JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE (2010) 25(3) 267–279

Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Published online 30 September 2009 in Wiley InterScience
(www.interscience.wiley.com) DOI: 10.1002/jqs.1306

Millennial-scale precipitation changes over

Central Africa during the late Quaternary
and Holocene: evidence in sediments from
the Gulf of Guinea
ACHAKIE C. ITAMBI,1* TILO VON DOBENECK1,2 and ADESINA T. ADEGBIE3
1
Center for Marine Environmental Sciences, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
2
Geosciences Department, University of Bremen, Bremen, Germany
3
Nigerian Institute for Oceanography and Marine Research (NIOMR), Victoria Island, Lagos, Nigeria

Itambi, A. C., von Dobeneck, T. and Adegbie, A. T. 2010. Millennial-scale precipitation changes over Central Africa during the late Quaternary and Holocene: evidence
in sediments from the Gulf of Guinea. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25 pp. 267–279. ISSN 0267-8179.
Received 12 July 2008; Revised 27 March 2009; Accepted 8 May 2009

ABSTRACT: We combine environmental magnetism, geochemical measurements and colour reflec-

tance to study two late Quaternary sediment cores: GeoB 4905-4 at 28 300 N off Cameroon and GeoB
4906-3 at 08 440 N off Gabon. This area is suitable for investigating precipitation changes over Central
and West Africa because of its potential to record input of aeolian and fluvial sediments. Three
magnetozones representing low and high degree of alteration of the primary rock magnetic signals
were identified. The magnetic signature is dominated by fine-grained magnetite, while residual
haematite prevails in the reduced intervals, showing increase in concentration and fine grain size
at wet intervals. Our records also show millennial-scale changes in climate during the last glacial and
interglacial cycles. At the northern location, the past 5.5 ka are marked by high-frequency oscillations
of Ti and colour reflectance, which suggests aeolian input and hence aridity. The southern location
remains under the influence of the Intertropical Convergence Zone and thus did not register aeolian
signals. The millennial-scale climatic signals indicate that drier and/or colder conditions persisted
during the late Holocene and are synchronous with the 900 a climatic cycles observed in Northern
Hemisphere ice core records. Copyright # 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
KEYWORDS: environmental magnetism; colour reflectance; Gulf of Guinea; aridity; Holocene; diagenesis.

Introduction 2002). In addition, numerous studies on lake sediments

Many studies have demonstrated that Quaternary climate
variations in equatorial and subtropical Africa are primarily
controlled by 19 and 23 ka orbital precession cycles which
regulate summer insolation and thus the strength of the West
African monsoon, which controls the amount of precipitation
on the West African continent and subsequently the influx of
terrigenous materials into the Atlantic Ocean (Sarnthein, 1978;
Kutzbach and Street-Perrott, 1985; Ruddiman and Janecek,
1989; DeMenocal et al., 2000a,b). Quite recently attention has
been focused on the climatic and environmental change during
the Holocene following observations of rapid climatic events
during the last glacial in high-latitude climate archives (O’Brien
et al., 1995; Bond et al., 1997). Ice core records from Mt
Kilimanjaro have provided some evidence for Holocene
climate variability in tropical East Africa (Thompson et al.,
* Correspondence to: A. C. Itambi, Center for Marine Environmental Sciences,
University of Bremen, Leobener Strasse, D-28359 Bremen, Germany.
E-mail: itambijr@yahoo.com
revealed significant variability in West and Central African
climate during the Holocene (e.g. Talbot et al., 1984; Street-
Perrott and Perrot, 1990, Gasse, 2000; Giresse et al., 2005;
Shanahan et al., 2006). These studies link changes in lake levels
to fluctuation in precipitation.
Recent studies such as Weldeab et al. (2007) and Schefuß
et al. (2005) have reported millennial-scale climatic changes
from marine sediments during the Holocene in tropical Africa
and linked these to sea surface temperature (SST) fluctuations.
Although these studies show a close similarity in the Central
African climate record to ice core records at the Holocene,
knowledge about the cyclicity of climatic signals at the later
part of the Holocene (0–5.5 ka) and possible forcings remain
lacking.
We therefore try to address these questions in this study by
applying a multi-proxy approach combining rock magnetic,
elemental abundances and colour reflectance proxies on
marine sediments recovered from the Gulf of Guinea offshore
from Cameroon and Gabon. Most of the previous studies were
mostly based on geochemical and palynological proxies (e.g.
Gasse and van Campo, 1994; Barker et al., 2001; Schefuß et al.,
2005; Weldeab et al., 2007).
268 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Rock magnetic properties can trace contents and character-
istics of environmentally sensitive magnetic minerals in rocks
and sediments even at very low concentrations and have
evolved into recognised tools in palaeoclimatic and environ-
mental studies since their inception over two decades ago
(Thompson et al., 1980; Thompson and Oldfield, 1986).
Amongst many others, studies by Bloemendal et al. (1992),
Verosub and Roberts (1995), Frederichs et al. (1999) and Peters
and Dekkers (2003) have demonstrated the potential of
environmental magnetism to discriminate sediments by
lithology, origin, depositional and post-depositional processes
from their magnetic mineralogy and grain size. Vigliotti et al.
(1999) and Funk et al. (2004) showed that a combined magnetic
and geochemical analysis can identify diagenetic alterations.
Elemental abundances from high-resolution X-ray fluorescence
(XRF) scanning provide ratios representing climatically driven
variations of terrigenous and biogenic sources (Arz et al., 1998;
Jansen et al., 1998). High-resolution colour reflectance data
have been used successfully in palaeoclimatic studies to
unravel millennial-scale changes, e.g. in the Cariaco basin
(Peterson et al., 2000). In this palaeoclimatic study, we
therefore combine these three methods and their potential to
draw conclusions on provenance and transport issues.
Study area
Our study area is the easternmost Equatorial Atlantic within the
confines of the Gulf of Guinea, which runs from the west coast
of Ivory Coast to the Gabon estuary (Fig. 1). Seasonal insolation
changes result in two prominent seasons, i.e. dry and rainy
seasons. Variation in the West African monsoon over this region
is known to produce significant changes in the atmospheric
circulation controlling annual rainfall, moisture, temperature
Figure 1 Location map showing the position of the two investigated cores (large dots) and the northern winter boundary of the ITCZ (dash line). The
arrows indicate surface and subsurface currents. Guinea Current (GC), Southern Equatorial current (SEC) and Equatorial Undercurrent (EUC). The
smaller dots indicate two African lakes whose records are presented in this study. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.
wiley.com/journal/jqs
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
and wind (Baldi et al., 2003). Strong solar radiation in boreal
summer heats the landmass, creating a region of low pressure –
the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) – where air rich in
water vapour flows in from the surrounding ocean, contributing
to the monsoon rainfall (Ruddiman, 2001). Its location varies
seasonally and determines the latitudinal distribution of
moisture and rainfall. Strong SE trade winds during boreal
summer move the ITCZ to about 18–208 N and strong NE trades
push the northern limit close to the equator (3–58 N) in winter.
Over land the ITCZ extends farther north or south than over the
oceans owing to the seasonal variation in land temperatures.
The strength of the monsoon has been related to periodic orbital
changes in summer insolation (Kutzbach, 1981) as well as
vegetation cover (Kutzbach, 1996; Brovkin et al., 1998).
The Gulf of Guinea deposits are composed of a 4000 m thick
sequence of Cretaceous, Tertiary and Quaternary sediments
deposited via aeolian and riverine pathways. Strong harmattan
surface winds (NE trades) transport Saharan dust rich in organic
and clastic sediments into the ocean (Westerhausen et al.,
1993; Romero et al., 1999). A recent study by Stuut et al. (2005)
traced aeolian dust deposition rich in iron, aluminium, smectite
and titanium from the Sahara Desert to the eastern equatorial
Atlantic. These dust particles range in size between 10 and
40 mm and are washed out by enhanced precipitation within
and slightly south of the ITCZ boundary.
Numerous rivers such as the Volta, Niger and Congo
discharge into the gulf, bringing along vast amounts of
terrigenous sediments. The Congo River is the second most
voluminous river in the world, discharging about 1.5 million
cubic feet of water per second and 40 Mt a
1 of terrigenous
materials into the ocean (Gaillardet et al., 1999). The Niger
River also has a large watershed (2.3  106 km2), draining
regions with vastly different climatic conditions. Westerhausen
et al. (1993) estimated that >60% of the total organic carbon
accumulated on the shelf off eastern Liberia, Ivory Coast and
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
 LATE HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION CHANGES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
Gabon is of terrigenous origin. Upwelling regions along the
west coast of Africa and Equatorial Atlantic as well as influx of
nutrient-rich fresh water boost productivity (Binet and Marchal,
1993), increasing the deposition of biogenic matter.
The surface and subsurface hydrography of the South Atlantic
has been comprehensively described by Peterson and Stramma
(1991). The hydrographic regime of the Gulf of Guinea is
dominated by the westward flowing North and South Equatorial
Currents (NEC and SEC, respectively) and the South Equatorial
Countercurrent (SECC) flowing eastward between 38 N and 28 S
at a depth of 100 m. Also flowing into the Gulf of Guinea is the
eastward-flowing shallow water mass known as the Guinea
Currents.
Materials
Two gravity cores recovered along an N–S transect on the
eastern Gulf of Guinea during RV Meteor cruise M41/1 (Schulz
et al., 1998) are investigated here: GeoB 4905-4 off Cameroon
(28 30.00 N, 98 23.40 E, water depth 1328 m, length 12.18 m)
and GeoB 4906-3 off Gabon (08 44.40 S, 088 22.60 E, water
depth 1274 m, length 12.36 m) (Fig. 1). These cores were
selected based on their latitudinal positions. The first core lies in
close proximity to the winter northern position of the ITCZ and
hence can potentially record changes in aeolian input, whereas
the southern core is constantly under the influence of the West
African monsoon and therefore expected to be dominated by
fluvial input. By studying these strategically placed cores,
Figure 2 Correlation tie-points of Ca records used to transfer the age model of core GeoB 4905–5 established by Adegbie et al. (2003) to core GeoB
4906–3. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
269
possible shifts in the ITCZ position and the southern extent of
the arid condition can be identified. The cores consist of diatom
and nannofossil oozes with silica-bearing nannofossil ooze
predominant in the northern core, while diatom ooze
dominates the southern location. Bioturbation of varying
degree is indicated by worm borrows filled with faecal pellets
visible in some layers.
Methods
Chronostratigraphy
Adegbie et al. (2003) established an age model for the core
GeoB 4905-4 using 14C ages and correlation of d18O record to
GISP2 record. This chronology was used to construct an age–
depth relationship for GeoB 4906-3 by direct correlation of
both Ca records (Fig. 2). Intermediate ages were generated by
linear interpolation between tie-points. Other independent
correlating parameters (anhysteretic remanent magnetisation
(ARM), isothermal remanent magnetisation (IRM) and porosity)
were used as checks on these points by going through each
parameter after assigning a tie-point.
The chronology of our sediment cores provides a 45 ka
record (GeoB 4906–3) and 52 ka (GeoB 4905–4, Adegbie et al.,
2003) spanning the last glacial and interglacial events, i.e.
Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 1, 2 and late 3. The average
sedimentation rate at this location was 28 cm ka
1.
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
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270 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Rock magnetism
Low-field magnetic susceptibility (k) was measured on the
archive halves of the sediment cores at a resolution of 1 cm
using an automatic core scanner with a Bartington Instruments
MS2F spot sensor, which allowed us to measure background
values after each point measurement to correct for instrumental
drifts. This parameter measures primarily magnetite concen-
tration (Thompson et al., 1980; Verosub and Roberts, 1995).
A range of more specialised rock magnetic measurements
were performed on discrete 6.2 cm3 samples taken at 5 cm
intervals for GeoB 4906-3 and 10 cm for GeoB 4905-4. Dual-
frequency (470 Hz and 4700 Hz) susceptibility measurements
with a Bartington Instruments MS2B unit was used to infer the
contribution of ultra-fine superparamagnetic (SP) particles to
the susceptibility signal using the diagnostic frequency-
dependent susceptibility kfd% (Dearing et al., 1996).
IRM was imparted at 23 incremental steps up to a 700 mT
field in an automated pass-through 2G Enterprises cryogenic
magnetometer 755 R at the University of Bremen. The IRM at
this maximum field was considered as the saturation remanent
magnetisation (SIRM) and together with 300 mT IRM was
used in calculating the S ratio given by the equation (King
and Channel, 1991; Bloemendal et al., 1992; Maher and
Thompson, 1999)
IRM0:3T
S0:3T ¼
SIRM
This index reflects the relative proportion of the high-coercivity
minerals (antiferromagnets haematite and goethite) mainly to
low-coercive (Ti-)magnetite. However, only the haematite and
magnetite fraction could be inferred in this study owing to the
limitation of the saturation field used. Ferrimagnetic minerals
have S
0.3T close to 1; the ratio decreases with an increasing
antiferromagnetic content.
Using the same instrument, ARM was imparted in the
laboratory by a 100 mT alternating peak field and a 40 mT DC
biasing field. The ARM was subsequently alternating field (AF)
demagnetised at increments of 5 mT from 5 to 50 mT, and
increments of 10 mT from 60 to 100 mT. Anhysteretic
susceptibility (karm) was generated by normalising the ARM
with the DC biasing field. ARM is used as grain size and
concentration indicator of submicron magnetite (King et al.,
1982; Thompson and Oldfield, 1986; Oldfield and Yu, 1994).
X-ray fluorescence
Relative elemental abundances for elements from potassium to
strontium were obtained at 2 cm resolution using a CORTEX
XRF scanner at the ODP Core Repository Center in Bremen. The
acquired data were processed using Kevex software, giving
element concentrations as counts per second (cps). Jansen et al.
(1998) and Röhl and Abrams (2000) provide a detailed
description of the instrument and measurement. Only the
elements Fe, Ti and Ca were used in this study.
Colour spectroscopy
A Geotek multi-sensor core logger (MSCL) mounted with a
digital Geoscan II camera was used for acquiring colour
reflectance for the split cores. The cores were cleaned to
smooth the surface and remove any oxidised layer before
measurement. Line scanning was performed at a high
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
resolution (0.01 mm) and averaged over 1 cm intervals.
Sediment colour reflectance is closely correlated with the
pigmented antiferromagnetic minerals haematite and goethite
which are typically contained in dust and give sediments a
reddish-brown appearance (Balsam et al., 1995). The reflec-
tance is also affected by carbonate and organic matter contents.
High carbonate content results in higher reflectance, whereas
organic contents lower the reflectance (e.g. Mix et al., 1995;
Balsam et al., 1999).
Results
Environmental magnetism
Primary and secondary signals
Secondary signals resulting from post-depositional diagenesis
and authigenesis can seriously compromise the palaeoenvir-
onmental interpretation of rock magnetic signals (e.g. Karlin
et al., 1987). In order to discriminate between pristine and
overprinted records, biplots of the magnetic parameters karm vs.
k (King et al., 1982) and S
0.3T vs. karm/k were examined.
karm vs. k (Fig. 3(a) and (b)) shows the dependence of
magnetite concentration and grain size. Grain size variations
are indicated by changes in slope, while a change along a line
of constant slope is indicative of varying magnetite concen-
trations. The two plots show that all the samples can be grouped
into three well-defined magnetozones (A, B and C, Fig. 3). The
concentration of fine-grained single-domain (SD) magnetite is
highest in the first group of samples (A), with k and karm values
greater than 80  10
6 SI and 4000  mSI, respectively. The
susceptibility values are more constant in group B, while the
karm varies. Group C is characterised by very low susceptibility
and remanence approaching zero.
At site GeoB 4905–4 (Fig. 3(a)), magnetozone A is
characterised by a broad dispersal of the data points without
any preferential alignment along a gradient line. In GeoB 4906–
3 (Fig. 3(b)), there is a wide variation in concentration but along
the same gradient. The two cores exhibit similar trends in both
groups B and C.
The S
0.3T vs. karm/k plots combining haematite/magnetite
ratio and magnetite grain size (Fig. 3(c) and (d)) also separate
into three similar groups. Magnetozone A represents areas
where fine-grained magnetite strongly contributes to the
signals. In core GeoB 4905-4 this zone is less extensive in
the grain size parameter. The wider distribution in GeoB 4906-
3 (karm/k between 50 and 150 units (Fig. 3(d)) indicates larger
magnetite grain size variations.
Down-core profiles of magnetic parameters
Variations in the concentration, mineralogy and grain sizes of
the magnetic minerals are shown in Fig. 4. At the northern
location (GeoB 4905-4) the magnetic mineral concentrations
are higher, with magnetic susceptibility ranging between 40
and 200  10
6 SI. The ARM which represents the concen-
tration of fine-grain magnetite also varies significantly down-
core, with a higher frequency variation than observed in the
susceptibility record. Because of the strong correlation in the
ARM and IRM records, only the ARM is shown here, and
therefore also represents the concentration and variation of
remanence-carrying magnetic particles. Highest values in the
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
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 LATE HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION CHANGES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
Figure 3 Diagnostic biplots of magnetic parameters indicating three magnetozones. Cluster A represents pristine conditions, cluster B a transition
zone with partially reduced magnetite and cluster C pervasive magnetite dissolution. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.
wiley.com/journal/jqs
magnetic susceptibility occur at the top of the core (0–2 ka).
This, however, is not reflected in the ARM records. An
explanation for this discrepancy would be that the top of this
core contains superparamagnetic minerals which have the
potential to increase the magnetic susceptibility but not being
able to acquire remanence. This reasoning was supported by
the frequency dependence susceptibility, which is not shown
here because of the high noise levels in much of the core. It
displayed a high value of up to 8% at this interval.
An interval (40–43 ka) showing minima in magnetic mineral
concentrations occur and corresponds to B and C clusters on
the bivariate plots of Fig. 3. Apart from the interval with
magnetite dissolution, the most significant changes in the
magnetic mineral concentrations are observed during the last
18 ka. At this age the concentration increases sharply, but
started decreasing soon after, at an interval corresponding to
the Bølling–Allerød warm phase. This warming, interrupted by
the cold Younger Dryas (YD) (12.5 ka), continued at 11 ka and
into the middle Holocene, where concentration remained very
low. However, since the middle Holocene input of magnetic
particles has steadily increased.
GeoB 4906-3, on the other hand, has lower input of magnetic
minerals (k ranging between 40 and 120  10
6 SI) (Fig. 4). The
susceptibility and ARM show a good down-core correlation for
this core. There has been a gradual increase in the
concentration since ca. 6 ka, with a minor decrease at 5 ka.
Unlike in the northern core, GeoB 4906-3 has two intervals that
appear to have been affected by diagenesis, occurring between
28–37 ka and 40–43 ka.
The magnetic minerals dominant in our cores are determined
by the S ratio, in which values closer to 1 indicate low-
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
271
coercivity mineral (e.g., magnetite) and values much less than 1
indicate high-coercivity minerals such as haematite. The S ratio
ranges between 0.92 and 0.99 at the northern location (GeoB
4905-4), with most of the profile 0.99, implying that these
sediments are mostly enriched in magnetite. However, the
presence of residual haematite is confirmed at the intervals with
S
0.3T < 0.98 due to the preferential depletion of magnetite. In
GeoB 4906-3, the S ratio is a bit lower, ranging between 0.88
and 0.98. The entire core, apart from the two reduced layers,
has values of 0.98 and therefore also dominated by magnetite.
Diagenesis seems to have been more severe at this location,
especially at the interval between 40 and 43 ka, where the S
ratio is 0.88.
With S ratio indicating dominance of magnetite to the
concentration, the grain size of this mineral falls within the SD
range. This is supported by the ARM, which correlates to the S
ratio and is considered a recorder of the concentration of SD or
fine–grained magnetite. Another grain size parameter (karm/k)
follows a similar trend to S0.3T. Its down-hole variation is more
pronounced, showing a coarser assemblage at the northern
location especially during the last glacial (MIS 2). The reduced
layers are coarser because of preferential dissolution of finer
particles during reductive diagenesis.
Elemental abundances
Profiles of elemental abundances (Fig. 5) show significant varia-
tions in sediment input. Three elemental records representing
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272 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Figure 4 Compilation of environmental magnetic records of cores GeoB 4905–5 (lighter) and GeoB 4906–3 (darker). The grey band represents the
AHP, while the dark grey bands shows intervals severely affected by reductive diagenesis of iron oxides. This figure is available in colour online at
www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs
terrigenous input (Fe and Ti) and marine productivity (Ca –
carbonate content) are considered in this study.
The terrigenous signals differ at the two locations. In GeoB
4905–4, Fe and Ti show little variation from the bottom of the
core until ca. 30 ka. This represents MIS 3, a relatively warm
period. However, in MIS 2 (ca. 11–30 ka) we observe very
significant variations in the records, with difference in
amplitude between the two elements. Ti show high amplitude
variation compared to Fe. The interval between 0 and 11 ka
(MIS 1) also shows some variation in the records. It is worth
noting, however, that there are no data between 6 and 9 ka.
At the southern location (GeoB 4906–3), the patterns are very
different. There is a slight decrease in the Fe and Ti intensities
from the late part of MIS 3 (i.e. from the core bottom) to 30 ka.
MIS 2 remains fairly constant, with little variation in the
intensities of Fe and Ti. This value remains fairly constant for Ti
up to the present except for a significant drop (also observed in
Fe) occurring at 12.5 ka. For Fe, its intensity increases steadily
after 20 ka until 12.5 ka, where it drops and again rapidly
increases at about 11.5 ka, dropping in intensity only at 5.5 ka.
Since then, there has been a steady increase, with a tiny drop at
2.5 ka. In GeoB 4905–4, the intensity of the marine productivity
signal Ca is much less than in GeoB 4906–3, with values
ranging from 200 to1000 cps and from 400 to 2000 cps,
respectively. GeoB 4905–4 shows high amplitude and
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
frequency variation. At 16 ka, both cores show an abrupt drop
in Ca intensity. The decreasing trend is reversed at YD. After the
YD, Ca drops to its lowest values between 11 and 5 ka, a period
corresponding to the African Humid Period (AHP). Since the
late Holocene until present, Ca has remained very low.
The terrigenous and biogenic records at the northern location
appear to correlate positively with each other more especially
during the MIS 2 whereas, they anti-correlate at MIS 3. Fe and Ti
in the southern core, on the other hand, both anti-correlate with
Ca throughout the core.
Colour reflectance
As has been observed in the magnetic and elemental records,
the colour reflectance (Fig. 6) also shows down-core variations
that differ at the two locations. The northern core (GeoB 4905-
4) portrays a higher degree of variability, with the top 15 ka
indicating climate variation at millennial timescales. The
reflectance is also higher at this location, with up to 60% total
reflectance. A broad peak of high reflectance occurs between
25 and 30 ka, while there is a significant minimum (35%
reflectance) at 7.5 ka.
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
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 LATE HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION CHANGES IN CENTRAL AFRICA 273

Figure 5 Compilation of element and colour reflectance records of cores GeoB 4905–5 (lighter) and GeoB 4906–3 (darker). Fe/knd is also a diagenesis
proxy. The grey band is the AHP, while the shading indicates transition from glacial to interglacial conditions. This figure is available in colour online at
www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs

Figure 6 Colour reflectance for the two cores, showing a higher variability at the northern location. This figure is available in colour online at
www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs

Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
274 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE
Core GeoB 4906–3, on the other hand, has little variation
and with much lower reflectance values that range between
25% and 45%. A prominent minimum also corresponding to
minima in the Fe and Ti records occurs at 12.5 ka.
Discussion
Diagenesis
Studies such as Karlin and Levi (1983) and Leslie et al. (1990)
have shown that primary iron oxides can be dissolved through
reductive diagenesis. In a reducing, typically sulphidic
environment the fine-grained magnetite is preferentially
dissolved, leaving behind the more resistant coarser fraction.
In addition, haematite and goethite are more resistant to
reductive dissolution and therefore less depleted in diagene-
tically affected sediments (e.g. Bloemendal et al., 1992). High
haematite and goethite (lower S
0.3T), low susceptibility,
coarse-grain magnetite and low remanence therefore indicate
diagenesis. From our cross-plots (Fig. 3) we can identify such
intervals by very low k and karm in the karm vs. k plot. Coinciding
low S
0.3T, k and coarser grain size (low karm/k) in the S
0.3T vs.
karm/k plot confirm magnetite dissolution (Bloemendal et al.,
1992). We therefore suggest that magnetozone A represents
variation in the concentration of detrital magnetite of primary
origin. Magnetozone B is a zone of partial depletion, while
zone C is fully depleted.
Further confirmation of post-depositional modification of the
sediment composition was derived using the diagenetic proxy
Fe/knd (Funk et al., 2004) (Fig. 5). Our observations point to a
significant degree of magnetite alteration at the grey shaded
bands identified in the magnetic parameters (Fig. 4) charac-
terised by lack of remanence and low susceptibility. These
bands contain high Fe mineral as depicted in the Fe/knd (Fig. 5),
but show no corresponding increase in magnetic susceptibility.
During reductive diagenesis fine-grained magnetite is reduced,
leading to the precipitation of non-magnetic iron phases such as
pyrite. At both locations diagenetic effects are detected
between 40 and 44 ka. Two reasons could account for this
occurrence. The first is significant input of organic matter into
the sediments and/or high sedimentation rates. Secondly, this
layer depicting sever diagenesis may represent the sulphate
methane transition (SMT), which is the interval where diffusing
sulphur from bottom water meets upward migrating methane in
the sediment column, leading to the oxidation of methane. It
has been shown (Garming et al., 2005) that stagnation of the
SMT severely alters the magnetic signal by the destruction of
magnetite due to anaerobic oxidation of methane. High
productivity and availability of organic matter provide a
thriving environment for microphylic bacteria which break
down methane to H2S (Froelic et al., 1979). This then reacts
with (oxyhydr)oxides, resulting in the formation of non-
magnetic iron sulphides (Karlin and Levi, 1983).
Most of the samples fall within the fine-grain threshold,
suggesting that the sediments were deposited in a low-energy
environment. Although the study area lies in close proximity to
the volcanic chain of islands along the Cameroon volcanic line,
no significant evidence was seen that suggests accumulation of
volcanic material here over the last 52 ka. This is either because
these islands might have stopped erupting before 52 ka or the
volcano-clastic materials were being deposited in another
region.
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Provenance of terrigenous and marine sediments
The variation of terrigenous vs. biogenic (carbonate) accumu-
lation is depicted by the Fe/Ca and Fe/Ti ratios (Fig. 7), where
high values signify enhanced terrigenous sedimentation and
enhanced fluvial input, respectively. The Fe/Ca ratio shows a
very high degree of variability in terrigenous input especially at
the interglacial periods MIS 1 and 3. These signatures are
closely correlated to Northern Hemisphere ice core record
(GISP).
A dramatic change in the records occurs at ca. 16 ka, where
there is a significant increase in the terrigenous component after
a relatively stable period dominated by biogenic sedimentation
during MIS 2. Several authors, e.g. Schaefer et al., 2006, and
Weijers et al., 2007, identified similar climatic transitions
around this age and linked it to the onset of the last
deglaciation. The onset of the last AHP has also been estimated
to coincide with this age (Maley and Brenac, 1998; deMenocal
et al., 2000a). Tropical African temperatures are reported to
have significantly increased during the last deglaciation more
than tropical ocean temperatures, leading to a high-tempera-
ture gradient that resulted in enhanced precipitation over
Central Africa (Weijers et al., 2007). Input of terrigenous
sediments was therefore due to precipitation-enhanced weath-
ering, erosion and river runoff. This wet period was briefly
interrupted between 13 and 11.5 ka, corresponding to the YD, a
relatively dry phase in the Northern Hemisphere.
A return to wetter conditions followed the YD, marking the
onset of the Holocene (Garcin et al., 2007; Weldeab et al.,
2007) and also the peak of the humid period. The AHP is the
product of the orbital precessional cycles controlling tropical
African climate (Kutzbach, 1981; deMenocal et al., 1993,
2000a). Summer insolation intensifies at precession maxima,
strengthening the African monsoon and resulting in intense
precipitation and increased vegetation cover over most of
North Africa (Sarnthein, 1978; COHMAP members, 1988).
Model studies by Prell and Kutzbach (1987) showed that a
summer insolation 8% greater than today results in a 40%
increase in precipitation. The last insolation maximum
occurred between 9–10 ka and had its impact well imprinted
in the sediments from the eastern equatorial Atlantic, where
high terrigenous input and low marine productivity persisted in
the Gulf of Guinea (Fe/Ca, Fig. 7).
In contrast to the Fe content variation that reflects terrigenous
input, carbonate content, which indicates primary productivity,
dominates the dry periods. This distinction is most conspicuous
at the northern location offshore from Cameroon, where Fe and
Ca show positive correlation at MIS 2. Fe and Ti correlate
positively and are frequently but not systematically opposed to
Ca intensity in the rest of the cores. Zabel et al. (2001) and
Adegbie et al. (2003) have interpreted these anti-correlated
signals as mutual dilution of marine input by terrigenous
sediments. However, the positive correlation of Fe and Ca in
the northern core is evidence of a third component that controls
the signal. We therefore suggest the presence of biogenic opal
(diatoms) in this sediments and their abundance could be
related to the input of aeolian transported silica during dry
periods. Dissolution of calcite can also mask the productivity
interpretation. However, this seems not the case at our study
area since the lysocline is located between 4700 and 4900 m
water depth in deep eastern Atlantic (Biscaye et al., 1976;
Thunnel, 1982), much deeper than the 1300 m water depths
at which the studied cores were recovered. The intensification
in marine productivity is related to upwelling which is strongly
associated with the wind system (Voituriez, 1981). Stronger NE
trades persisted during dry periods over North Africa (Verardo
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
 LATE HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION CHANGES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
Figure 7 Diagnostic ratios of environmental conditions: Fe/Ca indicates the variation in terrigenous vs. biogenic fraction. Fe/Ti is a proxy for
determining Saharan dust fluxes, with lower values (high Ti) being indicative of higher aeolian input. This figure is available in colour online at
www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs
and McIntyre, 1994), upwelling nutrient-rich waters that
boosted productivity.
The terrigenous fraction is transported both via fluvial and
aeolian pathways. Sea-level lowstands during glacial periods
exposed the shelves of the West African continental margin,
leading to sediment erosion and export to the ocean. At the
same time, stronger winds and drier conditions prevailed,
eroding, transporting and depositing aeolian dust from the
Sahel into the ocean. Increased surface and river runoff due to
precipitation also enhances input.
To distinguish between fluvial and aeolian contributions, we
use the ratio Fe/Ti. Fe is mostly transported into this region via
the many rivers existing (e.g. Sanaga and Ougoue). It therefore
varies positively with hydrological changes. Ti is a good
indicator for Saharan dust and has been used by several authors
to trace such dust in marine sediments (Balsam et al., 1995;
Zabel et al., 2001; Itambi et al., 2009). Loess tends to
concentrate heavy minerals, and is therefore enriched in high
field-strength elements, such as Ti. From our records, it is
evident that fluvial input is higher during warm periods when
precipitation is higher. In contrast, dry periods such as MIS
2 and the YD see an increase in aeolian dust. This variability
is strongly imprinted at the northernmost location, which is
situated closer to the southern boundary of the Sahara dust
plume and therefore potentially registers both aeolian and
fluvial input. The wide distribution of samples in A on the karm
vs. k plot of GeoB 4905-4 (Fig. 3) without any preferential
gradient line strongly confirms that different sources (aeolian
dust and fluvial sediments) contribute to sediments deposited at
this location, whereas for the southern location only fluvial
input in significant, as indicated by the samples plotting along a
line of single gradient.
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
275
Late Holocene millennial–scale climate
variability
Our sediments originating from the Central African region
document a significant degree of climate variation during the
Holocene, similar in character to those observed in ice core
records at higher latitudes in the Northern Hemisphere (Schulz
and Paul, 2002). The Holocene record is characterised by
millennial- to sub-millennial-scale climate oscillations that
range from hundreds of years to a few thousands years (Fig. 8).
Our sampling resolution corresponds to 40 a for colour
intensity and 80 a for element data, resolving sub-millennial–
scale climate changes. In core GeoB 4905-4 the last 5.5 ka are
characterised by high-amplitude decadal- to millennial-scale
climate changes in reflectance and Fe/Ti (Fig. 7). The strong
positive correlation observed between the two parameters
further confirms that there is a strong aeolian signature
indicating drought or reduced precipitation. Reddened desert
sands have previously been used to trace the contribution of
aeolian dust in marine sediments (Diester-Hass, 1976;
Sarnthein et al., 1981). Such pigmented sediments have been
reported (Kalu, 1979; Sarnthein and Koopmann, 1979) to
originate from the zone of ferralitic soils in the Sahel region and
south of the Sahara.
Short-term changes in hydrology during the last 16 ka similar
to those observed in our marine records have been reported
from several African lacustrine sediment records: Lake
Bosumtwi in West Africa (e.g. Talbot et al., 1984; Street-
Perrott and Perrott, 1990; Shanahan et al., 2006), lakes Barombi
Mbo, Bambili and Ossa in Cameroon, Central Africa (Giresse
et al., 2005; Stager and Anfang-Sutter, 1999) and East Africa
(Barker et al., 2001; Gasse, 2000).
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
276 JOURNAL OF QUATERNARY SCIENCE

Figure 8 Correlation of marine records to lacustrine signals from Lake Ossa and Bosumtwi (Giresse et al., 2005; Shanahan et al., 2006) and running
mean of GISP2 ice core record (Grootes and Stuiver, 1997). The records show significant variation in aridity (grey shaded bars), especially during the
late Holocene. This figure is available in colour online at www.interscience.wiley.com/journal/jqs

The Fe/Ti and reflectance records show that the northern core
GeoB 4905-4 is most suitable to register short changes in
precipitation over Central Africa. Seasonality changes (dry and
rainy seasons) are much stronger to the north of Central Africa.
The dry season becomes lengthy northward, whereas the rainy
season becomes more dominant to the south. Because the
northern boundary of the winter position of the ITCZ and the
southern limit of aeolian dust deposition are in close proximity,
this core is well positioned to register dust and precipitation
changes. The southern core GeoB 4906–3 receives terrigenous
sediments from forested regions with significant rainfall
throughout the year, maintaining more humid conditions even
during dry periods. This therefore masks the signals of any
possible aoelian dust that might have been deposited at this
location.
Copyright ß 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The occurrence of millennial-scale oscillations superim-
posed on the AHP and throughout the late Holocene rules out
the 23 ka precessional changes in solar insolation as the sole
driving force behind precipitation changes over central
Africa. Previous studies such as Broecker (2003), Ganopolski
and Rahmstorf (2001) and Hemming (2004) showed that
millennial-scale climate changes could be related to the
shutdown of the deep-water circulation during pulses of fresh
water input into the north Atlantic. However, this does not
explain the significant variations observed in our records during
the last 5.5 ka as sea level has not changed much during this
period (Fairbanks, 1989; Perrott and Perrott, 1990). By
analysing the pacing of D-O events at the 1470 a climatic
cycle in the Greenland ice core record, Schulz (2002) also
argued that these millennial-scale events were not primarily
J. Quaternary Sci., Vol. 25(3) 267–279 (2010)
DOI: 10.1002/jqs
 LATE HOLOCENE PRECIPITATION CHANGES IN CENTRAL AFRICA
controlled by the rate of North Atlantic Deep Water formation.
Schulz and Paul (2002) reported a 900 a climatic signal in the
North Atlantic at the Holocene. They attributed this to internal
perturbations in the climate system caused by major volcanic
eruptions or changes in major atmospheric circulation modes.
Others (e.g. van Geel et al., 1999) have proposed a high-
frequency variation in the climate system to solar output
variability. In the tropical Atlantic, where changes in summer
insolation control the West African monsoon and hence
precipitation, the later forcing (solar radiation) may be the most
probable cause of the observed millennial-scale variations
during the last 5.5 ka.
The frequency of variability in our records during the last 5–
6 ka closely resembles the 900 cycles (Schulz and Paul, 2002)
of d18O of Greenland ice core, thus suggesting a link between
Central African and high-latitude climate. Following the
termination of the AHP at 5.5 ka, drier conditions set in and
have persisted until the present. Cold, dry air blows from the
Northern Hemisphere high latitudes towards the Tropics,
leading to the southward migration of the ITCZ and hence the
subsequent drying of the Sudano/Sahelian regions. This relative
dry period, which has been widely reported (Moeyersons,
1997; Zogning et al., 1997; Vincens et al., 1999) to have
peaked between 2.8 and 1.1 ka, also appears in our records.
The period has, however, been interrupted by wet periods.
Short-term changes in solar radiation could have reorganised
the atmospheric circulation, increasing the land–sea tempera-
ture gradient and resulting in the increase in precipitation on
the African continent. This assertion is supported by Weijers
et al. (2007), who linked the land–sea temperature gradient to
precipitation changes in Central Africa.
Conclusions
Combining high-resolution rock magnetic, element and
reflectance measurements has been an effective strategy to
reconstruct the palaeoclimate and sedimentary environment of
the Gulf of Guinea and to decipher in detail the depositional
and post-depositional processes of the last 52 ka. The sediments
of this region have been affected in two sections of MIS 3 by
iron diagenesis at varying intensities, depending on the organic
carbon supply and bottom-water oxygenation. However,
most of our record remain unaffected and therefore records
primary climate signals of the adjacent continent. Our results
demonstrate that the African climate varied during the
Holocene with several intervals of aridity, consistent with
onshore lake records and demonstrating a close similarity with
Greenland ice records, hence confirming the close link
between the climate systems of the two regions at such
millennial timescales. This variability demonstrates and
supports the argument that the Central African climate
variability is controlled not only by precessional changes in
insolation, but also by factors such as solar radiation and
reorganisation of atmospheric circulation, possibly driven by
internal changes in the climate system which may occur at
shorter timescales.
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