(a).
A point moves on the parabola ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 16‫ ݔ‬in such way that the rate of change
of the abscissa is always 3 units/sec. How fast is the ordinate changing when the
abscissa is 1?
Solution:
‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 16‫ݔ‬
Differentiate ‫ ݕ‬and ‫ ݔ‬with respect to ‫ݐ‬,
ௗ௬ ௗ௫
2‫ ݕ‬ௗ௧ = 16 ௗ௧
ௗ௬ ଼ ௗ௫
ௗ௧
= ௬ ௗ௧
ௗ௫
When ‫ = ݔ‬1,‫ = ݕ‬4 and = 3 units/sec.,
ௗ௧
ௗ௬ ଼
= (3)
ௗ௧ ସ
ௗ௬
= 6 units/sec.
ௗ௧
The rate of change of the ordinate is 6 units/sec.
Example(b).
Water is pouring into a conical cistern at a rate of 20 cm3/min. The cistern is
25 cm deep and 10 cm in diameter at the top. At the time the water is 15 cm deep,
ଵ
the water level is observe to be rising at ସcm/min, but the water is leaking. How fast is
the water leaking away?
Solution:
ࢊࢂ૚
= ૛૙cm3/min
ࢊ࢚૚
5 5
ࢊ࢟ ૚ x
= cm/min
ࢊ࢚ ૝
25cm
y
ࢊࢂ૛
=?
ࢊ࢚૛
The volume of the water is,

ଵ
ܸ = ଷ ߨ‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫ݕ‬
52
By similar triangle,
௫ ହ
=
௬ ଶହ
ଵ
‫ݕ =ݔ‬
ହ
Substitute ‫ ݔ‬to ܸ,
ଵ
ܸ = ߨ‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫ݕ‬
ଷ
ଵ ଵ ଶ
ܸ= ߨ ቀ ‫ݕ‬ቁ ‫ݕ‬
ଷ ହ
ଵ ଷ
ܸ = ߨ‫ݕ‬
଻ହ
Differentiate ܸ and ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݐ‬,
ௗ௏ ଵ ௗ௬
ௗ௧
= ଶହ ߨ‫ ݕ‬ଶ ௗ௧
ௗ௬ ଵ
When ‫ = ݕ‬15 cm and = cm/min,
ௗ௧ ସ
ௗ௏ ଵ ଵ
= ߨ(15) ଶ ቀ ቁ
ௗ௧ ଶହ ସ
ௗ௏
ௗ௧
= 2.25ߨ = 7.07 cm3/min.
Since,
ௗ௏భ ௗ௏మ ௗ௏
െ =
ௗ௧భ ௗ௧ మ ௗ௧
ௗ௏మ
ௗ௧మ
= (20 െ 7.07)cm3/min.
ௗ௏మ
= 12.93 cm3/min.
ௗ௧మ
The water is leaking at a rate of 12.93 cm3/min.
Example(c).
A man whose height is 5.5 ft is walking away from a 12 ft lamp post at a
constant rate of 3 ft/sec. Find the rate at which his shadow is lengthening.
Solution:
6.5ft
12ft
࢞
5.5ft
࢞ ࢙
By similar triangle,
௫ ௦
=
଺.ହ ହ.ହ
ହ.ହ
‫଺ = ݏ‬.ହ ‫ݔ‬
Differentiate ‫ ݏ‬and ‫ ݔ‬with respect to ‫ݐ‬,
ௗ௦ ହ.ହ ௗ௫
=
ௗ௫ ଺.ହ ௗ௧
ௗ௫
When = 3 ft/sec,
ௗ௧
ௗ௦ ହ.ହ
= (3 ft/sec)
ௗ௧ ଺.ହ
ௗ௦
ௗ௧
= 2.54 ft/sec
The shadow is lengthening at a rate of 2.54 ft/sec.
Example(d).
A car starting at 9:00 AM, travels north at a rate of 45 kph. Another car starting
from the same point at 10:30 AM, travels at 50 kph. Find how fast the two cars are
separating at 12:00 noon.
Solution:
૝૞kph
࢙ ૝૞࢚
૞૙(࢚ െ ૚.૞)
૞૙kph
By Pythagorean Theorem,
‫ ݏ‬ଶ = (45‫ )ݐ‬ଶ + [50(‫ ݐ‬െ 1.5)] ଶ
ௗ௦
2‫ = ݏ‬2(45‫()ݐ‬45) + 2[50(‫ ݐ‬െ 1.5)](50)
ௗ௧
ௗ௦
‫ݏ‬ = 2,025‫ ݐ‬+ 2,500(‫ ݐ‬െ 1.5)
ௗ௧
ௗ௦
‫ = ݏ‬4,525‫ ݐ‬െ 3,750
ௗ௧
At 12:00 noon, ‫ = ݐ‬12 െ 9 = 3,
‫ݏ‬ଶ = [45(3)] ଶ + [50(3 െ 1.5)] ଶ
‫ = ݏ‬154.43 km.
When ‫ = ݐ‬3, ‫ = ݏ‬154.43.
ௗ௦ ସ,ହଶହ(ଷ)ିଷ,଻ହ଴
ௗ௧
= ଵହସ.ସଷ
ௗ௦
ௗ௧
= 63.62 kph
The two cars are separating at a rate of 63.62 kph.
Exercise 4.4
Solve the following problems.
1. The radius of a right circular cylinder is changing at a rate of 5 cm/sec. Find

the rate of change of its volume when the radius is 10 cm and its altitude is 12
cm.
2. Find the point in the parabola ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ ݔ‬at which the rate of change of the
abscissa and the ordinate are equal.
3. A boat is pulled into a dock by means of a rope attached to a pulley on the
dock. The rope is attached to the bow of the boat at a point 15 ft below the
pulley. If the rope is pulled through the pulley at a rate of 25 ft/min, at what
rate will the boat be approaching the dock when 130 ft of the rope is out?
54
4. A juice is flowing into a conical tank at a rate of 15 ft3/min. The surface rises
at a rate of 5 ft/min. Find the radius of the tank.
5. A man 5.8 ft tall walks away from a 16 ft high lamp post at a rate of 3 ft/sec.
How fast does the end of his shadow moves?
6. A ladder 15 ft long slides down on a vertical wall and moves along the
horizontal plane at 2 ft/sec. Find the speed of the upper end of the ladder
when the lower end of it is 8 ft from the wall.
7. A man on a wharf pulls in a rope to which a boat is attached. The wharf is 4
meters above the water level. Find the rate of the man pulling when the rope
out is 10 meters and the speed of the boat is 1.5 m/sec.
8. Water is flowing into a conical vessel 15 cm deep and having a radius of 4 cm
across the top. If the rate at which water is rising is 1.5 cm/sec, how fast is
the water flowing into the conical vessel when the depth of water is 5 cm?
9. The sides of an equilateral triangle are increasing at a rate of 10 mm/min.
Find the rate of change of the perimeter.
10. All edges of a cube are increasing at a rate of 50 cm/min. How fast is the total
surface area changing when its edge is 0.5 meter?
11. Water is pouring into a leaky conical tank at a rate of 8 cm3/min. The tank is
10 cm deep and 3 cm in radius. At the time the water is 4 cm deep, the water
level is observed to be rising at a rate of 0.5 cm3/min. How fast is the water
leaking?
12. Sand is pouring from a spout at a rate of 40 cm3/sec. It forms a conical shape
whose base radius is always twice the altitude. At what rate is the altitude
increasing when the cone is 60 cm high?
13. The volume of a spherical balloon is increasing at a rate of 10 cm3/min. Find
the rate at which its surface area is increasing when the radius is 60 cm.
14. The radius of a right circular cylinder is changing at a rate of 4 cm/min. Find
the rate of change of its volume when its altitude is 12 cm after 2 minutes.
15. A spherical balloon is shrinking at a rate of 2 cm2/min. Find the rate of the air
escaping from the balloon when its radius is 10 cm.
16. Oil spilled from a ruptured tanker spreads in a circle whose area increases at
a constant rate of 3 km2/hr. How fast is the radius of the spill increasing when
the area is 5 km2?
55
17. Water is running into a hemispherical bowl having a radius of 20 cm at a rate
of 5 cm3/min. If the water is rising at a rate of 0.0048 cm/min, find the deep of
the water.
18. A rocket rising vertically is tracked by a radar station that is on the ground 6
miles from the launchpad. How fast is the rocket rising when it is 5 miles high
and its distance from the radar station is increasing at a rate of 2,500 mi/hr.
19. A ball is thrown upward and moves at an equation ‫ = ݏ‬50‫ ݐ‬െ 9‫ ݐ‬ଶ where ‫ ݏ‬is
the distance in meters and ‫ݐ‬, is the time in seconds. Find the velocity after
2.5 seconds.
20. A point moves on the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ , how fast is the ordinate changing when
the abscissa is 2 and decreasing at a rate of 3 units/sec?
4.8 Differentials, Approximations and Newton’s Method

Consider ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬be differentiable at the point ‫ݔ‬. For a small change ο‫ ݔ‬in
‫ݔ‬, let ο‫ ݕ‬be the corresponding change in ‫ݕ‬.
ο‫ ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬+ ο‫ )ݔ‬െ ݂(‫)ݔ‬
It follows that,
ο௬
limο௫՜଴ = ݂ƍ(‫)ݔ‬
ο௫
ο௬
Then, if, ο‫ ݔ‬is close to 0, then ο௫
is close to ݂ƍ(‫ )ݔ‬or put another way, ο‫ݕ‬
is close to ݂ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ݔ‬. In symbols,
ο‫݂ = ݕ‬ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ݔ‬
Example(a).
Compare ο‫ ݕ‬with ݂ ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬if ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2, ‫ = ݔ‬2 and ο‫ = ݔ‬0.01.
Solution:
Find ο‫ݕ‬,
݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 2
ο‫(݂ = ݕ‬2 + 0.01) െ ݂(2)
ο‫([ = ݕ‬2.01) ଶ + 2(2.01) െ 2] െ [(2) ଶ + 2(2) െ 2]
ο‫ = ݕ‬0.0601
Find ݂ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ݔ‬,
݂ ƍ(‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 2
݂ƍ(2)ο‫[ = ݔ‬2(2) + 2](0.01)
݂ƍ(2)ο‫ = ݔ‬0.06
The answers are approximately the same and ݂ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬is easier to
compute than ο‫ݕ‬.
Example(b).
Compare ο‫ ݕ‬with ݂ ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬if ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬,‫ = ݔ‬1 and ο‫ = ݔ‬0.1.
56
Solution:
Find ο‫ݕ‬,
݂(‫ = )ݔ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 3‫ݔ‬
ο‫(݂ = ݕ‬1 + 0.1) െ ݂(1)
ο‫[ = ݕ‬2(1.1) ଷ െ (1.1) ଶ + 3(1.1)] െ [2(1) ଷ െ (1) ଶ + 3(1)]
ο‫ = ݕ‬0.752
݂ƍ(‫ = )ݔ‬6‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2‫ ݔ‬+ 3
݂ƍ(1)ο‫[ = ݔ‬6(1) ଶ െ 2(1) + 3](0.1)
݂ƍ(1)ο‫ = ݔ‬0.7
The answers are approximately the same.
Example(c).
ଶ
Compare ο‫ ݕ‬with ݂ ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬if ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬௫ ,‫ = ݔ‬4 and ο‫ = ݔ‬െ0.1.
Solution:
Find ο‫ݕ‬,
ଶ
݂(‫ = )ݔ‬௫
ο‫(݂ = ݕ‬4 െ 0.1) െ ݂(4)
ଶ ଶ
ο‫= ݕ‬ െ
ଷ.ଽ ସ
ο‫ = ݕ‬0.0128
ଶ
݂ƍ(‫ = )ݔ‬െ మ
௫
ଶ
݂ƍ(4)ο‫ = ݔ‬ቂെ (ସ) మ ቃ (െ0.1)
݂ƍ(4)ο‫ = ݔ‬0.0125
The answers are approximately the same.
I. The Differentials
Consider the function ‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬,

The differential of the function is equal to its derivative multiplied by the
differential of the other variable.
݀‫݂ = ݕ‬ƍ(‫ݔ݀)ݔ‬
The quantity ݂ƍ(‫)ݔ‬ο‫ ݔ‬is called the differential of ‫ ݕ‬and is denoted by the
symbol ݀‫ݕ‬. The number ο‫ ݔ‬representing a small change in ‫ ݔ‬is called the
differential of ‫ ݔ‬and is denoted by ݀‫ݔ‬.
ο‫ݔ݀ = ݔ‬
ο‫ ݕ‬ൎ ݀‫ݕ‬
These observations are important since it is easier to compute ݀‫ ݕ‬than ο‫ݕ‬.

Thus, it is more applicable to use ݀‫ ݕ‬than ο‫ݕ‬.
Example(a).
Find the differential of ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 4‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 4‫ݔ‬
݀‫( = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 4)݀‫ݔ‬
57
Example(b).
Find the differential of ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ.
Solution:
‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ
݀‫ ݔ([ = ݕ‬+ 1)2(‫ ݔ‬െ 2) + (‫ ݔ‬െ 2) ଶ ]݀‫ݔ‬
݀‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ(ݔ‬െ 2)݀‫ݔ‬
Example(c).
Find the differential of ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕݔ‬4.
Solution:
‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕݔ‬4
2‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬+ ݀‫ ݕ‬+ 2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬+ 2݀‫ ݔ‬െ (‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ ‫ = )ݔ݀ݕ‬0
2‫ ݕ݀ݕ‬+ ݀‫ ݕ‬+ 2‫ ݔ݀ݔ‬+ 2݀‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݔ݀ݕ‬0
(2‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬+ 1)݀‫ ݕ‬+ (2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬+ 2)݀‫ = ݔ‬0
(ଶ௫ି௬ାଶ)
݀‫ = ݕ‬െ (ଶ௬ି௫ାଵ) ݀‫ݔ‬
II. Differential Approximations
Differential approximations are applicable in approximating values. This is an

especial application in computing the consequences of errors in measurements and
approximating values.
If the measurement of a quantity is ‫ ܯ‬units with a possible error or allowable
error of ‫ ܧ‬units, then,
ா
Relative Error,ܴ.‫ܧ‬. =
ெ
The relative error indicates the average error per unit. It can be expressed in
decimal or in percentage.
Example(a).
What is the approximate change in ‫ ݕ‬when ‫ ݔ‬changes from 2 to 2.003 if
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ.
Solution:
For the approximate change in ‫ݕ‬, we have,
‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ
݀‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݔ݀ݔ‬
Since,
݀‫ = ݔ‬2.003 െ 2 = 0.003,
Therefore,
݀‫ = ݕ‬2(2)(0.003)
݀‫ = ݕ‬0.012
The approximate change in ‫ ݕ‬is 0.012.
Example(b).
The radius of a sphere is 20 cm with a maximum error in computing the radius
of 0.05 cm. What is the allowable error in computing the volume? What is the relative
error in volume?
Solution:
The volume of a sphere is,
ସ
ܸ = ଷ ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଷ
58
For the allowable error in the volume, we have,
ܸ݀ = 4ߨ‫ ݎ‬ଶ ݀‫ݎ‬
Since ‫ = ݎ‬20 cm and ݀‫ = ݎ‬0.05 cm,
ܸ݀ = 4ߨ(20) ଶ(0.05)
ܸ݀ = 80ߨ = 251.33 cm3
The allowable error is 251.33 cm3.
When ‫ = ݎ‬20 cm,
ସ
ܸ = ଷ ߨ(20) ଷ
ܸ = 10,666.67ߨ = 33,510.33 cm3
For the relative error in volume,
ଶହଵ.ଷଷ
ܴ. ‫ܧ‬. = ଷଷ,ହଵ଴.ଷଷ
ܴ. ‫ܧ‬. = 0.0075 or 0.75%
Example(c).
Find the approximate value of ξ10.
Solution:
ௗ௫
Put ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬and ݀‫= ݕ‬ .
ଶξ௫
For the value of ‫ ݔ‬that is closed to 10 and has a whole square
root, choose ‫ = ݔ‬9 and ݀‫( = ݔ‬10 െ 9) = 1.
Substitute,
ଵ
݀‫ = ݕ‬ଶ ଽ = 0.167
ξ
Then,
ξ10 ൎ 3 + 0.167
ξ10 ൎ 3.167
III. Newton’s Method

Linear equations can be solved using the simple algebraic operations. Some
equations such as quadratic equations can be solved using the quadratic formula. In
case an equation, containing polynomials of higher degree or an equation involving
transcendental functions, it is difficult and often impossible to obtain an exact
solution. Such equations are,
‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬4 and ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 3‫ ݔ‬+ 1 = 0
There are techniques for approximating solutions and one of them is the
Newton’s Method.
Consider a function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬and its graph as shown below,

࢟
࢟ = ࢌ(࢞)
(࢞,࢟)
࢞
‫ݔ‬ହ ‫ݔ‬ସ ‫ݔ‬ଷ ‫ݔ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬ଵ
59
where ‫ݔ‬ଵ is the first approximation, ‫ݔ‬ଶ is the second, ‫ݔ‬ଷ is the third and so on.
Newton’s Method are based on,
1. If ݂ is differentiable at ‫ݔ‬, then the tangent line at (‫ݔ‬, ‫)ݕ‬, can be used to
approximate the values of ݂ near ‫ݔ‬.
2. The point where the tangent line crosses the ‫ ݔ‬െ axis is easy to
determine.
Consider the first approximation ‫ݔ‬ଵ . The tangent line at ൫‫ݔ‬ଵ ,݂(‫ݔ‬ଵ )൯ is,
‫ ݕ‬െ ݂(‫ݔ‬ଵ ) = ݂ƍ(‫ݔ‬ଵ)(‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬ଵ )
Consider ‫ݔ‬ଶ the point where the tangent line crosses the ‫ ݔ‬െ axis, when
‫ݔ = ݔ‬ଶ and ‫ = ݕ‬0, thus,
0 െ ݂(‫ݔ‬ଵ ) = ݂ƍ(‫ݔ‬ଵ)(‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ‫ݔ‬ଵ)

௙(௫ )
‫ݔ‬ଶ = ‫ݔ‬ଵ െ ௙ƍ(௫భ )
భ
Now, let ‫ݔ‬ଶ be the second approximation and repeat the process, we find,
௙(௫ )
‫ݔ‬ଷ = ‫ݔ‬ଶ െ ௙ƍ(௫మ )
మ
For the fourth approximation, fifth approximation and so on, the process are
the same, therefore, for ݊௧௛ approximation, we have,
ࢌ(࢞ )
࢞࢔ା૚ = ࢞࢔ െ ࢌƍ(࢞࢔ ) , provided ݂ƍ(‫ݔ‬௡ ) ് 0
࢔
Example(a).
Approximate a solution of ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬4.
Solution:
‫ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬4
Set ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬4 and ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 4
Graph the function,
࢟
(૛,૟)
࢟ = ࢞૜ + ࢞ െ ૝ ૟
૜
Tangent Line ‫ܮ‬
૛
૚ First Approximation
࢞
૚ ૛
െ૚
Second Approximation
െ૛
െ૜
െ૝
(૙,െ૝)
60
From the figure, we estimate where the ݂ crosses the axis. Let us
approximate the value between 1 and 2. Choose the number near the zero as a first
approximation, consider 2.
The tangent line ‫ ܮ‬at (2,6) is,

‫ ݕ‬െ 6 = ݂ƍ(2)(‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
‫ ݕ‬െ 6 = 13(‫ ݔ‬െ 2)
‫ = ݕ‬13‫ ݔ‬െ 20
ଶ଴
Setting ‫ = ݕ‬0, ‫ ݔ‬will be ଵଷ ൎ 1.5384615. The first approximation was ‫ݔ‬ଵ = 2,
but we find that 1.5384615 is better.
For the second, third, fourth approximation and so on, use the formula
௙(௫೙)
‫ݔ‬௡ାଵ = ‫ݔ‬௡ െ
௙ƍ(௫೙)
Use 1.5384615 be the second approximation. Let ݊ = 1, therefore,

௙(௫ )
‫ݔ‬ଵାଵ = ‫ݔ‬ଵ െ ௙ƍ(௫భ )
భ
(ଵ.ହଷ଼ସ଺ଵହ) య ାଵ.ହଷ଼ସ଺ଵହିସ
‫ݔ‬ଶ = 1.5384615 െ ଷ(ଵ.ହଷ଼ସ଺ଵହ) మାଵ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൎ 1.3928190
Continue the process until we found two consecutive answers that are the
same. The next approximations are,
( ଵ.ଷଽଶ଼ଵଽ଴) యାଵ.ଷଽଶ଼ଵଽ଴ିସ
‫ݔ‬ଷ = 1.3928190 െ ଷ(ଵ.ଷଽଶ଼ଵଽ଴) మାଵ
‫ݔ‬ଷ ൎ 1.3789168
( ଵ.ଷ଻଼ଽଵ଺଼) య ାଵ.ଷ଻଼ଽଵ଺଼ିସ
‫ݔ‬ସ = 1.3789168 െ
ଷ(ଵ.ଷ଻଼ଽଵ଺଼) మ ାଵ
‫ݔ‬ସ ൎ 1.3787967
( ଵ.ଷ଻଼଻ଽ଺଻) య ାଵ.ଷ଻଼଻ଽ଺଻ିସ
‫ݔ‬ହ = 1.3787967 െ ଷ(ଵ.ଷ଻଼଻ଽ଺଻) మ ାଵ
‫ݔ‬ହ ൎ 1.3787967
Thus, the positive solution of ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ = ݔ‬4 is approximately 1.3787967.
Example(b).
Find to four decimal places the smaller positive root of the equation ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬െ
1 = 0.
Solution:
‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 = 0
݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1,݂ƍ(‫ = )ݔ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 2.
Put ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1.
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬െ1.
When ‫ = ݔ‬1,‫ = ݕ‬െ2.
When ‫ = ݔ‬2,‫ = ݕ‬3.
The root lies between ‫ = ݔ‬1 and ‫ = ݔ‬2, try ‫ݔ‬ଵ = 1.5 and by direct
substitution, we find,
( ଵ.ହ) యିଶ(ଵ.ହ)ିଵ
‫ݔ‬ଶ = 1.5 െ ଷ(ଵ.ହ) మ ିଶ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൎ 1.6315789
( ଵ.଺ଷଵହ଻଼ଽ) య ିଶ(ଵ.଺ଷଵହ଻଼ଽ)ିଵ
‫ݔ‬ଷ = 1.6315789 െ
ଷ(ଵ.଺ଷଵହ଻଼ଽ) మିଶ
61
‫ݔ‬ଷ ൎ 1.6181836
(ଵ.଺ଵ଼ଵ଼ଷ଺) య ିଶ(ଵ.଺ଵ଼ଵ଼ଷ଺) ିଵ
‫ݔ‬ସ = 1.6181836 െ
ଷ( ଵ.଺ଵ଼ଵ଼ଷ଺) మ ିଶ
‫ݔ‬ସ ൎ 1.6180340
(ଵ.଺ଵ଼଴ଷସ଴) య ିଶ(ଵ.଺ଵ଼଴ଷସ଴) ିଵ
‫ݔ‬ହ = 1.6180340 െ ଷ( ଵ.଺ଵ଼଴ଷସ଴) మ ିଶ
‫ݔ‬ହ ൎ 1.6180340
The smaller positive value of the equation is approximately 1.6180.
Example(c).
Find to three decimal places the cube root of 6.
Solution:
Cube root of 6 can be denoted into an equation ‫ ݔ‬ଷ = 6.
݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬ଷ െ 6,݂ƍ(‫ = )ݔ‬3‫ ݔ‬ଶ.
Put ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ െ 6.
When ‫ = ݔ‬0,‫ = ݕ‬െ6.
When ‫ = ݔ‬1,‫ = ݕ‬െ5.
When ‫ = ݔ‬2,‫ = ݕ‬2.
The root lies between ‫ = ݔ‬1 and ‫ = ݔ‬2, try ‫ݔ‬ଵ = 1.5 and by direct
substitution, we find,
( ଵ.ହ) యି଺
‫ݔ‬ଶ = 1.5 െ ଷ( ଵ.ହ) మ
‫ݔ‬ଶ ൎ 1.8888889
(ଵ.଼଼଼଼଼଼ଽ) యି଺
‫ݔ‬ଷ = 1.8888889 െ
ଷ( ଵ.଼଼଼଼଼଼ଽ) మ
‫ݔ‬ଷ ൎ 1.8198129
(ଵ.଼ଵଽ଼ଵଶଽ) యି଺
‫ݔ‬ସ = 1.8198129 െ ଷ( ଵ.଼ଵଽ଼ଵଶଽ) మ
‫ݔ‬ସ ൎ 1.8171246
(ଵ.଼ଵ଻ଵଶସ଺) య ି଺
‫ݔ‬ହ = 1.8171246 െ
ଷ( ଵ.଼ଵ଻ଵଶସ଺) మ
‫ݔ‬ହ = 1.8171206
The cube root of 6 is approximately 1.817.
Exercise 4.5
I. Compare ο࢟ with ࢌƍ(࢞)ο࢞ for the following exercises.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ = ݔ ;ݔ‬1,݀‫ = ݔ‬0.1
2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଷ + 1; ‫ = ݔ‬െ2, ݀‫ = ݔ‬0.01
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1; ‫ = ݔ‬െ1,݀‫ = ݔ‬0.02
ଵ
4. ‫= ݕ‬ ଶ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1; ‫ = ݔ‬2, ݀‫ = ݔ‬0.25
5. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ସ െ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ; ‫ = ݔ‬1,݀‫ = ݔ‬0.01
II. Find the differential of the given functions.

1. ‫( = ݕ‬1 + ‫ )ݔ‬ଶ
2. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ4‫ ݔ‬+ 5
ଵ
3. ‫= ݔ‬ (‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 5) ଷ
ଷ
62
ξ௫
4. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = ௫ିଵ
ξ௫௬
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫= ݕ‬
௫
III. Solve the following problems.
1. Find the approximate change in ‫ ݕ‬when ‫ ݔ‬changes from 4.5 to 4.95 if

‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 3.
2. A circle has an area of 36ߨ inches. Find the allowable error in the area of the
circle if the allowable error in the diameter is 0.03 inches. What is the relative
error in the diameter?
3. The radius of a sphere is 6 inches. Find the approximate error in the
calculated volume of the sphere if the possible error of its surface area is
0.025 in2. What is the relative error in the volume?
4. The radius of a right circular cylinder is 15 cm. Find the allowable error in the
volume of the cylinder if the error in its altitude is 0.001. What is the relative
error in the volume?
5. The base of a right triangle is 5 ft and its hypotenuse is 7 ft. Find the
approximate change in the altitude when the hypotenuse changes from 7 to
7.05 ft.
IV. Find the approximate values of the following.
1. ξ146
య
2. ξ126
య
3. ξ29
4. ξ35
ర
5. ξ80
V. Approximate the smallest positive root of the following equations using

Newton’s Method.
1. ‫ ݔ‬ସ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 3 = 0
2. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 1 = 0
3. ‫ ݔ‬ଷ = 3 െ 5‫ݔ‬
4. ‫ ݔ‬ହ = 1 െ ‫ݔ‬
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଷ െ 2‫ ݔ‬െ 5 = 0
63
64
Chapter 5
TRIGONOMETRIC AND
INVERSE
TRIGONOMETRIC
FUNCTIONS
Outline:
5.1 Trigonometric Functions: A Review
5.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions
5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
5.4 Applications of the Derivatives of Trigonometric
Functions
5.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and its Graphs
5.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions
Overview:
This chapter will introduce a review on the basics of trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions, its properties and graphs.
Same for algebraic functions, trigonometric functions also have their basic
derivative formulas and will be discussed in this chapter. Proofs for these formulas
will be also introduced in this chapter. Also, this chapter will introduce some
applications of the derivatives of trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions.
Objectives:

1. Identify the trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions and its
graphs.
2. Determine the basic derivative formulas of trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions.
3. Find the derivatives of functions involving trigonometric and inverse
trigonometric functions.
4. Solve practical applications using the derivatives of trigonometric and
inverse trigonometric functions.
65
5.1 Trigonometric Functions: A Review
From the figure shown,

࡮
hypotenuse opposite side
࡯
࡭
adjacent side
The trigonometric relations are,

୭୮୮୭ୱ୧୲ୣୱ୧ୢୣ ୦୷୮୭୲ୣ୬୳ୱୣ
sin ‫= ܣ‬ csc ‫= ܣ‬
୦୷୮୭୲ୣ୬୳ୱୣ ୭୮୮୭ୱ୧୲ୣୱ୧ୢୣ
ୟୢ୨ୟୡୣ୬୲ୱ୧ୢୣ ୦୷୮୭୲ୣ୬୳ୱୣ
cos‫= ܣ‬ ୦୷୮୭୲ୣ୬୳ୱୣ
sec ‫= ܣ‬ ୟୢ୨ୟୡୣ୬୲ୱ୧ୢୣ
୭୮୮୭ୱ୧୲ୣୱ୧ୢୣ ୟୢ୨ୟୡୣ୬୲ୱ୧ୢୣ
tan ‫= ܣ‬ cot ‫= ܣ‬
ୟୢ୨ୟୡୣ୬୲ୱ୧ୢୣ ୭୮୮୭ୱ୧ୢୣୱ୧ୢୣ
Pythagorean Theorem:
(݄‫ )݁ݏݑ݊݁ݐ݋݌ݕ‬ଶ = (‫ )݁݀݅ݏ݁ݐ݅ݏ݋݌݌݋‬ଶ + (݆ܽ݀ܽܿ݁݊‫ )݁݀݅ݏݐ‬ଶ
“For any right triangle, the square of the longest side is equal to the
sum of the squares of the other two sides.”
Trigonometric Identities:
sinଶ ‫ ܣ‬+ cosଶ ‫ = ܣ‬1
tanଶ ‫ ܣ‬+ 1 = secଶ ‫ܣ‬
cot ଶ ‫ ܣ‬+ 1 = cscଶ ‫ܣ‬
Sum and Difference Formulas:

sin(‫ ݔ‬± ‫ = )ݕ‬sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ ݕ‬± cos‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݕ‬
cos(‫ ݔ‬± ‫ = )ݕ‬cos‫ ݔ‬cos‫ ט ݕ‬sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݕ‬
୲ୟ୬ ௫± ୲ୟ୬ ௬
tan(‫ ݔ‬± ‫ = )ݕ‬ଵ‫୲ט‬ୟ୬ ௫ ୲ୟ୬ ௬
Double Angle Formulas:

sin 2‫ = ݔ‬2 sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
cos2‫ = ݔ‬cosଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ sinଶ ‫ݔ‬
= 1 െ 2 sinଶ ‫ݔ‬
= 2 cosଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ଶ ୲ୟ୬ ௫
tan 2‫= ݔ‬ మ
ଵି୲ୟ୬ ௫
Powers of Functions:
ଵ
sinଶ ‫( = ݔ‬1 െ cos 2‫)ݔ‬
ଶ
ଵ
cosଶ ‫= ݔ‬ (1 + cos2‫)ݔ‬
ଶ
ଶ ଵିୡ୭ୱ ଶ௫
tan ‫= ݔ‬
ଵାୡ୭ୱ ଶ௫
66
Product of Functions:
ଵ
sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ = ݕ‬ଶ [sin(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬+ sin(‫ ݔ‬െ ‫])ݕ‬
ଵ
sin ‫ ݔ‬sin ‫= ݕ‬ [cos( ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ )ݕ‬െ cos(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫])ݕ‬
ଶ
ଵ
cos‫ ݔ‬cos‫= ݕ‬ [cos(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬+ cos(‫ ݔ‬െ ‫])ݕ‬
ଶ
5.2 Graphs of Trigonometric Functions

࢟ ࢟
૚ ૚
࢞ ࢞
െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ૜࣊ ૛࣊ െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ૜࣊ ૛࣊
െ െ
૛ ૛ ૛ ૛ ૛ ૛
െ૚ െ૚
࢟ = ‫࢞ ܖܑܛ‬ ࢟ = ‫࢞ ܛܗ܋‬
࢟ ࢟
࢞ ࢞
૜࣊ െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ૜࣊ െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊
െ െ െ
૛ ૛ ૛ ૛ ૛ ૛
࢟ = ‫࢞ ܖ܉ܜ‬ ࢟ = ‫࢞ ܜܗ܋‬
࢟ ࢟
૚ ૚
࢞ ࢞
૜࣊ െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ૜࣊ െ࣊ ࣊ ࣊ ࣊
െ െ െ
૛ ૛ െ૚ ૛ ૛ ૛ െ૚ ૛
࢟ = ‫࢞ ܋܍ܛ‬ ࢟ = ‫࢞ ܋ܛ܋‬
67
5.3 Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
I. Derivative of sine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫࢛ ܛܗ܋ = ࢛ ܖܑܛ‬
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
By the method in Chapter 2, we have,
‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬sin(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ ݑ‬cosο‫ ݑ‬+ cos ‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ ݑ‬cosο‫ ݑ‬+ cos‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ sin ‫ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ sin ‫( ݑ‬1 െ cosο‫)ݑ‬
ଵ
ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ 2 sin ‫ ݑ‬sinଶ ቀ ο‫ݑ‬ቁ
ଶ
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬మቀ ο௨ቁ
= cos‫ ݑ‬ቀ ቁ െ 2 sin ο‫ ݑ‬ቈ మ
቉
ο௨ ο௨ ο௨
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௨ቁ ଵ
ο௨
= cos‫ ݑ‬ቀ ο௨
ቁ െ sin ‫ ݑ‬ቈ భ
మ
቉ ቂsin ቀଶ ο‫ݑ‬ቁቃ
ο௨
మ
భ
ௗ௬ ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௨ቁ ଵ
= limο௨՜଴ = limο௨՜଴ ቊcos‫ ݑ‬ቀ ቁ െ sin ‫ ݑ‬ቈ భ
మ
቉ ቂsin ቀ ο‫ݑ‬ቁቃቋ
ௗ௨ ο௨ ο௨ ο௨ ଶ
మ
ௗ௬
ௗ௨
= cos ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
ௗ௫
= cos‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
II. Derivative of cosine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫ = ࢛ ܛܗ܋‬െ ‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܖܑܛ‬
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬cos(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݑ‬cosο‫ ݑ‬െ sin ‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ ݑ‬cos ο‫ ݑ‬െ sin ‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ cos‫ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ cos‫( ݑ‬1 െ cosο‫)ݑ‬
ଵ
ο‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ ݑ‬sin ο‫ ݑ‬െ 2 cos‫ ݑ‬sin ଶ ቀଶ ο‫ݑ‬ቁ
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬మ ቀ ο௨ቁ
= െ sin ‫ ݑ‬ቀ ቁ െ 2 cosο‫ ݑ‬ቈ మ
቉
ο௨ ο௨ ο௨
భ
ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௨ቁ ଵ
= െ sin ‫ ݑ‬ቀ ቁ െ cos‫ ݑ‬ቈ భ
మ
቉ ቂsin ቀ ο‫ݑ‬ቁቃ
ο௨ ο௨ ο௨ ଶ
మ
భ
ௗ௬ ο௬ ୱ୧୬ ο௨ ୱ୧୬ቀ ο௨ቁ ଵ
= limο௨՜଴ = limο௨՜଴ ቊെ sin ‫ ݑ‬ቀ ቁ െ cos‫ ݑ‬ቈ భ
మ
቉ ቂsin ቀ ο‫ݑ‬ቁቃቋ
ௗ௨ ο௨ ο௨ ο௨ ଶ
మ
ௗ௬
ௗ௨
= െ sin ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= െ sin ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
68
III. Derivative of tangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬tan ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫ ܋܍ܛ = ࢛ ܖ܉ܜ‬૛ ࢛ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬tan ‫ݑ‬
ୱ୧୬ ௨
‫ = ݕ‬ୡ୭ୱ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ ௨(ୡ୭ୱ ௨)ିୱ୧୬ ௨൫–ୱ୧୬ ௨൯
=
ௗ௨ ୡ୭ୱమ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱమ ௨ାୱ୧୬మ ௨
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱమ ௨
sinଶ ‫ ݑ‬+ cosଶ ‫ = ݑ‬1
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱమ ௨ = secଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
ௗ௫
= secଶ ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
IV. Derivative of cotangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cot ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫ = ࢛ ܜܗ܋‬െ ‫ ܋ܛ܋‬૛ ࢛
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬cot ‫ݑ‬
ୡ୭ୱ ௨
‫ = ݕ‬ୱ୧୬ ௨
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬ ௨൫–ୱ୧୬ ௨൯ିୡ୭ୱ ௨(ୡ୭ୱ ௨)
=
ௗ௨ ୱ୧୬మ ௨
ௗ௬ ି ୱ୧୬మ ௨ିୡ୭ୱమ ௨
ௗ௨
= ୱ୧୬మ ௨
ௗ௬ ൫ୱ୧୬మ ௨ାୡ୭ୱమ ௨൯
= െ
ௗ௨ ୱ୧୬మ ௨
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ = െ cscଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௨ ୱ୧୬మ ௨
ௗ௬ ଶ ௗ௨
ௗ௫
= െ csc ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
V. Derivative of secant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sec ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܖ܉ܜ ࢛ ܋܍ܛ = ࢛ ܋܍ܛ‬
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬sec ‫ݑ‬
ଵ
‫ = ݕ‬ୡ୭ୱ ௨
ௗ௬ (ି ୱ୧୬ ௨)
ௗ௨
= െ ୡ୭ୱమ ௨
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬ ௨
= = sec ‫ ݑ‬tan ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௨ ୡ୭ୱమ ௨
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= sec ‫ ݑ‬tan ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
69
VI. Derivative of cosecant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬csc ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫ = ࢛ ܋ܛ܋‬െ ‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܜܗ܋ ࢛ ܋ܛ܋‬
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬csc ‫ݑ‬
ଵ
‫ = ݕ‬ୱ୧୬ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ ௨
ௗ௨
= െ ୱ୧୬మ ௨ = െ csc ‫ ݑ‬cot ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= െ csc ‫ ݑ‬cot ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬sin 4‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sin 4‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
݀‫ = ݕ‬sin 4‫ ݔ‬൫– sin ‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬൯ + cos‫[ ݔ‬cos4‫( ݔ‬4݀‫])ݔ‬
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4 cos4‫ ݔ‬cos‫ ݔ‬െ sin 4‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
Example(b).
Differentiate the function ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ cot ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ cot ‫ݔ‬
݀‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ(െ cscଶ ‫ )ݔ݀ ݔ‬+ cot ‫( ݔ‬2‫)ݔ݀ݔ‬
ௗ௬
= െ‫ݔ‬ଶ cscଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ 2‫ݔ‬cot‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
ௗ௬
ௗ௫
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ‫(ݔ‬2 cot ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬cscଶ ‫) ݔ‬
Example(c).
భ
Find the ‫ ݕ‬ƍ in the equation ‫( = ݕݔ‬1 + cosଷ ‫ )ݔ‬మ .
Solution:
భ
‫( = ݕݔ‬1 + cosଷ ‫ )ݔ‬మ
By implicit differentiation,
ଷ ୡ୭ୱమ ௫൫–ୱ୧୬ ௫ௗ௫൯
‫ ݕ݀ݔ‬+ ‫= ݔ݀ݕ‬
ଶξଵାୡ୭ୱయ ௫
ଷ ୡ୭ୱమ ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫ௗ௫
‫ = ݕ݀ݔ‬െ – ‫ݔ݀ݕ‬
ଶξଵାୡ୭ୱయ ௫
ௗ௬ ଷ ୡ୭ୱమ ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ௬
= െ െ௫
ௗ௫ ଶ௫ξଵାୡ୭ୱయ ௫
Example(d).
Find the first five derivatives of ‫ = ݕ‬sin ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ cosܾ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sin ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ cosܾ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ܽ cosܽ‫ ݔ‬െ ܾ sin ܾ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െܽ ଶ sin ܽ‫ ݔ‬െ ܾଶ cosܾ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍ = െܽଷ cosܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾଷ sin ܾ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍƍ = ܽସ sin ܽ‫ ݔ‬+ ܾସ cosܾ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍƍƍƍ = ܽହ cosܽ‫ ݔ‬െ ܾହ sin ܾ‫ݔ‬
70
Exercise 5.1
I. Find the first derivative of the given functions.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬sin 5‫ݔ‬
2. ‫ = ݕ‬cos4‫ݔ‬
3. ‫ = ݔ‬sec 3‫ݐ‬
4. ‫ = ݔ‬ξsin ‫ ݐ‬+ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ
ୡ୭୲ ଶ௫
5. ‫= ݒ‬
ୱ୧୬ ଶ௫
ଵାୱ୧୬ ௫ ଶ
6. ‫ = ݕ‬ቀ ቁ
ଵାୡ୭ୱ ௫
ୱୣୡ൫ξ௫൯
7. ‫= ݕ‬
ξ௫
8. ‫ ݔ = ݓ‬ଶ sin ‫ ݔ‬+ ξ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬

ୱୣୡమ ൫ξ௫൯
9. ‫= ݐ‬
୲ୟ୬൫ξ௫൯
10. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2)ξ1 + tan ‫ݔ‬
II. Find the second derivative of the given functions.
1. ‫ = ݓ‬4 sec൫ξ‫ݔ‬൯
ଵ
2. ‫ = ݕ‬csc ቀଷ ‫ ݔ‬ଶቁ
3. ‫ = ݒ‬sin ‫ ݐ‬+ tan 2‫ݐ‬

4. ‫ = ݐ‬sinଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ cos‫ݔ‬
5. ‫ = ݕ‬cos(sin ‫)ݔ‬
III. Find ࢟ƍ of the given implicit functions.
௫ ௫
1. ‫ ݕ‬cosቀଶቁ = ‫ ݔ‬cot ቀଶቁ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
2. ‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ = tan(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ + 1

3. tanଶ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) = ‫ ݕ‬ଶ sin(‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ
4. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬cos‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ ݔ‬+ tan ‫ݕ‬
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ sin 4‫ ݕ = ݕ‬+ cos4‫ݔ‬
71
5.4 Applications of the Derivatives of Trigonometric Functions
The previous applications of derivatives are also applicable using the

derivatives of trigonometric functions. Such applications are problems on
optimization, time rates and approximations; also, the slope of the curves, tangents
and normals to the curves, maximum and minimum points and inflection points of
trigonometric functions can be solved using its derivatives.
Example(a).
గ ଵ
For the curve ‫ = ݕ‬sinଶ ‫ ݔ‬at point ቀ ସ , ଶቁ, find the slope, tangent and normal
lines, maximum and minimum points and inflection points.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sinଶ ‫ݔ‬
గ ଵ
For the slope at point ቀ , ቁ,
ସ ଶ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2 sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
గ ଵ
At point ቀ ସ , ଶቁ,
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 1
The slope is 1.
For the tangent and normal lines,
்݉ = 1 and ݉ே = െ1, therefore,
The tangent line is,
ଵ గ
ቀ‫ ݕ‬െ ቁ = 1 ቀ‫ ݔ‬െ ቁ
ଶ ସ
గ ଵ
‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬ቀ ସ െ ଶቁ
The normal line is,
ଵ గ
ቀ‫ ݕ‬െ ቁ = െ1 ቀ‫ ݔ‬െ ቁ
ଶ ସ
గ ଵ
‫ݔ‬+ ‫ =ݕ‬ቀ + ቁ
ସ ଶ
For maximum and minimum points,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2 sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
0 = sin ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬
గ௡
‫ = ݔ‬ଶ where ݊ is any integer
For ݊ = െ2,‫ = ݔ‬െߨ and ‫ = ݕ‬0
గ
݊ = െ1,‫ = ݔ‬െ ଶ and ‫ = ݕ‬1
݊ = 0,‫ = ݔ‬0 and ‫ = ݕ‬0
గ
݊ = 1,‫ = ݔ‬and ‫ = ݕ‬1
ଶ
݊ = 2,‫ ߨ = ݔ‬and ‫ = ݕ‬0
గ గ
Some of the critical points are (െߨ,0),ቀെ ,1ቁ ,(0,0),ቀ , 1ቁ and
ଶ ଶ
(ߨ, 0). The graph of the function is continuous and the critical points are
infinite.
గ௡
At points ቀ , 0ቁ where ݊ = 0 and any even integer, the points are
ଶ
గ௡
minimum, likewise for the points ቀ ଶ , 1ቁ where ݊ is any odd integer, the
points are maximum.
గ௡
Inflection points occur at ‫= ݔ‬ where ݊ is any odd integer.
ସ
72
Example(b).
What is the maximum possible area of a right triangle having a length of its
hypotenuse 5 inches?
Solution:
૞inches
࢟
࢞
The area of the triangle is,
ଵ
‫ݕݔ = ܣ‬
ଶ
From the above figure,
‫ = ݕ‬5 sin ߠ
‫ = ݔ‬5 cos ߠ.
Substituting the values of ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ݕ‬,
ଵ
‫( = ܣ‬5 sin ߠ)(5 cosߠ)
ଶ
ଶହ
‫=ܣ‬ sin ߠ cosߠ
ଶ
ௗ஺ ଶହ
= [sin ߠ (െ sin ߠ) + cosߠ(cosߠ)]
ௗఏ ଶ
ௗ஺ ଶହ
= (െ sinଶ ߠ + cosଶ ߠ)
ௗఏ ଶ
ௗ஺
Equating ௗఏ
= 0,
ଶହ
0 = (െ sinଶ ߠ + cosଶ ߠ)
ହ
sinଶ ߠ = cosଶ ߠ
sin ߠ = cosߠ
Since ‫ = ݕ‬5 sin ߠ and ‫ = ݔ‬5 cos ߠ,
௬ ௫
=
ହ ହ
‫ݔ =ݕ‬
From the triangle, by Pythagorean Theorem,
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 25
Since ‫ݔ = ݕ‬,
‫ = ݔ‬3.54 inches and ‫ = ݕ‬3.54 inches
For maximum area,
ଵ
‫( = ܣ‬3.54)(3.54)
ଶ
‫ = ܣ‬6.27 in2
Example(c).
A wall 4 meters high is 3.5 meters away from a building. Find the minimum
length of a ladder that can reach the building with one end resting on the ground
outside the wall.
73
Solution:
ࡸ ࢟
࢞
4m
3.5m
From both triangles,
ସ ସ
sin ߠ = ; ‫= ݔ‬
௫ ୱ୧୬ ఏ
ଷ.ହ ଷ.ହ
cosߠ = ;‫= ݕ‬
௬ ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
For the length of the ladder,
‫ݔ =ܮ‬+ ‫ݕ‬
ସ ଷ.ହ
‫ = ܮ‬ୱ୧୬ ఏ + ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
ௗ௅ ସ ୡ୭ୱ ఏ ଷ.ହ ୱ୧୬ ఏ
= െ +
ௗఏ ୱ୧୬మ ఏ ୡ୭ୱమ ఏ
ିସ ୡ୭ୱయ ఏାଷ.ହ ୱ୧୬య ఏ
0= ୱ୧୬మ ఏ ୡ୭ୱమ ఏ
0 = െ4 cosଷ ߠ + 3.5 sin ଷ ߠ
4 cosଷ ߠ = 3.5 sinଷ ߠ
ସ
tanଷ ߠ = ଷ.ହ
ߠ = 46.27°
For the minimum length of the ladder,
‫ݔ =ܮ‬+ ‫ݕ‬
ସ ଷ.ହ
‫ = ܮ‬ୱ୧୬ ସ଺.ଶ଻° + ୡ୭ୱ ସ଺.ଶ଻°
‫ = ܮ‬10.6 meters
Example(d).
An airplane is flying at an altitude of 0.5 km above an observer. At a given
instant, an observer notes that the angle of elevation of the airplane is 35° and is
increasing at a rate of 0.33 radian/sec. Find the speed of the airplane.
Solution:
࢞
0.5 km
From the figure,

଴.ହ
‫=ݕ‬
ୱ୧୬ ఏ
௫
‫=ݕ‬ ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
଴.ହ ௫
=
ୱ୧୬ ఏ ୡ୭ୱ ఏ
‫ = ݔ‬0.5 cot ߠ
ௗ௫ ௗఏ
ௗ௧
= െ0.5 cscଶ ߠ ௗ௧
ௗఏ
When ߠ = 35° and = 0.33 radian/sec.,
ௗ௧
ௗ௫ ଶ
= െ0.5 csc 35°(0.33)
ௗ௧
ௗ௫
= െ0.502 km/sec.
ௗ௧
Negative sign indicates that the airplane is approaching. The speed
of the airplane is 0.502 km/sec.
Exercise 5.2
I. Find the slope, the tangent and normal lines to the given curves at the points
indicated.
గ
1. ‫ = ݕ‬sin 2‫ݔ‬, at ቀଶ ,0ቁ
గ ଻
2. ‫ = ݕ‬sinଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ 1, at ቀଷ , ସቁ
గ
3. ‫ = ݕ‬tan ‫ݔ‬, at ቀ ,1ቁ
ସ
గ
4. ‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݔ‬, at ቀ ,0ቁ
ଶ
ଶ గ
5. ‫ = ݕ‬csc ‫ݔ‬, at ቀ ,2ቁ
ସ
II. Find the critical points, determine the maxima and minima and find for the
inflection points of the given curves.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ ݔ‬+ cos‫ݔ‬

2. ‫ = ݕ‬1 + sin ‫ݔ‬
3. ‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݔ‬
4. ‫ = ݕ‬sin 2‫ݔ‬
5. ‫ = ݕ‬2 + cos3‫ݔ‬
III. Solve the following problems.
1. Find the largest conical tent that can be made having a slant height of 2
meters.
2. A wall is 3 meters away from a building. The shortest ladder that can reach the
building with one end resting on the ground outside the wall is 10 meters. How
high is the wall?
3. A boy is flying a kite at a height of 50 meters. The kite is moving horizontally
away from the boy, find the rate of the kite moving when the angle of elevation
of the kite is 50° and changing at a rate of 1.25rad/sec.
75
4. A balloon, leaving the ground 10 meters from an observer, has a rate of 1
m/sec. How fast is the angle of elevation of the balloon increasing after 5
seconds?
5. A cylinder is to be inscribed in a given sphere. What is the shape of the
cylinder if its convex surface area is maximum?
5.5 Inverse Trigonometric Functions and its Graphs

Given the trigonometric function sin ‫ݔ = ݕ‬, the inverse of the function is
‫ = ݕ‬sinିଵ ‫ݔ‬. Some functions are as follows,
‫ = ݕ‬cosିଵ ‫ ݔ‬if cos‫ݔ = ݕ‬ ‫ = ݕ‬secିଵ ‫ ݔ‬if sec ‫ݔ = ݕ‬

‫ = ݕ‬tanିଵ ‫ ݔ‬if tan ‫ݔ = ݕ‬ ‫ = ݕ‬cscିଵ ‫ ݔ‬if csc ‫ݔ = ݕ‬
‫ = ݕ‬cot ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬if cot ‫ݔ = ݕ‬
࢟ ࢟
࣊
࣊
࣊ ࣊
૛ ૛
࢞ ࢞
െ૚ ૚ െ૚ ૚
࣊ ࣊
െ െ
૛ ૛
࣊
െ࣊ െ࣊
ି૚
࢟ = ‫ܖܑܛ‬ ࢞ ࢟ = ‫ିܛܗ܋‬૚ ࢞
࢟ ࢟
࣊
࣊
࣊ ࣊
૛ ૛
࢞ ࢞
െ૛ െ૚ ૚ ૛ െ૚ ૚
࣊ ࣊
െ െ
૛ ૛
࣊
െ࣊ െ࣊
࢟ = ‫ିܖ܉ܜ‬૚ ࢞ ࢟ = ‫ି ܜܗ܋‬૚ ࢞
76
࢟ ࢟
࣊
࣊
࣊ ࣊
૛ ૛
࢞ ࢞
െ૛ െ૚ ૚ ૛ െ૛ െ૚ ૚ ૛
࣊ ࣊
െ െ
૛ ૛
࣊
െ࣊ െ࣊
࢟ = ‫ି ܋܍ܛ‬૚ ࢞ ࢟ = ‫ି ܋ܛ܋‬૚ ࢞
5.6 Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Functions

I. Derivative of inverse sine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sin ିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since sin ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ିܖܑܛ‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ඥ૚ି࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function sin ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
cos‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱ ௬
sinଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ cosଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1
cos‫ = ݕ‬ඥ1 െ sin ଶ ‫ݕ‬
Since ‫ = ݑ‬sin ‫ݕ‬, thus,
cos‫ = ݕ‬ξ1 െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ξଵି௨మ

೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
=
ௗ௫ ξଵି௨మ
II. Derivative of inverse cosine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cosିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since cos‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ି ܛܗ܋‬૚ ࢛ = െ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ඥ૚ି࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function cos‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ sin ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ୱ୧୬ ௬
77
sinଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ cosଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1
sin ‫ = ݕ‬ඥ1 െ cosଶ ‫ݕ‬
Since ‫ = ݑ‬cos‫ݕ‬, thus,
sin ‫ = ݕ‬ξ1 െ ‫ݑ‬ଶ
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ξଵି௨మ

೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= െ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ξଵି௨మ
III. Derivative of inverse tangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬tanିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since tan ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ିܖ܉ܜ‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
૚ା࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function tan ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
secଶ ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
= మ
ௗ௨ ୱୣୡ ௬
secଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + tanଶ ‫ݕ‬
Since ‫ = ݑ‬tan ‫ݕ‬, thus,
secଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + ‫ݑ‬ଶ
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= మ
ௗ௨ ଵା௨
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫
= ଵା௨మ
IV. Derivative of inverse cotangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cot ିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since cot ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ିܜܗ܋‬૚ ࢛ = െ ૚ା࢛
ࢊ࢞
૛
Proof:
Derive the function cot ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ cscଶ ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ୡୱୡమ ௬
cscଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + cot ଶ ‫ݕ‬
Since ‫ = ݑ‬cot ‫ݕ‬, thus,
cscଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + ‫ݑ‬ଶ
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ଵା௨మ
೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= െ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ଵା௨మ
78
V. Derivative of inverse secant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬secିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since sec ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ି ܋܍ܛ‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
࢛ඥ ࢛૛ ି૚
Proof:
Derive the function sec ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
sec ‫ ݕ‬tan ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
=
ௗ௨ ୱୣୡ ௬ ୲ୟ୬ ௬
secଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + tanଶ ‫ݕ‬
tan ‫ = ݕ‬ඥsecଶ ‫ ݕ‬െ 1
Since ‫ = ݑ‬sec ‫ݕ‬, thus,
tan ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݑ‬ଶ െ 1
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
=
ௗ௨ ௨ξ௨మ ିଵ
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
=
ௗ௫ ௨ξ௨మିଵ
VI. Derivative of inverse cosecant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cscିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since csc ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the function
is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ି ܋ܛ܋‬૚ ࢛ = െ ࢊ࢞
࢛ඥ࢛૛ି૚
Proof:
Derive the function csc ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ csc ‫ ݕ‬cot ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ୡୱୡ ௬ ୡ୭୲ ௬
cscଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 + cot ଶ ‫ݕ‬
cot ‫ = ݕ‬ඥcscଶ ‫ ݕ‬െ 1
Since ‫ = ݑ‬csc ‫ݕ‬, thus,
cot ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ݑ‬ଶ െ 1
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ మ௨ξ௨ ିଵ
೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= െ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ௨ξ௨మ ିଵ
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬tanିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ .
79
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬tanିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ
೏ೠ
ௗ
From, tanିଵ ‫= ݑ‬ ೏ೣ
,
ௗ௫ ଵା௨మ
ƍ ଶ(௫ାଶ)
‫= ݕ‬
ଵା[(௫ାଶ) మ] మ
ଶ(௫ାଶ)
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ଵା(௫ାଶ) ర
Example(b).
ௗ௫
Find ௗ௧ of the equation ‫ ݐݔ‬ଶ = ‫ ݔ‬െ cosିଵ (‫ ݐ‬ଶ ).
Solution:
‫ ݐݔ‬ଶ = ‫ ݔ‬െ cosିଵ (‫ ݐ‬ଶ )
ଶ௧ௗ௧
‫(ݔ‬2‫ )ݐ݀ݐ‬+ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ ݀‫ ݔ݀ = ݔ‬െ ൤െ ൨
ඥଵି(௧ మ) మ
ଶ௧ௗ௧
‫ ݐ‬ଶ ݀‫ ݔ‬െ ݀‫= ݔ‬ െ 2‫ݐ݀ݔݐ‬
ξଵି௧ ర
ௗ௫ ଶ௧ ଵ
= ቀ
(௧ మିଵ) ξଵି௧ ర
െ ‫ݔ‬ቁ
ௗ௧
Example(c).
Find the second derivative of ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + cot ିଵ ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + cot ିଵ ‫ݔ‬
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2‫ ݔ‬െ ଵା௫ మ
ଶ௫
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2 + (ଵା௫ మ ) మ
Example(d).
A picture 6 feet in height is hang on a wall with the lower edge 10 feet above
the level of the observer’s eye. Height of observer is 6 feet. How far from the wall
should the observer stand in order to obtain the most favorable view?
Solution:
૟Ԣ
ࣂ
ࢻ ૛૛Ԣ
૚૙Ԣ
ࢼ
૟Ԣ
From the figure, consider the relationships between the two triangles,
ଵ଺ ଵ଺
tan ߙ = ௫ ; ߙ = tanିଵ ௫
ଵ଴ ଵ଴
tan ߚ = ௫ ; ߚ = tanିଵ ௫
Since ߠ = (ߙ െ ߚ),
ଵ଺ ଵ଴
ߠ = tanିଵ െ tanିଵ
௫ ௫
Differentiating,
భల భబ
ௗఏ ቀି మቁ ቀି మ ቁ
ௗ௫
= ೣ
భల మ
െ ೣ
భబ మ
ଵାቀ ೣ ቁ ଵାቀ ೣ ቁ
భల భబ
ቀି మ ቁ ቀି మ ቁ
0= ೣ
భల మ
െ ೣ
భబ మ
ଵାቀ ቁ ଵାቀ ቁ
ೣ ೣ
ଵ଺ ଵ଴
௫ మାଶହ଺
= ௫ మ ାଵ଴଴
16(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 100) = 10(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 256)

‫ = ݔ‬12.65 feet
The distance where the observer should stand in order to obtain the
most favorable view is 12.65feet.
Example(e).
A balloon leaving the ground 20 meters from an observer has a rate of 1.5
m/sec. How fast is the angle of elevation of the balloon increasing when it is 45
meters above the observer’s eyes?
Solution:
20 m
௬
tan ߠ =
ଶ଴
௬
ߠ = tanିଵ
ଶ଴
భ
ௗఏ ቀ ቁ ௗ௬
మబ
ௗ௧
= ೤ మ
ή ௗ௧
ଵାቀ ቁ
మబ
ௗ௬
When ‫ = ݕ‬45 m and = 1.5 m/sec, then,
ௗ௧
భ
ௗఏ
ௗ௧
= మబ
రఱ మ
ή (1.5)
ଵାቂ ቃ
మబ
ௗఏ
ௗ௧
= 0.0124 rad/sec.
Example(f).
Find the slope, the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ = ݕ‬sin ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ cos‫ݔ‬
at point (0,1).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sin ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ cos‫ݔ‬
For the slope of the curve,
ଵ
‫ݕ‬ƍ = మ
െ sin ‫ݔ‬
ξଵି௫
At point (0,1) ,
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 1
Since ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1,்݉ = 1, therefore,
‫ ݕ‬െ 1 = 1(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬െ1
Since ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1,݉ே = െ1, therefore,
‫ ݕ‬െ 1 = െ1(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
‫ݔ‬+ ‫ =ݕ‬1
Exercise 5.3
I. Find the slope, the tangent and normal lines to the given curves at the points
1. ‫ = ݕ‬sinିଵ 4‫ݔ‬
2. ‫ = ݕ‬tanିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
3. ‫ = ݔ‬secିଵ (1 െ 6‫)ݐ‬
4. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬tanିଵ ‫ݔ‬
5. ‫( = ݕ‬sinିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ଶ
6. ‫( = ݏ‬1 + ‫ )ݔ‬tanିଵ ‫ݔ‬
7. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬tanିଵ(‫ ݔ‬ଶ )
8. ‫ ݔ = ݒ‬ଷ secିଵ(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
௧
9. ‫= ݔ‬ െ sin ିଵ ൫ξ‫ݐ‬൯
ξଵା௧
10. ‫ ݕ = ݔ‬cosିଵ (‫ ݕ‬ଶ ) + ඥ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ 1
II. Find ࢟ƍ in the given implicit functions.
1. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬ଶ cosିଵ 2‫ݔ‬

2. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + 2 = ‫ ݕ‬secିଵ (sin ‫)ݔ‬
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ cscିଵ (tan ‫)ݕ‬
௬
4. ௫
= cot ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ + tan ‫ݕ‬
௫మ
5. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ = ݕ‬secିଵ ( ௫ାଵ) + sinଶ (‫)ݕݔ‬
III. Find the second derivative of the given functions.
1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬sin ିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
2. ‫ = ݕ‬cosିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ
3. ‫ = ݕ‬sinିଵ ‫ ݔ‬+ tanିଵ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
4. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬cosିଵ (‫ ݐ‬+ 1)
5. ‫ = ݒ‬secିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
82
IV. Solve the following problems.
1. A ladder 3 meters long leans against the wall of a building. The top slides
down at a rate of 0.25 m/sec. How fast is the angle between the ladder and
the ground decreasing when the angle is 30°?
2. A boy is flying a kite at an altitude of 50 meters. If the kite is moving
horizontally away from the boy at a rate of 5 m/sec, find the rate of change of
the angle of elevation of the kite if it is 75 meters from the boy.
3. A clock 1.5 feet in height is hung on the wall with the lower edge 4 feet above
the level of the eye of a 5.8 feet observer. Compute the maximum angle that
the clock should subtends.
4. A boy is flying a kite at an altitude of 100 feet. If the kite is moving horizontally
away from the boy, find the rate of the kite moving when the angle of elevation
of the kite is 30° and changing at a rate of 0.10 rad/sec.
5. One end of a ladder 5 meters long is leaning against a perpendicular wall of a
building on the ground. Suppose that the foot of the ladder is to be pulled
away from the wall at a rate of 0.5 m/sec. Find how fast is the angle between
the ground and the ladder decreasing when its foot is 3 meters away from the
wall.
6. A ladder 20 feet long leans against a wall of a building. If the top slides down
at 1.5 ft/sec, how fast is the angle between the ladder and the ground
decreasing when the ladder is 8 feet from the ground?
7. Find the rate of the altitude of a right triangle growing when the rate of the
base angle is 0.01 rad/sec. and its base is 10 cm of angle 50°.
8. A balloon leaving the ground 100 feet from an observer rises 6 ft/sec. How fast
is the angle of elevation of the balloon increasing when the distance of the
balloon from the observer is 120 feet?
9. A boat is pulled off from a shore at 2 m/sec. A man on shore holds a rope tied
on the boat at an altitude of 6 meters. Find how fast is the angle between the
rope and the water line increasing when the rope is 3 meters.
10. Find the roots of the equation ‫ = ݔ‬cosିଵ ‫ݔ‬, using Newton’s Method.
83
84
Chapter 6
EXPONENTIAL AND
LOGARITHMIC
FUNCTIONS
Outline:
6.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: A Review
6.2 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions
Overview:
This chapter will introduce a basic review on exponential and logarithmic
functions, its properties and graphs. This will also introduce the basic formulas on the
derivatives of exponential and logarithmic functions and some applications. Proofs of
these formulas will also introduce.
Objectives:

1. Identify the exponential and logarithmic functions and its graphs.
2. Determine the basic derivative formulas of exponential and logarithmic
functions.
3. Find the derivatives of functions involving exponential and logarithmic
functions
4. Solve some applications using the derivatives of exponential and
logarithmic functions.
85
6.1 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions: A Review
Exponential Functions
The function ‫ܽ = ݕ‬௡ is called the exponential function.
Basic Laws of Exponents:

1. ܽ௡ = ܽ ή ܽ ή ܽ ή ܽ …(݊factors)
2. ܽ௠ ή ܽ௡ = ܽ௠ା௡
௔೘
3. ೙ = ܽ௠ି௡
௔
4. (ܽ௠ ) ௡ = ܽ௠௡
5. (ܾܽܿ) ௡ = ܽ௡ ܾ௡ ܿ ௡
௔ ௡ ௔೙
6. ቀ௕ ቁ = ௕೙
೘
೙
7. ܽ ೙ = ξܽ௠
ଵ ଵ
8. ܽି௠ = ௔ ೘ and ௔ష೘
= ܽ௠
଴
9. ܽ = 1
The function ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫ is called the natural exponential or naperian logarithm.

The natural exponential is the inverse function of the natural logarithm.
Properties of Natural Exponential:

1. ݁ ௫ ή ݁ ௬ = ݁ ௫ା௬
௘ೣ
2. ௘ ೤ = ݁ ௫ି௬
3. (݁ ௫ ) ௬ = ݁ ௫௬
4. ln ݁ ௫ = ‫ݔ‬
5. ݁ ଴ = 1
Logarithmic Functions
Logarithm is the inverse function of the exponential function.
From the given exponential function,
ࢇ࢟ = ࢞
The equivalent logarithmic function is,
‫࢟ = ࢞ ࢇ ܏ܗܔ‬
Forms of Logarithm:
1. Common Logarithm. It is the logarithm to the base 10.
logଵ଴ ‫ = ݔ‬log‫ݔ‬
2. Natural Logarithm. It is the logarithm to the base ݁ (natural exponential).

log௘ ‫ = ݔ‬ln ‫ݔ‬
Properties of Logarithm:
1. log௔ ‫ = ݕݔ‬log௔ ‫ ݔ‬+ log௔ ‫ݕ‬
௫
2. log௔ = log௔ ‫ ݔ‬െ log௔ ‫ݕ‬
௬
3. log௔ ‫ ݔ‬௬ = ‫ ݕ‬log௔ ‫ݔ‬
4. log௔ 1 = 0
5. log௔ ܽ = 1
6. log௔ ܽ ௫ = ‫ݔ‬
7. ܽ୪୭୥ೌ ௫ = ‫ݔ‬
86
In Calculus, the most convenient and useful from of logarithm is the natural
logarithm.
࢟
࢟ = ࢋ࢞
࢟= ࢞
૜
࢟ = ‫࢞ ܖܔ‬
૛
࢞
૚ ૛ ૜
The relationship between the graphs of ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫ and ‫ = ݕ‬ln ‫ݔ‬.
6.2 Derivatives of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

I. Derivative of logarithmic function to any base ࢇ
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬log௔ ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫= ࢛ ࢇ ܏ܗܔ‬ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ࢛ ‫ࢇ ܖܔ‬
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬log௔ ‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬log௔ (‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬log௔ (‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫ )ݑ‬െ log௔ ‫ݑ‬
(௨ାο௨)
ο‫ = ݕ‬log௔ ቂ ቃ
௨
ο௬ ଵ (௨ାο௨)
ο௨
= ο௨ log௔ ቂ ௨ ቃ
Multiply and divide by ‫ݑ‬,
ο௬ ௨ ଵ (௨ାο௨)
= ή log௔ ቂ ቃ
ο௨ ௨ ο௨ ௨
ೠ
ௗ௬ ଵ ο௬ ଵ (௨ାο௨) οೠ
= limο௨՜଴ = lim log௔ ቂ ቃ
ௗ௨ ௨ ο௨ ௨ ο௨՜଴ ௨
Since,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ ቂ ௨
ቃ = ݁
Therefore,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ log௔ ቂ ቃ = log௔ ݁
௨
Thus,
ೠ
ௗ௨
= ௨
limο௨՜଴ ο௨ = lim log௔ ቂ
௨ ο௨՜଴ ௨
ቃ
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ௨
log௔ ݁
87
ௗ௬ ଵ
=
ௗ௨ ௨ ୪୬ ௔
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫
= ௨ ୪୬ ௔
II. Derivative of common logarithmic function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬log‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ࢋ ܏ܗܔ = ࢛ ܏ܗܔ‬ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ࢛
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬log‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬log(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬log(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫ )ݑ‬െ log‫ݑ‬
(௨ାο௨)
ο‫ = ݕ‬log ቂ ቃ
௨
ο௬ ଵ (௨ାο௨)
= log ቂ ቃ
ο௨ ο௨ ௨
ο௬ ௨ ଵ (௨ାο௨)
= ή logቂ ቃ
ο௨ ௨ ο௨ ௨
ೠ
= limο௨՜଴ = lim logቂ ቃ
ௗ௨ ௨ ο௨ ௨ ο௨՜଴ ௨
Since,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ ቂ ௨
ቃ = ݁
Therefore,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ logቂ ቃ = log݁
௨
Thus,
ೠ
= limο௨՜଴ = lim logቂ ቃ
ௗ௨ ௨ ο௨ ௨ ο௨՜଴ ௨
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ௨
log݁
೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= log݁ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ௨
III. Derivative of natural logarithmic function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬log‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫= ࢛ ܖܔ‬ ࢊ࢞
࢛
Proof:
‫ = ݕ‬ln ‫ݑ‬
‫ ݕ‬+ ο‫ = ݕ‬ln(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫)ݑ‬
ο‫ = ݕ‬ln(‫ ݑ‬+ ο‫ )ݑ‬െ ln ‫ݑ‬
(௨ାο௨)
ο‫ = ݕ‬ln ቂ ቃ
௨
ο௬ ଵ (௨ାο௨)
ο௨
= ο௨ ln ቂ ௨ ቃ
ο௬ ௨ ଵ ( ௨ାο௨)
ο௨
= ௨ ή ο௨ ln ቂ ௨ ቃ
88
ೠ
ௗ௬ ଵ ο௬ (௨ାο௨) οೠ
ௗ௨
= ௨
limο௨՜଴ ο௨ = limο௨՜଴ ln ቂ ௨
ቃ
Since,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ ቂ ቃ = ݁
௨
Therefore,
ೠ
(௨ାο௨) οೠ
limο௨՜଴ ln ቂ ௨
ቃ = ln ݁ = 1
Thus,
ೠ
ௗ௨
= ௨
limο௨՜଴ ο௨ = lim ln ቂ
௨ ο௨՜଴ ௨
ቃ
ௗ௬ ଵ
= (1)
ௗ௨ ௨
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫
= ௨
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫
= ௨
IV. Derivative of exponential function, ࢇ࢛
Given the function ‫ ܽ = ݕ‬௨ , the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ ࢛ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
ࢇ = ࢇ࢛ ‫࢞ࢊ ࢇ ܖܔ‬
Proof:
‫ܽ = ݕ‬௨
ln ‫ = ݕ‬ln ܽ௨
ௗ௬ ௔ ೠ ୪୬ ௔ௗ௨
= ೠ
௬ ௔
ௗ௬
ௗ௨
= ‫ݕ‬ln ܽ
Since ‫ܽ = ݕ‬௨ , then,
ௗ௬
= ܽ௨ ln ܽ
ௗ௨
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= ܽ௨ ln ܽ
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
V. Derivative of exponential function, ࢋ࢛
Given the function ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௨ , the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ ࢛ ࢊ࢛
ࢋ = ࢋ࢛
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
௨
‫݁ =ݕ‬
ln ‫ = ݕ‬ln ݁ ௨
ln ‫ݑ = ݕ‬
ௗ௬
௬
= ݀‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬
= ‫ݕ‬
ௗ௨
Since ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௨ ,
ௗ௬
= ݁௨
ௗ௨
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= ݁௨
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
89
VI. Derivative of exponential function, ࢛࢜
Given the function ‫ ݑ = ݕ‬௩ , the derivative of the function is,

ࢊ ࢜ ࢊ࢛ ࢊ࢜
ࢊ࢞
࢛ = ࢛࢜࢜ି૚ ࢊ࢞ + ࢛࢜ ‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܖܔ‬
Proof:
‫ݑ = ݕ‬௩
ln ‫ = ݕ‬ln ‫ݑ‬௩
ln ‫ ݒ = ݕ‬ln ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= ‫ ݒ‬+ ln ‫ݒ݀ ݑ‬
௬ ௨
Since ‫ݑ = ݕ‬௩ ,
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= ‫ݒ‬ + ln ‫ݒ݀ ݑ‬
௨ೡ ௨
ௗ௬ ௗ௨ ௗ௩
ௗ௫
= ‫ݑݒ‬௩ିଵ ௗ௫ + ‫ݑ‬௩ ln ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬ln(4‫ ݔ‬+ 1).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬ln(4‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
೏ೠ
ௗ
Since ln ‫= ݑ‬ ೏ೣ
,
ௗ௫ ௨
ସௗ௫
݀‫= ݕ‬
ସ௫ାଵ
ସ
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ସ௫ାଵ
Example(b).
Differentiate the function ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ୡ୭ୱ ௫ .
Solution:
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ୡ୭ୱ ௫
ௗ ௗ௨
Since ௗ௫ ݁ ௨ = ݁ ௨ ௗ௫ ,
݀‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ୡ୭ୱ ௫ ൫– sin ‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬൯
݀‫ = ݕ‬െ݁ ୡ୭ୱ ௫ sin ‫ݔ݀ ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ݁ ୡ୭ୱ ௫ sin ‫ݔ‬
Example(c).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬4ଶ௫ + log ‫ ݔ‬ଶ .
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬4ଶ௫ + log‫ ݔ‬ଶ
೏ೠ
ௗ ௗ௨ ௗ
Since ܽ ௨ = ܽ ௨ ln ܽ and log‫ = ݑ‬log ݁ ೏ೣ
,
ௗ௫ ௗ௫ ௗ௫ ௨
ଶ௫ ଶ௫ௗ௫
݀‫ = ݕ‬4 ln 4 (2݀‫ )ݔ‬+ log݁
௫మ
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2 ቀ4ଶ௫ ln 4 + ௫ log ݁ቁ
Example(d).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬logଷ (‫ ݔ‬+ sin ‫)ݔ‬.
90
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬logଷ (‫ ݔ‬+ sin ‫)ݔ‬
೏ೠ
ௗ
Since ௗ௫
log௔ ‫= ݑ‬ ೏ೣ
௨ ୪୬ ௔
,
(ଵାୡ୭ୱ ௫)ௗ௫
݀‫= ݕ‬ ( ௫ାୱ୧୬ ௫) ୪୬ ଷ
(ଵାୡ୭ୱ ௫)
‫ݕ‬ƍ = (௫ାୱ୧୬ ௫) ୪୬ ଷ
Example(e).
Find ‫ݕ‬ƍ of the implicit function ݁ ௫ + ݁ ௬ = ln(‫)ݕݔ‬.
Solution:
݁ ௫ + ݁ ௬ = ln(‫)ݕݔ‬
௫ௗ௬ା௬ௗ௫
݁ ௫ ݀‫ ݔ‬+ ݁ ௬ ݀‫= ݕ‬ ௫௬
‫ ݁ݕݔ‬௫ ݀‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݁ݕݔ‬௬ ݀‫ ݕ݀ݔ = ݕ‬+ ‫ݔ݀ݕ‬
‫ ݁ݕݔ‬௬ ݀‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ݀ݕ = ݕ݀ݔ‬െ ‫ ݁ݕݔ‬௫ ݀‫ݔ‬
[‫ ݁ݕ(ݔ‬௬ െ 1)]݀‫(ݕ[ = ݕ‬1 െ ‫ ݁ݔ‬௫ )]݀‫ݔ‬
ௗ௬ ௬(ଵି௫௘ ೣ )
ௗ௫
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ௫(௬௘ ೤ ିଵ)
Example(f).
Find the second derivative of the function ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫ + ‫ ݔ‬ln ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫ + ‫ ݔ‬ln ‫ݔ‬
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ݁ ௫ + ‫ ݔ‬ቀ ቁ + ln ‫ݔ‬
௫
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ݁ ௫ + ln ‫ ݔ‬+ 1
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = ݁ ௫ + ௫
Example(g).
The population of a certain place is given by the equation ܲ = 10,000݁ ଴.଴ଶହ௧ ,
where ‫ ݐ‬is the number of years after 1980. At what rate is the population expected
to be growing in the year 2008?
Solution:
ܲ = 10,000݁ ଴.଴ଶହ௧
ௗ௉
ௗ௧
= 10,000݁ ଴.଴ଶହ௧ (0.025)
ௗ௉
ௗ௧
= 250݁ ଴.଴ଶହ௧
From 1980 to 2008, ‫ = ݐ‬28 years, therefore,
ௗ௉
= 250݁ ଴.଴ଶହ( ଶ଼)
ௗ௧
ௗ௉
ൎ 504 people/year
ௗ௧
91
Exercise 6.1
I. Find the first derivative of the given functions.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬ln(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
2. ‫ = ݕ‬ln(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ଶ
3. ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௫ାଵ
4. ‫ = ݕ‬log(cos‫)ݔ‬
మ
5. ‫ = ݔ‬10௧
6. ‫ ݐ( = ݔ‬+ ݁ ି௧ )(‫ ݐ‬+ ݁ ௧ ) ଶ
7. ‫ = ݔ‬15ୡ୭ୱ ௩
8. ‫ = ݕ‬log‫ ݔ‬௫
9. ‫ = ݕ‬log଺ (‫ ݔ‬cos‫)ݔ‬
షభ ௫
10. ‫ = ݕ‬log൫‫ ݔ‬+ ݁ ୱ୧୬ ൯
II. Use implicit differentiation to find ࢟ƍ .
1. ln(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ = )ݕ‬4‫ ݁ݔ‬௫

ଵ
2. log‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫= ݕ‬ ଶ
‫ ݁ݔ‬௫ + ln ‫ݕ‬
3. ݁ ௫௬ = ‫ ݔ‬௬
4. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ln ‫ = ݕ‬logଷ(‫)ݕݔ‬
5. ‫ ݔ‬୪୬ ௬ = ln(cos‫)ݕݔ‬

1. ‫( ݁ = ݕ‬௫ାଶ) + ln(‫ ݔ‬+ 2)
మ మ
2. ‫ = ݕ‬4௫ + ݁ ௫
3. ‫ = ݕ‬log(cos‫)ݔ‬
4. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1) ௫
(௫ିଶ) మ
5. ‫ = ݕ‬ln ቂ ቃ
௫
IV. Solve the following problems.

1. A point is moving along the curve ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௫ାଵ . Find how fast the ordinate is
changing with respect to time at the point when it is at (െ1,1) and the
abscissa is changing at a rate of 2 units/sec.
92
2. A point is moving along the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ ln ‫ ݔ‬ଶ . Find how fast the ‫ݔ‬ is
changing with respect to time at the point when it is at (1,1) and ‫ݕ‬ is
changing at a rate of 3 units/sec.
3. The population of a certain province is given by ܲ = 12,000݁ ଴.଴଴ଶହ௧ where ܲ is
the population at any time ‫ ݐ‬in years after the year 2000. At what rate is the
population expected to be growing in the year 2010?
4. Find the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬௫ାଵ at point (1,1).
5. Locate the critical point and determine the maxima and minima of the curve
‫ݔ = ݕ‬௫.
93
94
Chapter 7
HYPERBOLIC AND
INVERSE HYPERBOLIC
FUNCTIONS
Outline:
7.1 Hyperbolic Functions: A Review
7.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions
7.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Overview:
This chapter will introduce a review on the basics of hyperbolic and inverse
hyperbolic functions, its properties and graphs. Also, this chapter will introduced the
basic derivative formulas of hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions and some
applications. Proofs of these formulas will also introduce.
Objectives:

1. Identify hyperbolic and inverse hyperbolic functions.
2. Determine the basic derivative formulas of hyperbolic and inverse
hyperbolic functions.
3. Find the derivatives of functions involving hyperbolic and inverse
hyperbolic functions.
95
7.1 Hyperbolic Functions: A Review
The hyperbolic sine of ‫ ݔ‬is sinh ‫ݔ‬, (pronounced as “cinch”) and the
hyperbolic cosine of ‫ ݔ‬is cosh ‫ݔ‬, (pronounced as “gosh”), is defined by,
ଵ
sinh ‫ = ݔ‬ଶ (݁ ௫ െ ݁ ି௫ )
ଵ
cosh ‫= ݔ‬ (݁ ௫ + ݁ ି௫ )
ଶ
Other hyperbolic functions are,

ୱ୧୬୦ ௫ ଵ
tanh ‫= ݔ‬ sech ‫= ݔ‬
ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫
ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫ ଵ
coth ‫= ݔ‬ csch ‫= ݔ‬
ୱ୧୬୦ ௫ ୱ୧୬୦ ௫
Hyperbolic Identities:
coshଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ sinhଶ ‫ = ݔ‬1
cosh(െ‫ = )ݔ‬cosh ‫ݔ‬
sinh(െ‫ = )ݔ‬sinh ‫ݔ‬
sinh 2‫ = ݔ‬2 sinh ‫ ݔ‬cosh ‫ݔ‬
cosh 2‫ = ݔ‬coshଶ ‫ ݔ‬+ sinhଶ ‫ݔ‬
sechଶ ‫ = ݔ‬1 െ tanhଶ ‫ݔ‬
cschଶ ‫ = ݔ‬cothଶ ‫ ݔ‬െ 1
ଵ
sinhଶ ‫( = ݔ‬cosh 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1)
ଶ
ଵ
coshଶ ‫( = ݔ‬cosh 2‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
ଶ
sinh(‫ ݔ‬± ‫ = )ݕ‬sinh ‫ ݔ‬cosh ‫ ݕ‬± cosh ‫ ݔ‬sinh ‫ݕ‬
cosh(‫ ݔ‬± ‫ = )ݕ‬cosh ‫ ݔ‬cosh ‫ ݕ‬± sinh ‫ ݔ‬sinh ‫ݕ‬
7.2 Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

I. Derivative of hyperbolic sine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sinh ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫࢛ ܐܛܗ܋ = ࢛ ܐܖܑܛ‬
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
ଵ
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬sinh ‫= ݑ‬ (݁ ௨ െ ݁ ି௨ ),
ଶ
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬ (݁ ௨ െ ݁ ି௨ )
ଶ
ௗ௬ ଵ
= (݁ ௨ + ݁ ି௨ )
ௗ௨ ଶ
ଵ
Since (݁ ௨ +݁ି௨ )
= cosh ‫ݑ‬, then,
ଶ
ௗ௬
= cosh ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௨
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= cosh ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
II. Derivative of hyperbolic cosine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cosh ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܐܖܑܛ = ࢛ ܐܛܗ܋‬
96
Proof:
ଵ
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬cosh ‫= ݑ‬ (݁ ௨ + ݁ ି௨ ),
ଶ
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬ ( ݁ + ݁ ି௨ )
௨
ଶ
ௗ௬ ଵ
= (݁ ௨ െ ݁ ି௨ )
ௗ௨ ଶ
ଵ
Since ଶ (݁ ௨ െ ݁ ି௨ ) = sinh ‫ݑ‬, then,
ௗ௬
ௗ௨
= sinh ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= sinh ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
III. Derivative of hyperbolic tangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬tanh ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫ܐ܋܍ܛ = ࢛ ܐܖ܉ܜ‬૛ ࢛
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬tanh ‫= ݑ‬ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
,
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
‫=ݕ‬
ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨(ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨)ିୱ୧୬୦ ௨(ୱ୧୬୦ ௨)
=
ௗ௨ ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨ିୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨
Since coshଶ ‫ ݑ‬െ sinhଶ ‫ = ݑ‬1, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨ = sechଶ ‫ݑ‬
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= sechଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
IV. Derivative of hyperbolic cotangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬coth ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫ = ࢛ ܐܜܗ܋‬െ ‫ܐ܋ܛ܋‬૛ ࢛
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
Proof:
ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬coth ‫= ݑ‬ ,
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
‫=ݕ‬
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬୦ ௨(ୱ୧୬୦ ௨)ିୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨(ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨)
ௗ௨
= ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨ିୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨
=
ௗ௨ ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨ିୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
ௗ௨
= െ ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
Since coshଶ ‫ ݑ‬െ sinhଶ ‫ = ݑ‬1, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ = െ cschଶ ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௨ ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
ௗ௫
= െ cschଶ ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
V. Derivative of hyperbolic secant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sech ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
‫ = ࢛ ܐ܋܍ܛ‬െ ‫࢛ ܐܖ܉ܜ ࢛ ܐ܋܍ܛ‬
ࢊ࢞ ࢊ࢞
97
Proof:
ଵ
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬sech ‫= ݑ‬ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
,
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
ௗ௨
= െ ୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௨
ௗ௬
= െ sech ‫ ݑ‬tanh ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௨
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
ௗ௫
= െ sech ‫ ݑ‬tanh ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫
VI. Derivative of hyperbolic cosecant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬csch ‫ݑ‬, the derivative of the function is,
ࢊ ࢊ࢛
ࢊ࢞
‫ = ࢛ ܐ܋ܛ܋‬െ ‫࢞ࢊ ࢛ ܐܜܗ܋ ࢛ ܐ܋ܛ܋‬
Proof:
ଵ
Consider ‫ = ݕ‬csch ‫= ݑ‬ ,
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
ଵ
‫=ݕ‬
ୱ୧୬୦ ௨
ௗ௬ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௨
ௗ௨
= െ ୱ୧୬୦మ ௨
ௗ௬
ௗ௨
= െ csch ‫ ݑ‬coth ‫ݑ‬
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ௗ௨
= െ csch ‫ ݑ‬coth ‫ݑ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௫
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬sech(1 െ 4‫)ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sech(1 െ 4‫)ݔ‬
ௗ ௗ௨
Since ௗ௫ sech ‫ = ݑ‬െ sech ‫ ݑ‬tanh ‫ ݑ‬ௗ௫ ,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ sech(1 െ 4‫ )ݔ‬tanh(1 െ 4‫( )ݔ‬െ4)
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 4 sech(1 െ 4‫ )ݔ‬tanh(1 െ 4‫)ݔ‬
Example(b).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬ln(sinh 3‫)ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬ln(sinh 3‫)ݔ‬
ଷ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ଷ௫
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = ୱ୧୬୦ ଷ௫
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 3 coth 3‫ݔ‬
Example(c).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݓ‬tanିଵ(sinh ‫)ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݓ‬tan ିଵ (sinh ‫)ݔ‬
ௗ௪ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫
=
ௗ௫ ଵାୱ୧୬୦మ௫
Since 1 + sinhଶ ‫ = ݔ‬coshଶ ‫ݔ‬, then,
ௗ௪ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫
= మ
ௗ௫ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௫
ௗ௪
= sech ‫ݔ‬
ௗ௫
98
Example(d).
Find ‫ݕ‬ƍ of the implicit function cosh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ = )ݕ‬sinh ‫ݕ‬.
Solution:
cosh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ = )ݕ‬sinh ‫ݕ‬
sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ݀( )ݕ‬+ ݀‫(ݔ = )ݕ‬cosh ‫ )ݕ݀ ݕ‬+ sinh ‫ݔ݀ ݕ‬
sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ݀ )ݕ‬+ sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ = ݕ݀ )ݕ‬cosh ‫ ݕ݀ ݕ‬+ sinh ‫ݔ݀ ݕ‬
sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ݀ )ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬cosh ‫ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬sinh ‫ ݔ݀ ݕ‬െ sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݔ݀ )ݕ‬
[sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ )ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬cosh ‫[ = ݕ݀]ݕ‬sinh ‫ ݕ‬െ sinh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݔ݀])ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ୱ୧୬୦ ௬ିୱ୧୬୦(௫ା௬)
=
ௗ௫ ୱ୧୬୦(௫ା௬)ି௫ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௬
Example(e).
Find the second derivative of the function ‫ ݁ = ݔ‬ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧ .
Solution:
‫ ݁ = ݔ‬ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧
ௗ௫
ௗ௧
= ݁ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧ sinh ‫ݐ‬
ௗమ ௫
= ݁ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧ (cosh ‫ )ݐ‬+ sinh ‫ ݐ‬ൣ݁ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧ (sinh ‫)ݐ‬൧
ௗ௧ మ
ௗమ ௫
ௗ௧ మ
= ݁ ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௧ (cosh ‫ ݐ‬+ sinhଶ ‫)ݐ‬
Example(f).
Find the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ coshଶ ‫ ݔ‬at point (0,1).
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ coshଶ ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1 + 2 cosh ‫ ݔ‬sinh ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1 + sinh 2‫ݔ‬
At point (0,1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 1 = ்݉
݉ே = െ1
For tangent line,
‫ ݕ‬െ 1 = 1(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬െ1
For normal line,
‫ ݕ‬െ 1 = െ1(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
‫ݔ‬+ ‫ =ݕ‬1
7.3 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

I. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic sine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sinhିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since sinh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ିܖܑܛ‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ඥ࢛૛ ା૚
Proof:
Derive the function sinh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
cosh ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୡ୭ୱ୦ ௬
99
Since cosh ‫ = ݕ‬ඥsinhଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ 1, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
=
ௗ௨ ඥୱ୧୬୦మ ௬ାଵ
But ‫ = ݑ‬sinh ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ξ௨మ
ାଵ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
=
ௗ௫ ξ௨మ ାଵ
II. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic cosine function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬coshିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since cosh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ିܐܛܗ܋‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ඥ࢛૛ ି૚
Proof:
Derive the function cosh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
sinh ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୱ୧୬୦ ௬
Since sinh ‫ = ݕ‬ඥcoshଶ ‫ ݕ‬െ 1, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
=
ௗ௨ ඥୡ୭ୱ୦మ ௬ିଵ
But ‫ = ݑ‬cosh ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ξ௨మ
ିଵ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
=
ௗ௫ ξ௨మ ିଵ
III. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic tangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬tanhିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since tanh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ିܐܖ܉ܜ‬૚ ࢛ = ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ૚ି࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function tanh ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
sechଶ ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ୱୣୡ୦మ ௬
Since sechଶ ‫ = ݕ‬1 െ tanhଶ ‫ݕ‬, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ଵି୲ୟ୬୦మ ௬
But ‫ = ݑ‬tanh ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= ଵି௨మ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
=
ௗ௫ ଵି௨మ
100
IV. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic cotangent function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cothିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since, coth ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ିܐܜܗ܋‬૚ ࢛ = ૚ି࢛૛
ࢊ࢞
Proof:
Derive the function coth ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ cschଶ ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ మ
ௗ௨ ୡୱୡ୦ ௬
Since cschଶ ‫ = ݕ‬cothଶ ‫ ݕ‬െ 1, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ మ
ௗ௨ ୡ୭୲୦ ௬ିଵ
But ‫ = ݑ‬coth ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ ଵ
= െ మ =
ௗ௨ ௨ ିଵ ଵି௨మ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫
= ଵି௨మ
V. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic secant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬sechିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since sech ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
ࢊ࢞
‫ିܐ܋܍ܛ‬૚ ࢛ = െ ࢊ࢞
࢛ඥ૚ି࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function sech ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ sech ‫ ݕ‬tanh ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ୱୣୡ୦ ௬ ୲ୟ୬୦ ௬
Since tanh ‫ = ݕ‬ඥ1 െ sechଶ ‫ݕ‬, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ
ௗ௨ ୱୣୡ୦ ௬ඥଵିୱୣୡ୦మ ௬
But ‫ = ݑ‬sech ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ
ௗ௨ ௨ξଵି௨మ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= െ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ௨ξଵି௨మ
VI. Derivative of inverse hyperbolic cosecant function
Given the function ‫ = ݕ‬cschିଵ ‫ݑ‬, since csch ‫ݑ = ݕ‬, the derivative of the
function is,
ࢊ࢛
ࢊ
‫ିܐ܋ܛ܋‬૚ ࢛ = െ ࢊ࢞
ࢊ࢞ ࢛ඥ૚ା࢛૛
Proof:
Derive the function csch ‫ݑ = ݕ‬,
െ csch ‫ ݕ‬coth ‫ݑ݀ = ݕ݀ ݕ‬
ௗ௬ ଵ
ௗ௨
= െ ୡୱୡ୦ ௬ ୡ୭୲୦ ௬
101
Since coth ‫ = ݕ‬ඥ1 + cschଶ ‫ݕ‬, thus,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ
ௗ௨ ୡୱୡ୦ ௬ඥଵାୡୱୡ୦మ ௬
But ‫ = ݑ‬csch ‫ݕ‬, then,
ௗ௬ ଵ
= െ
ௗ௨ ௨ξଵା௨మ
Therefore,
೏ೠ
ௗ௬
= െ ೏ೣ
ௗ௫ ௨ξଵା௨మ
Example(a).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݕ‬sinhିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬sinhିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1)
೏ೠ
ௗ
Since sinhିଵ ‫= ݑ‬ ೏ೣ
,
ௗ௫ ξ௨మ ାଵ
ଶ௫
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ඥ(௫ మାଵ) మାଵ
Example(b).
Differentiate the function ‫ = ݔ‬cothିଵ(‫ ݒ‬െ 1) + tanhିଵ (‫ ݒ‬െ 1).
Solution:
‫ = ݔ‬cothିଵ (‫ ݒ‬െ 1) + tanhିଵ (‫ ݒ‬െ 1)
ௗ௫ ଵ ଵ
ௗ௩
= ଵି( ௩ିଵ) మ + ଵି(௩ିଵ) మ
ௗ௫ ଶ
=
ௗ௩ ଵି( ௩ିଵ) మ
ௗ௫ ଶ
=
ௗ௩ ௩(ଶି௩)
Example(c).
Find the derivative of ‫ ݓ‬with respect to ‫ ݔ‬of the implicit function
‫ ݔ‬ଶ coshିଵ ‫ = ݓ‬tan ‫ݓ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ‬ଶ coshିଵ ‫ = ݓ‬tan ‫ݓ‬
ௗ௪
‫ݔ‬ଶ ቀ ቁ + coshିଵ ‫( ݓ‬2‫ = )ݔ݀ݔ‬secଶ ‫ݓ݀ݓ‬
ξ௪ మିଵ
௫మ
ቀ
ξ௪ మ ିଵ
െ secଶ ‫ݓ‬ቁ ݀‫ = ݓ‬െ2‫ ݔ‬coshିଵ ‫ݔ݀ ݓ‬
ௗ௪ ଶ௫ ୡ୭ୱ୦షభ ௪
= െ ೣమ
ௗ௫ ିୱୣୡమ ௪
ඥೢమ షభ
ௗ௪ ଶ௫ξ௪ మିଵ ୡ୭ୱ୦షభ ௪
= െ
ௗ௫ ௫ మ ିξ௪ మିଵୱୣୡమ ௪
Example(d).
Find the second derivative of the function ‫ = ݕ‬coshିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬coshିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 1)
ଶ௫
‫ݕ‬ƍ = మ మ ඥ(௫ ାଵ) ିଵ
ଶ௫
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ξ௫ ర ାଶ௫ మ
ଶ
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ξ௫ మ ାଶ
102
మೣ
ଶ൬ ൰
మඥೣమ శమ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ మ
൫ξ௫ మାଶ൯
ଶ௫
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ య
(௫ మାଶ) మ
Example(e).
Find the tangent and normal lines to the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ sinhିଵ ‫ ݔ‬at point (0,0).
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ sinhିଵ ‫ݔ‬
ଵ
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 1 + మ
ξ௫ ାଵ
At point (0,0),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2 = ்݉
ଵ
݉ே = െ ଶ
For tangent line,
‫ ݕ‬െ 0 = 2(‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
2‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ = ݕ‬0
For normal line,
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬െ 0 = െ ଶ (‫ ݔ‬െ 0)
‫ ݔ‬െ 2‫ = ݕ‬0
Exercise 7.1
I. Differentiate the given functions.
1. ‫ = ݕ‬sinh 3‫ݔ‬
2. ‫ = ݕ‬cosh(4‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
3. ‫ = ݕ‬sech(sin 3‫)ݔ‬
ଵ
4. ‫ = ݖ‬tanିଵ ቂcosh ቀଶ ‫ݔ‬ቁቃ
5. ‫ = ݕ‬sinh(݁ ௫ ) + 4 cosh(ln ‫)ݔ‬

6. ‫ = ݔ‬ln[coshଶ(3‫ ݒ‬+ 1)]
7. ‫ = ݒ‬tanhିଵ(݁ ௫ + 1)
8. ‫ ݔ = ݖ‬sinhିଵ ൫ξ‫ݔ‬൯
ଵ
9. ‫= ݕ‬ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1) coshିଵ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1)
ଶ
ଵ
10. ‫ = ݕ‬cothିଵ ቀହ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ቁ
II. Find ࢟ƍ of the given implicit functions.
1. sinhିଵ(‫ ݕ = )ݕݔ‬coshିଵ ‫ݔ‬

2. ‫ = ݕݔ‬sechିଵ ൫ξ‫ݔ‬൯ + sinh ‫ݕ‬
3. tanh(‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ = )ݕ‬ଶ sinh ‫ݕ‬
103
4. ‫ ݕ‬cosh ‫ݕݔ = ݕ‬
5. 2‫ ݕ‬sinh ‫ = ݕ‬coshିଵ ‫ݔ‬

1. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ sinh ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
2. ‫ = ݕ‬cothିଵ(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) െ ݁ ୱ୧୬୦ ௫
3. ‫ = ݔ‬sech(‫ ݖ‬െ 2) ଶ + sinh ݁ ௭
4. ‫ ݐ = ݖ‬ଶ sinhଶ ‫ݐ‬
5. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 1) sinhିଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ )
104
Chapter 8
PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS
Outline:
8.1 Parametr ic Equations
8.2 Graphs of Parametr ic Equations
8.3 Der ivatives of Parametr ic Equations
Overview:
This chapter will introduce the concepts of parametric equations. This will
introduce the basics of parametric equation and its graph, the relationships between
the parametric equations and rectangular equations. Also, methods for finding the
derivatives of parametric equations will also be introduced.
Objectives:

1. Determine the relationship between the parametric equations and the
rectangular equations.
2. Obtain the rectangular equation of a given parametric equations.
3. Sketch the graphs of parametric equations.
4. Find the derivatives of parametric equations.
105
8.1 Parametric Equations
Given the equations,
࢞ = ࢌ(࢚) and ࢟ = ࢍ(࢚)
where ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬are given in terms of a third variable ‫ ݐ‬called the parameter, are
called the parametric equations of a curve. To obtain the rectangular equation of the
curve, we need to eliminate the parameter.
Example(a).
Obtain the rectangular equation of the parametric equations ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬െ 1 and
‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 1.
Solution:
‫ݐ =ݔ‬െ1
‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 1
From the first equation, we can solve for ‫ݐ‬,
‫ݔ = ݐ‬+ 1
Then, substitute the value of ‫ ݐ‬in the second equation,
‫ = ݕ‬2(‫ ݔ‬+ 1) + 1
Therefore, the rectangular equation of the parametric equations is,
‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݔ‬+ 3
Example(b).
Obtain the rectangular equation of the parametric equations ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬+ 5 and
‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 1.
Solution:
‫ݐ =ݔ‬+ 5
‫ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 1
From the first equation,
‫ݔ = ݐ‬െ5
Substitute the value of ‫ݐ‬, to the second equation,
‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬െ 5) ଶ െ 1
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 10‫ ݔ‬+ 24
Example(c).
Obtain the rectangular equation of the parametric equations ‫݁ = ݔ‬௧ and
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௧ .
Solution:
‫݁ = ݔ‬௧
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௧
From the first equation,
‫ = ݐ‬ln ‫ݔ‬
Substitute the value of ‫ݐ‬, to the second equation,
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ(୪୬ ௫)
మ
‫ ݁ = ݕ‬୪୬ ௫
ଶ
‫ݔ =ݕ‬
Example(d).
Obtain the rectangular equation of the parametric equations ‫ = ݔ‬sin ‫ ݐ‬and
‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݐ‬.
106
Solution:
‫ = ݔ‬sin ‫ݐ‬
‫ = ݕ‬cos‫ݐ‬
Since sin ଶ ‫ ݐ‬+ cosଶ ‫ = ݐ‬1, thus
‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 1
8.2 Graphs of Parametric Equations

A curve may be drawn by plotting the values for ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬that was obtained
by assigning values to the parameter. Also, another convenient way to plot
parametric equations is by obtaining first the rectangular equation of the parametric
equations, assigned values and then plot the points.
Example(a).
Sketch the graph of the parametric equations ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬+ 3 and ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬+ 4.
Solution:
First, make a table of values for ‫ݐ‬,
‫ݐ‬ െ1 0 1 2
‫ݐ = ݔ‬+ 3 2 3 4 5
‫ݐ =ݕ‬+ 4 3 4 5 6
Then, plot the points (2,3),(3,4),(4,5) and (5,6).

࢟࢟
࢞= ࢚+ ૜
൜
࢟= ࢚+ ૝
૞
૜
૛
૚
࢞࢞
૙ ૚ ૛ ૜ ૝ ૞
Also, another way to plot the curve is obtaining first the rectangular
equation of the parametric equations, thus, the curve is also equivalent to the
equation ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬+ 1.
Example(b).
Sketch the graph of the parametric equations ‫ = ݔ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 3 and ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ .
Solution:
The table of values for ‫ ݐ‬is,
‫ݐ‬ െ1 0 1 2
‫ = ݔ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 3 1 3 5 7
‫ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ 1 0 1 4
107
Then, plot the points (1,1),(3,0),(5,1) and (7,4).
࢞ = ૛࢚ + ૜
൜
࢟ = ࢚૛
࢞
૙ ૚ ૛ ૜ ૝ ૞ ૟ ૠ
Also, another way to plot the curve is obtaining first the

rectangular equation of the parametric equations, thus, the curve is also
ଵ
equivalent to the equation ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬+ 9).
ସ
Example(c).
Sketch the graph of the parametric equations ‫ = ݔ‬9 cos‫ ݐ‬and ‫ = ݕ‬9 sin ‫ݐ‬.
Solution:
The table of values for ‫ ݐ‬is,
‫ݐ‬ ߨ 0 ߨ ߨ
െ
2 2
‫ = ݔ‬9 cos ‫ݐ‬ 0 9 0 െ9
‫ = ݕ‬9 sin ‫ݐ‬ െ9 0 9 0
Then, plot the points (0,െ9),(9,0),(0,9) and (െ9,0).

࢟
࢞ = ૢ ‫࢚ ܛܗ܋‬
൜
࢟ = ૢ ‫࢚ ܖܑܛ‬
࢞
െૢ ૢ
െૢ
Also, another way to plot the curve is obtaining first the rectangular
equation of the parametric equations, thus, the curve is also equivalent to the
equation ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 81.
108
8.3 Derivatives of Parametric Equations
From a given parametric equations, we can obtain the derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with
respect to ‫ݔ‬.
Example(a).
Find ‫ݕ‬ƍ from ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݐ‬െ 1 and ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݐ‬െ 2.
Solution:
‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݐ‬െ 1, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଷ െ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݐ‬െ 2
First, obtain the derivatives of ‫ ݔ‬and of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݐ‬,
ௗ௫ ௗ௬
ௗ௧
= 2‫ ݐ‬+ 1, ௗ௧ = 3‫ ݐ‬ଶ െ 2‫ ݐ‬+ 4
೏೤
ௗ௬
Then, by the ratio ೏೟
೏ೣ = ௗ௫
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ, the derivative of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬
೏೟
is obtained.
Therefore,
ௗ௬ ଷ௧ మିଶ௧ାସ
ௗ௫
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ଶ௧ାଵ
Example(b).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ from ‫ ݁ = ݔ‬௧ and ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௧ .
Solution:
‫ ݁ = ݔ‬௧ , ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௧
ௗ௫ ௗ௬
= ݁௧, = 2݁ ଶ௧
ௗ௧ ௗ௧
ௗ௬ ଶ௘ మ೟
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ௗ௫ ௘೟
‫ = ݕ‬2݁ ௧
ƍ
Example(c).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍ from ‫ = ݔ‬4 sin ‫ ݐ‬and ‫ = ݕ‬cos2‫ݐ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݔ‬4 sin ‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬cos2‫ݐ‬
ௗ௫ ௗ௬
= 4 cos‫ݐ‬, = െ2 sin 2‫ݐ‬
ௗ௧ ௗ௧
ௗ௬ ିଶ ୱ୧୬ ଶ௧
ௗ௫
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ସ ୡ୭ୱ ௧
ƍ
‫ = ݕ‬െ sin ‫ݐ‬
Example(d).
Find ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ from ‫ = ݔ‬1 െ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ and ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݐ‬+ 2.
Solution:
‫ = ݔ‬1 െ ‫ ݐ‬ଶ , ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݐ‬+ 2
First, find ‫ݕ‬ƍ,
ௗ௬ ଷ
ௗ௫
= ‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ ଶ௧
ௗ௬
The obtained derivative exhibits ௗ௫ in terms of ‫ݐ‬. To differentiate both
members of the obtained derivative with respect to ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݐ‬is a function of
‫ݔ‬, we need to use the formula for a derivative of a function of a function, thus,
ௗி ௗி ௗ௧
ௗ௫
= ௗ௧ ή ௗ௫ ,
ௗ௬ ଷ
Therefore, from = െ ,
ௗ௫ ଶ௧
ௗ ଷ ଷ ଵ ଷ
ቀെ ቁ = െ ቀെ మ ቁ =
ௗ௧ ଶ௧ ଶ ௧ ଶ௧ మ
109
ௗ௫
And from = െ2‫ݐ‬,
ௗ௧
ௗ௧ ଵ
= െ
ௗ௫ ଶ௧
Thus,
ௗమ ௬ ଷ ଵ ଷ
= ‫ݕ‬ƍ = ቀ ቁ ቀെ ቁ = െ
ௗ௫ మ ଶ௧ మ ଶ௧ ସ௧ య
Exercise 8.1
I. Obtain the rectangular equation of the given parametric equations.
ଵ
1. ‫= ݔ‬ ଶ
‫ݐ‬, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 4
2. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬+ 1, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ
3. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬+ 1, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଷ
4. ‫ = ݔ‬3‫ ݐ‬െ 1, ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 1
ଵ
5. ‫ = ݔ‬1 + , ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬െ 1
௧
6. ‫ = ݔ‬3 cos‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬4 sin ‫ݐ‬

7. ‫ = ݔ‬3 cosߠ, ‫ = ݕ‬3 sin ߠ
8. ‫ = ݔ‬4 sin 2‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬2 cos2‫ݐ‬
9. ‫ = ݔ‬4 sec ‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬3 tan ‫ݐ‬
10. ‫ = ݔ‬cosଷ ‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬sin ଶ ‫ݐ‬
II. Sketch the graph of the given parametric equations.

1. ‫ = ݔ‬1 + ‫ ݐ‬ଶ, ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݐ‬െ 3
2. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬െ 2, ‫ = ݕ‬2‫ ݐ‬+ 3
3. ‫ = ݔ‬3 െ 2‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬2 + 3‫ݐ‬
4. ‫ = ݔ‬4 + 2 cos‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬െ1 + sin ‫ݐ‬
5. ‫ = ݔ‬cosߠ, ‫ = ݕ‬2 sin 2ߠ
III. Find ࢟ƍ of the given parametric equations.
1. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଶ െ 1, ‫ = ݕ‬4 െ ‫ݐ‬

2. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଷ െ 1, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ݐ‬
3. ‫ݐ = ݔ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬ξ‫ݐ‬
ଵ
4. ‫ = ݔ‬2‫ ݐ‬െ 1, ‫= ݕ‬ ௧ మିଶ௧
ଵ ଶ௧(௧ାଵ)
5. ‫= ݔ‬ ଶ௧ାଵ
, ‫=ݕ‬ ଶ௧ାଵ
6. ‫ ݁ = ݔ‬௧ , ‫ି ݁ = ݕ‬௧
110
7. ‫ = ݔ‬3 + 2 cos‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬2 + 5 sin ‫ݐ‬
8. ‫ = ݔ‬2ߠ െ sin ߠ, ‫ = ݕ‬2 െ cosߠ
9. ‫ = ݔ‬sinh ‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬cosh ‫ݐ‬
10. ‫ ݁ = ݔ‬ଶ௧ିଵ, ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬௧
IV. Find ࢟ƍƍ of the given parametric equations.
1. ‫ ݐ = ݔ‬ଶ + 5, ‫ ݐ = ݕ‬ଶ െ 3
ଵ ଵ
2. ‫= ݔ‬ (௧ିଵ) మ
, ‫=ݕ‬
௧ାସ
3. ‫ ݁ = ݔ‬௧ିଵ , ‫ି ݁ = ݕ‬௧
4. ‫ = ݔ‬tan ‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬sec ‫ݐ‬
5. ‫ = ݔ‬4 cos‫ݐ‬, ‫ = ݕ‬sin ‫ݐ‬
111
112
Chapter 9
CURVATURE
Outline:
9.1 Cur vature: An Introduction
9.2 Cur vature and Radius of Cur vature
9.3 Circle of Cur vature
Overview:
This chapter will introduce curvature, an application of derivatives that
measures the rate of change of the direction of a curve. This will also introduce
radius of curvature and circle of curvature.
Objectives:

1. Determine the curvature of a given curves.
2. Find for the curvature and the radius of curvature of a given curves.
3. Find for the center and equation of the circle of curvature of a given
curves.
113
9.1 Curvature: An Introduction
Curvature is the rate of change of the direction of a curve. A circular arc has a
greater curvature when the radius is small than when it is large.
Consider the illustration below,
࢟ = ࢌ(࢞)
ࡼԢ
ࡼ ο࢙
࢘
οࢻ
Given is the curve ‫)ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬, a circle and tangent line at ܲ. The curvature of
the curve at ܲ is defined to be the curvature of that circle or line.
οఈ
The ratio is the rate of change in direction of the curve per unit of arc. The
ο௦
arc ܲܲƍ is denoted by ο‫ ݏ‬and the angle between the points is denoted by οߙ.
From the illustration above, the length of the arc ܲܲƍ is,
ܽ‫݈݁݃݊ܽ × ݏݑ݅݀ܽݎ = ܿݎ‬
The relationship is,

ο‫ݎ = ݏ‬οߙ
οఈ ଵ
ο௦
= ௥
Thus,
οఈ
is the curvature of the circle.
ο௦
As ܲƍ approaches ܲ along the curve ο‫ ݏ‬and οߙ approaches zero, the
οఈ
quotient is,
ο௦
οఈ ௗఈ
ߙ = limο௦՜଴ =
ο௦ ௗ௦
called the curvature at point ܲ.
Also, the reciprocal of the curvature is called the radius of curvature and
denoted by ߩ, thus,
ଵ ௗ௦
ߩ= ఈ
= ௗఈ
9.2 Curvature and Radius of Curvature

The most common used equation of a curve is in rectangular coordinates, and
then we can easily express it in rectangular coordinates.
114
Consider the figure,
࢟
ࡼԢ
ο࢙
ο࢟
ࡼ
ο࢞
ࢻ
࢞
For ݀ߙ,
ௗ௬
tan ߙ = ௗ௫ = ‫ݕ‬ƍ
ߙ = tanିଵ ‫ݕ‬ƍ
௬ ƍƍௗ௫
݀ߙ = మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯
For ݀‫ݏ‬,
By Pythagorean Theorem,
ο‫ܲܲ = ݏ‬ƍ = ඥ(ο‫ )ݔ‬ଶ + (ο‫ )ݕ‬ଶ
Then,
ο௦ ඥ(ο௫) మା(ο௬) మ
ο௫
= ο௫
ο௦ (ο௫) మା(ο௬) మ
= ට ( ο௫) మ
ο௫
ο௦ ο௬ ଶ
= ට1 + ቀ ቁ
ο௫ ο௫
ௗ௦ ο௦ ο௬ ଶ
= limο௫՜଴ = limο௫՜଴ ට1 + ቀ ቁ
ௗ௫ ο௫ ο௫
ௗ௦ ௗ௬ ଶ
ௗ௫
= ට1 + ቀௗ௫ ቁ
݀‫ = ݏ‬ඥ1 + (‫ ݕ‬ƍ ) ଶ ݀‫ݔ‬
ௗఈ ଵ ௗ௦
Substituting ݀ߙ and ݀‫ ݏ‬to ߙ = ௗ௦
and ߩ = ఈ
= ௗఈ
, we have,
ௗఈ
ߙ= ௗ௦
೤ƍƍ ೏ೣ
మ
భశ൫೤ƍ ൯
ߙ= మ
ටଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ௗ௫
ห࢟ƍƍ ห
ࢻ= ૜ , the curvature at point ܲ.
૛ ૛
ቂ૚ା൫࢟ƍ ൯ ቃ
and
૜
૛ ૛
൤૚ା൫࢟ƍ ൯ ൨
࣋= , the radius of curvature.
ห࢟ƍƍ ห
115
9.3 Circle of Curvature
From the equation of a circle,
(‫ ݔ‬െ ݄) ଶ + (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇) ଶ = ߩଶ
Differentiating the function twice, we obtain,
2(‫ ݔ‬െ ݄)݀‫ ݔ‬+ 2(‫ ݕ‬െ ݇)݀‫ = ݕ‬0
ௗ௬
‫ ݔ‬െ ݄ + (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇) ௗ௫ = 0
‫ ݔ‬െ ݄ + (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇)‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 0 ĺ
1 + (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇)‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ + ‫ ݕ‬ƍ(‫ݕ‬ƍ) = 0
ଶ
1 + ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇) + ൫‫ ݕ‬ƍ൯ = 0 ĺ
Equating the two equations will have,
૛
૚ା൫࢟ƍ ൯
ࢎ = ࢞ െ ࢟ƍ ቈ ቉, and
࢟ƍƍ
૛
૚ା൫࢟ƍ ൯
࢑= ࢟+ ቈ ቉
࢟ƍƍ
the center of curvature.

The values of ݄ and ݇ should be substituted in the equation (‫ ݔ‬െ ݄) ଶ +
(‫ ݕ‬െ ݇) ଶ = ߩଶ together with the radius of curvature to find for the equation of the
circle of curvature.
Example(a).
Find the curvature and radius of the curve ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 8‫ ݔ‬at point (2,4).
Solution:
‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 8‫ݔ‬
Find for ‫ ݕ‬ƍ and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ ,
ସ
‫ݕ‬ƍ =
ξ଼௫
ఴ
ସቀ ቁ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ మξఴೣ
మ
൫ξ଼௫൯
At point (2,4),
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 1
ଵ
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ ସ
ห௬ ƍƍ ห
Since ߙ = య , substitute the values of ‫ ݕ‬ƍ and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ , thus,
మ మ
ቂଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ቃ
ξଶ
ߙ=
ଵ଺
ଵ
And ߩ = , therefore,
ఈ
ଵ
ߩ= ξమ
= 8ξ2
భల
Example(b).
Locate the center of curvature of the curve ‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଶ at point (െ1,4).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଶ
మ మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ଵା൫௬ ƍ ൯
Since ݄ = ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ൤ ௬ ƍƍ
൨ and ݇ = ‫ ݕ‬+ ൤ ௬ ƍƍ
൨, find first for the ‫ ݕ‬ƍ and
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ , thus,
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 8‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 8
116
At point (െ1,4),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ8
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 8
Substitute the values of ‫ ݕ‬ƍ and ‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ and the points (െ1,4), therefore,
మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯
݄= ‫ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ൤ ƍƍ ൨
௬
ଵା(ି଼) మ
݄ = െ1 െ (െ8) ቂ ቃ
଼
݄ = 64
మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯
݇= ‫ݕ‬+ ൤ ൨
௬ ƍƍ
ଵା(ି଼) మ
݇= 4+ ቂ ଼
ቃ
ଽ଻
݇= ଼
ଽ଻
The center of curvature is ቀ64, ቁ.
଼
Example(c).
Find the curvature of the curve ‫ = ݕ‬2 cos‫ ݔ‬at point (ߨ, െ2).
Solution:
‫ = ݕ‬2 cos‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ2 sin ‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = െ2 cos‫ݔ‬
At point (ߨ,െ2),
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 0
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2
ห௬ ƍƍ ห
Since ߙ = య , thus,
మ మ
ቂଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ቃ
ଶ
ߙ= య
[ଵା( ଴) మ] మ
ߙ= 2
Example(d).
Find the equation of the circle of curvature of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ at point (0,0).
Solution:
‫ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2‫ݔ‬
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2
At point (0,0),
‫ݕ‬ƍ = 0
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2
మ మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ଵା൫௬ ƍ ൯
Since ݄ = ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ൤ ൨ and ݇ = ‫ ݕ‬+ ൤ ൨, thus,
௬ ƍƍ ௬ ƍƍ
݄= 0
ଵ
݇=
ଶ
య
మ మ
ቂଵା൫௬ ƍ ൯ ቃ
And ߩ = ห௬ ƍƍ ห
, then,
ଵ
ߩ= ଶ
117
For the equation of the circle of curvature, substitute the values of ݄,݇
and ߩ to the general equation of the circle of curvature, therefore,
( ‫ ݔ‬െ ݄ ) ଶ + ( ‫ ݕ‬െ ݇ ) ଶ = ߩଶ
ଵ ଶ ଵ ଶ
(‫ ݔ‬െ 0) ଶ + ቀ‫ ݕ‬െ ቁ = ቀ ቁ
ଶ ଶ
‫ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬ଶ െ ‫ = ݕ‬0
Example(e).
Find the equation of the circle of curvature of the curve ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1 at
point (െ2, െ1).
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 2‫ ݔ‬െ 1
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = 2‫ ݔ‬+ 2
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2
At point (െ2, െ1),
‫ ݕ‬ƍ = െ2
‫ ݕ‬ƍƍ = 2
మ మ
ଵା൫௬ ƍ൯ ଵା൫௬ ƍ ൯
Since ݄ = ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬ƍ ൤ ൨ and ݇ = ‫ ݕ‬+ ൤ ൨, thus,
௬ ƍƍ ௬ ƍƍ
݄= 3
ଷ
݇=
ଶ
య
మ మ
ቂଵା൫௬ ƍ ൯ ቃ
And ߩ = ห௬ ƍƍ ห
, then,
ହξହ
ߩ=
ଶ
For the equation of the circle of curvature, substitute the values
of ݄, ݇ and ߩ to the general equation of the circle of curvature,
therefore,
(‫ ݔ‬െ ݄) ଶ + (‫ ݕ‬െ ݇) ଶ = ߩ ଶ
ଶ
ଷ ଶ ହξହ
(‫ ݔ‬െ 3) ଶ + ቀ‫ ݕ‬െ ቁ = ቀ ቁ
ଶ ଶ
‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ 6‫ ݔ‬െ 3‫ = ݕ‬20
Exercise 9.1
I. Find the curvature and radius of the given curves at the points indicated.
1. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 16‫ݔ‬, at (1,4)

2. ‫ ݔ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕ‬, at (2,1)
3. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬+ 2, at (െ1,2)
4. ‫ ݁ = ݕ‬ଶ௫ , at (0,1)
5. ‫ = ݕ‬ln(cos‫)ݔ‬, at (0,0)
6. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬+ 2) ଶ, at (െ1,1)
ଵ
7. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + sin ቀ ‫ݔ‬ቁ, at (0,0)
ଶ
8. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4(‫ ݔ‬+ 1), at (െ1,0)
118
9. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = ‫ ݔ(ݔ‬+ 2) ଶ , at (1,3)
10. ‫ = ݕ‬ln(‫ ݔ‬+ 1), at (0,0)
II. Find the equation of the circle of curvature of the given curves at the points
indicated.
1. ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 9‫ݔ‬, at (1,3)

2. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + 5, at (1,6)
3. ‫ ݔ(ݔ = ݕ‬െ 3), at (െ1,4)
4. ‫ ݔ( = ݕ‬െ 2) ln ‫ݔ‬, at (2,0)
5. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݔ‬, at (0,0)
119
120
Chapter 10
INDETERMINATE FORMS
Outline:
10.1 Indeterminate Forms
10.2 The L’hopital’s Rule
૙
10.3 The Indeterminate Forms and
૙
10.4 The Indeterminate Form ૙ ή
10.5 The Indeterminate Form െ
10.6 The Indeterminate Forms ૙૙ ,૙ and ૚
Overview:
Finding for a limit of a function has already introduced in chapter 1. In some
cases of finding for a limit of a function, some tends to be undefined or meaningless
as introduced also in chapter 1. The notion of limit explains the behavior of a function
near at a certain point and not at that point.
In finding for a limit of a certain function, some lead to be undefined or
indeterminate. These limits that tend to be undefined or indeterminate are called as
indeterminate forms. But we can examine the limits of that function by approximation
using a value for the point near at that point, say, 0.0001 for a value of 0.
This chapter will introduce the important types of indeterminate forms and how
to evaluate the limits using L’hopital’s rule. L’hopital’s rule is a method used in
determining a limit of indeterminate forms by using derivatives.
Objectives:

1. Define indeterminate forms.
2. Determine the existence of indeterminate forms to functions.
3. Define the L’hopital’s Rule.
4. Identify the different types of indeterminate forms.
5. Evaluate functions of indeterminate forms using the L’hopital’s Rule.
121
10.1 Indeterminate Forms
௙(௫)
The quotient is said to have the indeterminate form if the limit of ݂(‫)ݔ‬
௚(௫)
௙(௫)
and ݃(‫ )ݔ‬both tend to 0 as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܽ. In the same way, the quotient ௚( ௫)
has the indeterminate form if ݂(‫ )ݔ‬and ݃(‫ )ݔ‬both tend to ± as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܽ.
10.2 The L’hopital’s Rule

L’hopital’s Rule states that,
௙(௫)
If has an indeterminate form at ܽ, then,
௚(௫)
ࢌ(࢞) ࢌƍ( ࢞)
‫࢞ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ = ‫࢞ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ
ࢍ(࢞) ࢍƍ (࢞)
Provided the last limit exists or is infinite. The same is true if ܽ is replaced by
ܽା , ܽ ି or ± .
௙ ƍ (௫)
If again ௚ ƍ (௫)
has an indeterminate form at ܽ, then,
ࢌƍ (࢞) ࢌƍƍ (࢞)
‫࢞ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ ࢍƍ (࢞) = ‫࢞ ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ ࢍƍƍ (࢞)
૙
10.3 The Indeterminate Forms, and
૙
଴
The indeterminate forms and exists when the form satisfied or the
଴
଴
quotient is equal to ଴
and
.
Example(a).
௫
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ మ .
௫ ିଶ௫
Solution:
௫
lim௫՜଴ మ
௫ ିଶ௫
଴
Examining the quotient above, it has an indeterminate form ଴
then, by L’hopital’s Rule, we find,
௫ ௗ(௫)
lim௫՜଴ మ = lim௫՜଴ మ
௫ ିଶ௫ ௗ(௫ ିଶ௫)
ଵ ଵ
lim௫՜଴ (ଶ௫ିଶ) = െ ଶ
Example(b).
(ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫)
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ .
ୱ୧୬ ௫
Solution:
(ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫)
lim௫՜଴
ୱ୧୬ ௫
଴
The quotient is equal to applying the L’hopital’s Rule, we have,
଴
(ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫) ௗ(ଵିୡ୭ୱ ௫)
lim௫՜଴ ୱ୧୬ ௫
= lim௫՜଴ ௗ(ୱ୧୬ ௫)
ୱ୧୬ ௫ ଴
lim௫՜଴ = = 0
ୡ୭ୱ ௫ ଵ
122
10.4 The Indeterminate Form, ૙ ή
Consider the product of two functions ݂(‫ )ݔ‬ή ݃(‫ )ݔ‬such that as ‫ ݔ‬approaches
ܽ, either of the function approaches zero while the other increases indefinitely. The
product is said to be the indeterminate form 0 ή .
௙(௫)
If ݂(‫ )ݔ‬ή ݃(‫)ݔ‬, then, ݂(‫ )ݔ‬ή ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬భ ,
೒( ೣ)
଴
It follows that the quotient assumes and arrived to the form or and
଴
L’hopital’s Rule is applicable.
Example(a).
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬ln ‫ ݔ‬ଶ .
Solution:
lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬ln ‫ ݔ‬ଶ
The function takes the form 0 ή , therefore,
୪୬ ௫ మ ௗ൫୪୬ ௫ మ൯
lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬ln ‫ ݔ‬ଶ = lim௫՜଴ భ = lim௫՜଴ భ =
ೣ
ௗቀ ቁ
ೣ
Thus,
మೣ
ೣమ
lim௫՜଴ భ = lim௫՜଴ (െ2‫ = )ݔ‬0
ି మ
ೣ
10.5 The Indeterminate Form, െ

When the functions ݂(‫ )ݔ‬െ ݃(‫ )ݔ‬approaches infinity as ‫ ݔ‬approaches ܽ, the
difference of the functions is said to be the indeterminate form െ . Examine the
example below.
Example(a).
Evaluate the lim௫՜ഏ (tan ‫ ݔ‬െ cot ‫)ݔ‬.
మ
Solution:
lim௫՜ ഏ(tan ‫ ݔ‬െ cot ‫)ݔ‬
మ
The difference takes the form െ , therefore, by further
transformation, we can arrived to,
ୱ୧୬ ௫ ୡ୭ୱ ௫
lim௫՜ ഏ(tan ‫ ݔ‬െ cot ‫ = )ݔ‬lim௫՜ ഏ ቀୡ୭ୱ ௫ െ ୱ୧୬ ௫ ቁ
మ మ
ୱ୧୬మ ௫ିୡ୭ୱమ ௫
= lim௫՜ഏ ቀ ୡ୭ୱ ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫
ቁ
మ
ଵ
=
଴
ଵ
lim௫՜ ഏ(tan ‫ ݔ‬െ cot ‫= )ݔ‬ =
మ ଴
10.6 The Indeterminate Forms, ૙૙ ,૙ and ૚

Consider the function,
‫ ])ݔ(݂[ = ݕ‬௚(௫) ,
If
lim௫՜଴ ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬0, lim௫՜଴ ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬0, or
lim௫՜଴ ݂(‫ = )ݔ‬, lim௫՜଴ ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬0, or
lim௫՜଴ ݂( ‫ = ) ݔ‬1, lim௫՜଴ ݃( ‫ = ) ݔ‬,
123
the function is said to be the indeterminate form 0଴ , or ଴ , or 1 . To
evaluate anyone of these limits, take the logarithm,
ln ‫ )ݔ(݃ = ݕ‬ln ݂(‫)ݔ‬
This will now assume to be the indeterminate of 0 ή , therefore,
௚(௫)
ln ‫ = ݕ‬భ
ౢ౤ ೑(ೣ)
If ln ‫ ݕ‬approaches a limit ܽ, then ‫ ݕ‬itself approaches the limit ݁ ௔ .
Example(a).
మ
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬௫ .
Solution:
మ
lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬௫
The function has the indeterminate form 0଴ .
మ
Put ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬௫ , then,
మ
ln ‫ = ݕ‬ln ‫ ݔ‬௫ = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ln ‫ݔ‬, therefore,
lim௫՜଴ ln ‫ = ݕ‬lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ (ln ‫)ݔ‬
୪୬ ௫ ௗ(୪୬ ௫)
= lim௫՜଴ భ = lim௫՜଴ భ
ௗቀ మ ቁ
ೣమ ೣ
భ
ೣ
= lim௫՜଴ మ = 0
ି య
ೣ
From ln ‫ ݕ‬՜ 0 it follows that ‫ ݕ‬՜ ݁ ଴ = 1, thus,
మ
lim௫՜଴ ‫ ݔ‬௫ = 1
Example(b).
భ
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ (1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ) ೣ .
Solution:
భ
lim௫՜଴(1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ೣ
The function has the indeterminate form 1 .
భ
Put ‫( = ݕ‬1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ) ೣ , then,
భ ଵ
ln ‫ = ݕ‬ln(1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ೣ = ln(1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ), therefore,
௫
୪୬൫ଵା௫ మ൯
lim௫՜଴ ln ‫ = ݕ‬lim௫՜଴ ௫
ௗൣ୪୬൫ଵା௫ మ൯൧
lim௫՜଴
ௗ( ௫)
మೣ
భశೣమ
lim௫՜଴ = 0
ଵ
From ln ‫ ݕ‬՜ 0, it follows that ‫ ݕ‬՜ ݁ ଴ = 1, thus,
భ
lim௫՜଴(1 + ‫ ݔ‬ଶ ) ೣ = 1
Example(c).
Evaluate the lim௫՜଴ (cot ‫ )ݔ‬ୱ୧୬ ௫ .
Solution:
lim௫՜଴(cot ‫ )ݔ‬ୱ୧୬ ௫
The function has the indeterminate form ଴ .
Put ‫( = ݕ‬cot ‫ )ݔ‬ୱ୧୬ ௫ , then,
ln ‫ = ݕ‬lnൣ(cot ‫ )ݔ‬ୱ୧୬ ௫ ൧ = sin ‫[ ݔ‬ln(cot ‫])ݔ‬, therefore,
lim௫՜଴ ln ‫ = ݕ‬lim௫՜଴ sin ‫[ ݔ‬ln(cot ‫])ݔ‬
୪୬(ୡ୭୲ ௫) ୪୬( ୡ୭୲ ௫)
= lim௫՜଴ భ = lim௫՜଴
ୡୱୡ ௫
౩౟౤ ೣ
124
ௗ[୪୬( ୡ୭୲ ௫)]
= lim௫՜଴
ௗ( ୡୱୡ ௫)
ି ୡୱୡ ௫ ୱୣୡ ௫ ୱ୧୬ ௫
= lim௫՜଴ ି ୡୱୡ ௫ ୡ୭୲ ௫ = lim௫՜଴ ୡ୭ୱమ ௫ = 0
From ln ‫ ݕ‬՜ 0, it follows that ‫ ݕ‬՜ ݁ ଴ = 1, thus,
lim௫՜଴(cot ‫ )ݔ‬ୱ୧୬ ௫ = 1
Exercise 10.1
Evaluate the following limits by applying the L’hopital’s Rule.
ଷ௫ య ାହ௫
1. lim௫՜଴
௫య
ଷ௫ మ ି௫
2. lim௫՜଴
௫ యିଶ௫
ହ௫ మ ି଼௫ିଶଵ
3. lim௫՜ଷ ௫ మିଽ
୲ୟ୬ ௫
4. lim௫՜଴
ଶ௫
௫
5. lim௫՜଴
ୱ୧୬షభ ௫
௧ రି଼ଵ
6. lim௧՜ଷ
௧ మ ିଽ
7. limఏ՜଴ (sec ߠ + tan ߠ) ୡୱୡ ఏ

8. lim௫՜଴ (‫ݔ‬cscଷ ‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ݔ‬cot ଷ ‫)ݔ‬
భ
9. lim௫՜଴ (݁ ௫ + ‫ )ݔ‬ೣ
10. lim௫՜଴ (‫ ݔ‬+ 1) ୡ୭୲ ௫
௘ ೤ ିଶ೤
11. lim௬՜଴ ௬
௫ାଵ ௫
12. lim௫՜ஶ ቀ ௫
ቁ
ୱ୧୬మ ௬
13. lim௬՜଴ ୲ୟ୬ ௬
ర ௬
14. lim௬՜଴ ቀ1 + ݁ ೤ ቁ
భ
15. lim௫՜଴ (1 െ cos ‫ )ݔ‬ౢ౤ ೣమ
125
126
Chapter 11
PARTIAL
DIFFERENTIATION
Outline:
11.1 Limits
11.2 Partial Derivatives
11.3 Higher Or der Par tial Derivatives
Overview:
Derivatives study the behavior of a function of just one variable. Also, we can
extend the study of the behavior of a function consisting of several variables.
This chapter is an introduction to partial differentiation. This will cover the
study of a function of several variables including limits, partial derivatives and higher
order partial derivatives.
Objectives:
1. Evaluate the limits of a function of several variables.
2. Find the partial derivatives of a given function.
3. Find for the higher order partial derivatives.
127
11.1 Limits
The first discussion on limits was already done in chapter 1 considering only a
function of one variable. In this section, we will discuss the limits considering a
function of two or more variables.
Consider lim(௫,௬)՜(௔,௕) ݂(‫ݔ‬, ‫ ܮ = )ݕ‬or ݂(‫ݔ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬՜ ‫ ܮ‬as, (‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬՜ (ܽ,ܾ).
If the values ݂(‫ݔ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬get closer and closer to a fixed number ‫ܮ‬, as the points
(‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬get closer and closer to a fixed point (ܽ,ܾ), then we say that “the limit of
݂(‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬equals ‫ ܮ‬as (‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬approaches (ܽ,ܾ)”.
The limit of a function of two or more variables is of the same concept as the
limit of a function of one variable.
Example(a).
Evaluate the lim(௫,௬)՜(ଶ,଴) 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݕ‬.
Solution:
lim(௫,௬)՜(ଶ,଴) 4‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ = ݕ‬4(2) ଶ + 0 = 16
Example(b).
௩ା௪
Evaluate the lim(௩,௪)՜(ଵ,ଵ) ௩ యା௪ య + (2‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ )ݓ‬ଶ .
Solution:
௩ା௪ ଵାଵ
lim(௩,௪)՜(ଵ,ଵ) య య + (2‫ ݒ‬+ ‫ )ݓ‬ଶ = (ଵ) య ା(ଵ) య
+ [2(1) + 1] ଶ = 10
௩ ା௪
Example(c).
ୡ୭ୱ ఏାୱ୧୬ ‫׎‬
Evaluate the lim(ఏ,‫)׎‬՜(గ,ିଶగ) ୡ୭ୱమ (ఏା‫ )׎‬.
Solution:
ୡ୭ୱ ఏାୱ୧୬ ‫׎‬ ୡ୭ୱ గାୱ୧୬(ିଶగ)
lim(ఏ,‫)׎‬՜(గ,ିଶగ) ୡ୭ୱమ (ఏା‫)׎‬
= ୡ୭ୱమ (గାଶగ)
= െ1
Example(d).
௫ మା௫௬௭ା௭ మ
Evaluate the lim(௫,௬,௭)՜(଴,ିଵ,ଷ) (௫ା௬ା௫) మ
.
Solution:
௫ మା௫௬௭ା௭మ (଴) మ ା(଴) (ିଵ)(ଷ)ା( ଷ) మ ଽ
lim(௫,௬,௭) ՜(଴,ିଵ,ଷ) (௫ା௬ା௫) మ
= (଴ିଵାଷ) మ
=
ସ
11.2 Partial Derivatives

Given the function ‫ݔ(݂ = ݖ‬,‫)ݕ‬.
The partial derivative of the given function can be obtained by differentiating

the function treating all other variables as constants.
The derivative of the above function is called the partial derivatives of ‫ ݖ‬with
respect to ‫ ݔ‬and is denoted by,
ࣔࢠ ࣔࢌ
or or ࢌ࢞ (࢞,࢟)
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢞
128
Or, the partial derivative of ‫ ݖ‬with respect to ‫ ݕ‬and is denoted by,
ࣔࢠ ࣔࢌ
ࣔ࢟
or ࣔ࢟ or ࢌ࢟ (࢞,࢟)
Example(a).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ = ݖ‬4‫ ݕݔ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݖ‬4‫ ݕݔ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬
డ௭ డ௭
డ௫
= 4‫ ݕ‬+ 3, డ௬ = 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1
Example(b).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ ݔ = ݑ‬ଶ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ݔ‬ඥ‫ݕ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݑ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ݔ‬ඥ‫ݕ‬
డ௨ డ௨ ௫
డ௫
= 2‫ ݕݔ‬ଶ + ඥ‫ݕ‬, డ௬
= 2‫ ݔ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬+ ଶ ξ௬
Example(c).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ ݖ‬with respect to ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬of the equation
‫ ݖ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ = ݕݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ.
Solution:
‫ ݖ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ = ݕݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
డ௭
2‫ ݖ‬+ 4‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݔ‬
డ௫
డ௭ ௫ିଶ௬
డ௫
= ௭
డ௭
2‫ ݖ‬డ௬ + 4‫ = ݔ‬2‫ݕ‬
డ௭ ௬ିଶ௫
=
డ௬ ௭
Example(d).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ ݔ = ݒ‬ଶ sin ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬ln ‫ݔ‬.
Solution:
‫ ݔ = ݒ‬ଶ sin ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬ln ‫ݔ‬
డ௩ ௬ డ௩
= 2‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ ݕ‬+ , = ‫ ݔ‬ଶ cos‫ ݕ‬+ ln ‫ݔ‬
డ௫ ௫ డ௬
11.3 Higher Order Partial Derivatives

The second partial derivative of the function ‫ݔ(݂ = ݖ‬, ‫ )ݕ‬can be denoted by,
ࣔ ࣔࢠ ࣔ૛ ࢠ
ቀ ቁ= = ࢌ࢞࢞ (࢞,࢟)
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢞૛
ቀ ቁ= = ࢌ࢞࢟ (࢞,࢟)
ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢟ ࣔ࢞ࣔ࢟
ቀ ቁ= = ࢌ࢟࢞ (࢞,࢟)
ࣔ࢟ ࣔ࢞ ࣔ࢟ࣔ࢞
ቀ ቁ= = ࢌ࢟࢟ (࢞,࢟)
ࣔ࢟ ࣔ࢟ ࣔ࢟૛
Functions of two variables have four second partial derivatives ݂௫௫ (‫ݔ‬,‫)ݕ‬,
݂௫௬ (‫ݔ‬,‫)ݕ‬, ݂௬௫ (‫ݔ‬,‫ )ݕ‬and ݂௬௬ (‫ݔ‬, ‫)ݕ‬. Functions of three variables have nine second
partial derivatives.
129
Example(a).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ = ݖ‬4‫ ݕݔ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬.
Solution:
‫ = ݖ‬4‫ ݕݔ‬+ 3‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬
డ௭ డ௭
= 4‫ ݕ‬+ 3, = 4‫ ݔ‬+ 1
డ௫ డ௬
Example(b).
Find all second partial derivatives of ‫ ݔ = ݖ‬sin ‫ ݕ‬+ cos ‫ݕݔ‬.
Solution:
The first partials are,
డ௭ డ௭
డ௫
= sin ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݕ‬sin ‫ ݕݔ‬and డ௬ = ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ݕݔ‬
The second partials are,
డమ ௭
= െ‫ ݕ(ݕ‬cos‫ = )ݕݔ‬െ‫ ݕ‬ଶ cos‫ݕݔ‬
డ௫ మ
డమ ௭
డ௫డ௬
= cos‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ(ݕ‬cos‫ )ݕݔ‬െ sin ‫( ݕݔ‬1) = cos‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݕݔ‬cos‫ ݕݔ‬െ sin ‫ݕݔ‬
డమ ௭
డ௬డ௫
= cos‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݕ(ݔ‬cos‫ )ݕݔ‬െ sin ‫( ݕݔ‬1) = cos‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݕݔ‬cos‫ ݕݔ‬െ sin ‫ݕݔ‬
డమ ௭
డ௬ మ
= െ‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ(ݔ‬cos‫ = )ݕݔ‬െ‫ ݔ‬sin ‫ ݕ‬െ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ cos‫ݕݔ‬
Example(c).
Find all first partial derivatives of ‫ ݖ‬with respect to ‫ ݔ‬and ‫ ݕ‬of the equation
‫ ݖ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ = ݕݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ.
Solution:
‫ ݖ‬ଶ + 4‫ ݔ = ݕݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
డ௭
2‫ ݖ‬+ 4‫ = ݕ‬2‫ݔ‬
డ௫
డ௭ ௫ିଶ௬
డ௫
= ௭
డ௭
2‫ ݖ‬డ௬ + 4‫ = ݔ‬2‫ݕ‬
డ௭ ௬ିଶ௫
డ௬
= ௭
Example(d).
Find all second partial derivatives of ‫ ݔ = ݖ‬ln ‫ ݕ‬+ cos݁ ௫ + sin ݁ ௬ .
Solution:
The first partials are,
డ௭ డ௭ ௫
డ௫
= ln ‫ ݕ‬െ ݁ ௫ sin ݁ ௫ and డ௬ = ௬ + ݁ ௬ cos݁ ௬
The second partials are,
డమ ௭
ௗ௫ మ
= െ݁ ௫ (݁ ௫ cos݁ ௫ ) െ sin ݁ ௫ (݁ ௫ ) = െ݁ ௫ (݁ ௫ cos݁ ௫ + sin ݁ ௫ )
డమ ௭ ଵ
డ௫డ௬
= ௬
డమ ௭ ଵ
=
డ௬డ௫ ௬
డమ ௭ ௫ ௫
= െ + ݁ ௬ (െ݁ ௬ sin ݁ ௬ ) + cos݁ ௬ (݁ ௬ ) = െ + ݁ ௬ (cos݁ ௬ െ ݁ ௬ sin ݁ ௬ )
ௗ௬ మ ௬మ ௬మ
Notice that in all the examples given, the partials ݂௫௬ = ݂௬௫ and as well as for
three variables ൫݂௫௬ = ݂௬௫ ; ݂௫௭ = ݂௭௫ ; ݂௬௭ = ݂௭௬ ൯. This is always the case provided that
the second partial derivatives are continuous.
130
Exercise 11.1
I. Evaluate the limits.

1. lim(௫,௬)՜(ଵ,଴) ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + (‫ ݔ‬െ ‫ )ݕ‬ଷ
௫௬ା௫ మξ௬
2. lim(௫,௬)՜(ିଷ,ସ)
௫ା௬
3. lim(௨,௩)՜(ଶ,଴) (‫ݑ‬ଶ + ‫ ݒ‬ଶ) ଷ െ ‫ݒݑ‬

(௫ାଶ) మ
4. lim(௫,௬,௭)՜(ିଵ,଴,ିଵ)
௫௬ାξ௫௭
ଵା௘ ೡೢ
5. lim(௩,௪,௫)՜(଴,଴,଴) ୡ୭ୱ ௩௪௫
ୡ୭ୱమ ఏ
6. lim(ఏ,‫)׎‬՜(గ,଴)
ୱୣୡ(ఏା‫)׎‬
ඥ௫ మା௫௬௭ା௭మ
7. lim(௫,௬,௭)՜(଴,ଵ,ଶ)
௘ ೣ೤೥
௪ିସ௬
8. lim(௪,௬)՜(ଵ,ିଷ)
଼௪ା௬
ଶ௫ మ ା ξ௫௬
9. lim(௫,௬)՜(ଵ,଴) ୲ୟ୬షభ ௫
(௫ା௬) య
10. lim(௫,௬,௭)՜(ିଷ,ଶ,ଶ)
௫ା௬௭
II. Find all first partial derivatives of the given functions.

1. ‫ ݕݔ = ݖ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ‫ݕ‬
2. ‫ = ݖ‬4‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 3‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݔ‬
3. ‫ݕ = ݒ‬ξ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଷ‫ݕ‬
4. ‫ = ݑ‬sin ‫ݕݔ‬
5. ‫ = ݓ‬ඥ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ݕ‬
6. ‫ ݁ݓ = ݖ‬௫௬ + cos‫ݕݔݓ‬
7. ‫ = ݖ‬ln(‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ )
8. ‫ ݔ = ݒ‬sin ‫ ݕݓ‬+ ‫ ݓ‬ଶ ‫ ݕ‬sin ‫ݔ‬
9. ‫ = ݒ‬ln ‫ ݖݕݔ‬+ ‫ݖݕݔ‬
10. ‫ݓ = ݖ‬5 ௫௬ + ‫ ݕ‬log ‫ ݓ‬ଶ ‫ݔ‬
ࣔࢠ ࣔࢠ
III. Find ࣔ࢞
and ࣔ࢟
of the given equations.
ଶ ଶ ଶ
1. ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݖݕݔ = ݖ‬
2. ‫ ݖ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ = 4‫ݕݔ‬
3. ‫ ݖ‬cos‫ ݕݔ‬+ sin ‫ݔ = ݖ‬
131
4. ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ ݖ‬+ ‫ ݕ‬sin ‫ = ݔ‬tan ‫ݕݔ‬
5. ݁ ௫௬ + ln ‫ ݔ = ݖݔ‬ଶ + ‫ݖݕ‬
IV. Find all second partial derivatives of the given functions.

1. ‫ ݔ = ݖ‬ଶ‫ ݕ‬+ ‫ݕ‬ξ‫ݔ‬
2. ‫ ݔ = ݖ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ െ ‫ݕݔ‬
3. ‫ = ݒ‬ඥ‫ ݕݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬ଶ + ‫ ݕ‬ଶ
4. ‫ = ݑ‬cos‫ ݕݔ‬+ sin ‫ݕݔ‬
5. ‫ ݕ = ݒ‬tan ‫ ݔ‬+ ‫ ݔ‬cos‫ݕ‬
132
References
Howard Anton, Irl Bivens, Stephen Davies, Calculus, Early

Transcendental, 7th ed., (USA: Anton Textbooks, Inc., 2002).
Clyde Love, Earl Rainville, Differential and Integral Calculus, 6th ed.,
(USA: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1981).
Arthur B. Simon, Calculus with Analytic Geometry, (USA: Scott,
Foresman and Company, 1982).
Florentino T. Feliciano, Fausto B. Uy, Differential and Integral Calculus,
(Manila: Merriam and Webster, Inc., 1983).
Frank Ayres Jr., Elliott Mendelson, Schaum’s Outline of Theory and
Problems of Differential and Integral Calculus, 3rd ed., (USA: The McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc., 1990).
Eugene Don, Benay Don, How to Solve Word Problems in Calculus, A
Solved Problem Approach, (USA: McGraw-Hill Companies, 2001).
George B. Thomas Jr., Ross L. Finney, Calculus and Analytic Geometry,
8th ed., (USA: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc., 1992).
Edwin J. Purcell, Dale Varberg, Calculus with Analytic Geometry, 4th ed.,
(New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1984).
Benjamin Crowell, Calculus, (California: Creative Commons Attribution-
ShareAlike license, 2009).
Abe Mizrahi, Michael Sullivan, Calculus and Analytic Geometry, 2nd ed.,
(USA: Wadsworth, Inc., 1982).
133
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Calculus 1: A Simpliﬁed Text in Differential Calculus

Book · March 2015

Harold Jan Terano

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HAROLD JAN R. TERANO, ECE, MET

Chapter 1: FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND CONTINUITY 1

Chapter 3: ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS 23

Chapter 4: APPLICATIONS OF DERIVATIVES 35

Chapter 6: EXPONENTIAL AND

Chapter 7: HYPERBOLIC AND

Chapter 8: PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS 105

Chapter 9: CURVATURE 113

Chapter 10: INDETERMINATE FORMS 121

FUNCTIONS, LIMITS AND

Upon completion of this chapter, the students will be able to:

Considering ‫ ݕ‬as the dependent variable and ‫ ݔ‬as the independent

Considering ‫ݔ‬ as the dependent variable and ‫ݕ‬ as the

1.2 Functional Notation

The following examples show how to evaluate functional notations.

But, ݃(‫ = )ݔ‬5‫ ݔ‬െ 1, then,

From the formula of the volume of a cone,

1.4 Odd and Even Functions

‫࢞ܕܑܔ‬՜ࢇ ࢌ(࢞) = ࡸ or ࢌ(࢞) ՜ ࡸas࢞ ՜ ࢇ

Consider the function,

From the table, we noticed that the limit approaches 4 as ‫ݔ‬

1.6 Limit Theorems

Theorem 1. Uniqueness of Limits.

A function can have at most one limit at ܽ.

Theorem 2. Limit of a Constant.

The limit of a constant function ܿ, is equal to that constant.

Theorem 3. Limit of the Identity.

The limit of the identity function ݂(‫ ݔ = )ݔ‬at any number ܽ is ܽ.

Theorem 4. Limit of a Sum and Difference.

Theorem 5. Limit of a Product.

Theorem 7. Limit of a Polynomial.

The limit of a polynomial at any number ܽ is the value of that polynomial at

Theorem 8. Limit of a Root.

A function ݂(‫ )ݔ‬is said to be continuous at ‫ܽ = ݔ‬, if the following conditions

Right hand continuity exists when,

II. Perform the indicated operations in each exercise.

IV. Evaluate the following limits.

2. lim௫՜ଵ (‫ ݔ‬ଶ + 5) ଻(‫ ݔ‬+ 3)

II. Find all points of discontinuities of the following functions.

To obtain the derivative of a given function, follow the procedure below.

5. Evaluate the limit as ο‫ ݔ‬approaches zero.

14. ‫ = ݕ‬ξ2 െ 3‫ ݔ‬ଶ

Figure A shows the graph of a function ‫ )ݔ(݂ = ݕ‬and a line ܶ, which is

Differentiating the equation,

7. ‫ = ݕ‬9‫ ݔ‬ଶ െ 5, at (1,4)

10. ‫ ݔ = ݕ‬ଶ + ‫ ݔ‬െ 3, at (0,െ3)

14. ‫ = ݕ‬5 + 2‫ݔ‬, at (െ3, െ1)

17. ‫ = ݕ‬3‫ ݔ‬+ ξ‫ݔ‬, at (4,14)

2.3 Rate of Change

The derivative of the function which is,

is the instantaneous rate of change of ‫ ݕ‬with respect to ‫ݔ‬.

Given the function,

The derivative of any constant is zero.

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0

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