See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/277667079

Hydrology Measurement and Analysis Training Manual

Research · June 2015

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1463.5684

CITATIONS READS

0 1,946

2 authors:

Proloy Deb Sangam Shrestha

University of Alabama Asian Institute of Technology
23 PUBLICATIONS   192 CITATIONS    132 PUBLICATIONS   1,083 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Master's degree student's projects View project

Sonu Kumar's bachelor's research View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Proloy Deb on 04 June 2015.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

MANUAL

HYDROLOGY:
MEASUREMENT AND
ANALYSIS

Sangam Shrestha
Proloy Deb
 Executive Summary

This manual gives detailed information on the hydro-meteorological variables and available
methods to retrieve them. In addition, it also provides information on how to primary validate
and correct the collected data. This manual has been prepared based on detailed review of the
scholarly articles, technical reports, project reports and other practice manuals. The final
chapter also deals with the principle of rainfall-runoff modelling focusing on Soil and Water
Assessment Tool (SWAT). The manual will be suitable for all kind of meteorology and
hydrology practitioners from developing countries.

Total content in this manual can be divided broadly into three categories, first section deals
with overview of hydro-meteorological data. Second section can be distinguished into
methods to collect rainfall data, correct and validate them. Finally, third section can be linked
to correction and validation of the hydrology (river flow) data.

The first and second chapter of the first section deals with the importance of the hydro-
meteorological network for planning, development and management purpose. It also includes
overview on all meteorological data, methods and instruments to collect them. An overview
of the satellite data and radar technology is also provided in this section. The second chapter
introduces the available surface water data entry software and also shows the different
methods to analyze them.

The third, fourth and fifth chapter of the second section deals with the rainfall data
measurement including details on raingauge location and its types. It also illustrates the
available methods of validation of the collected rainfall data (automatic and manual). It also
deals with correction, completion and compilation of missing data. The method for adjusting
the rainfall data for long term systematic shifts along with estimation of areal rainfall is also
elucidated in this section.

The final section on river flow and discharge measurement deals with techniques to measure
water level data and volumetric flow of river. Different direct and indirect methods of flow
measurement are also emphasized in this section. In addition validation of the flow data and
techniques of establishing the stage-discharge rating curves are also provided in this section.
An additional chapter on different rainfall-runoff modeling is also provided with an emphasis
on soil and water assessment tool (SWAT); its application and working principle.
 Table of Contents

Chapter 1: Hydro-meteorological network and data requirements for planning,

development and operation of water resources projects ............................................... 1
1.1 Importance of hydro-meteorological network.................................................................. 2
1.2 Components of hydro-meteorological network................................................................ 2
1.3 Meteorological data required and recording methods ...................................................... 3
1.3.1 Temperature ............................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure ................................................................................................ 5
1.3.3 Humidity .................................................................................................................... 6
1.3.4 Surface wind .............................................................................................................. 7
1.3.5 Sunshine duration ...................................................................................................... 8
1.3.6 Evaporation ................................................................................................................ 9
1.3.7 Water level ............................................................................................................... 10
1.3.8 Water discharge ....................................................................................................... 12
Chapter 2: Introduction to the software for surface water data entry and validation ... 15
2.1 Necessity of software for surface water data ................................................................. 16
2.2 Method to analyze time series data (daily/monthly/seasonal) ....................................... 16
2.3 Available software for surface water data entry............................................................. 17
2.3.1 HYDATA (Multi-purpose database for all hydrological data) ............................... 17
2.3.2 HYRAD (Rainfall estimation from weather radar) ................................................. 18
2.3.3 ANCLIM (Tool for processing monthly/daily time series data) ............................. 19
2.3.4 ProClimDB (Database software for processing whole climatological dataset) ...... 20
2.3.5 CLIMWAT (climate database) ................................................................................ 22
Chapter 3: Rainfall data measurement................................................................................ 25
3.1 Gauge Location .............................................................................................................. 26
3.2 Non-recording gauges .................................................................................................... 27
3.2.1 Standard rain gauge ................................................................................................. 27
3.2.2 Storage rain gauge ................................................................................................... 27
3.3 Methods of measurements.............................................................................................. 28
3.4 Possible errors and their corrections .............................................................................. 28
3.5 Recording Gauges .......................................................................................................... 31
3.5.1 Weighing type recording gauge ............................................................................... 32
3.5.2 Float type recording gauge ...................................................................................... 33
 3.5.3 Tipping-bucket type recording gauge ...................................................................... 33
Chapter 4: Primary validation of rainfall data ................................................................... 36
4.1 Necessity of primary validation of data ......................................................................... 37
4.2 Methods of primary validation ....................................................................................... 37
4.2.1 Instruments and observational methods .................................................................. 37
4.2.1.1 Daily rainfall gauge (SRG) ................................................................................... 37
4.2.1.3 Tipping bucket raingauge (TBRG) ....................................................................... 38
4.2.2 Comparison of daily time series for manual and autograph or digital data ............. 38
4.2.3 Checking against maximum and minimum data limits ........................................... 39
Chapter 5: Correction, completion and compilation of rainfall data ............................... 41
5.1 Importance of correction, completion and compilation of rainfall data ......................... 42
5.2 Data correction or completion procedure ....................................................................... 42
5.2.1 SRG record missing or faulty – ARG available ...................................................... 42
5.2.2 ARG record missing or faulty- SRG available ........................................................ 42
5.3 Correcting for entries to wrong ways ............................................................................. 43
5.4 Adjusting rainfall data for long time systematic shift .................................................... 43
5.4.1 Double mass curve................................................................................................... 43
5.5 Using spatial interpolation to interpolate erroneous and missing values ....................... 44
5.5.1 Arithmetic average method ..................................................................................... 44
5.5.2 Normal Ratio Method .............................................................................................. 44
5.5.3 Distance power method ........................................................................................... 45
5.6. Estimation of areal rainfall ............................................................................................ 46
5.6.1 Arithmetic average .................................................................................................. 46
5.6.2 Weighted average using user defined weights ........................................................ 46
5.6.3 Thiessen polygon method ........................................................................................ 47
5.6.4 Isohyetal and related methods ................................................................................. 47
Chapter 6 : Measurement of water level data ..................................................................... 51
6.1 Gage House .................................................................................................................... 52
6.2 Wire Weight Gage .......................................................................................................... 52
6.3 Staff Gage ....................................................................................................................... 54
Chapter 7 : Measurement of river flow and entry in surface water data entry system .. 57
7.1 Discharge measurements by current meters ................................................................... 58
7.2 Discharge by float method ............................................................................................. 62
7.3 Computations of discharge by indirect methods ............................................................ 65
Chapter 8 : Validation of flow data ...................................................................................... 69
 8.1 Single station validation ................................................................................................. 70
8.1.1 Validation against data limits .................................................................................. 70
8.1.2 Graphical validation ................................................................................................ 70
8.1.3 Validation of regulated rivers .................................................................................. 71
8.2 Multiple station validation ............................................................................................. 71
8.2.1 Comparison plots ..................................................................................................... 71
8.2.2 Residual series ......................................................................................................... 72
8.2.3 Double mass curves ................................................................................................. 73
Chapter 9: Establishing stage-discharge rating curve ....................................................... 75
9.1 Importance of stage-discharge rating curve ................................................................... 76
9.2 Factors affecting stage discharge curve ......................................................................... 76
9.3 Types of stage discharge curve fitting............................................................................ 77
9.3.1 Fitting of single channel simple rating curve .......................................................... 77
9.3.2 Compound channel rating curve .............................................................................. 77
9.3.3 Rating curve with backwater correction .................................................................. 78
9.3.4 Rating curve with unsteady flow correction ............................................................ 79
Chapter 10: Analysis of discharge data ............................................................................... 81
10.1 Computation of basic statistics..................................................................................... 82
10.2 Empirical frequency distributions and cumulative frequency distributions................. 83
10.3 Fitting of frequency distributions ................................................................................. 85
10.4.1 Moving averages.................................................................................................... 86
10.4.2 Mass curves ........................................................................................................... 87
10.4.3 Residual mass curves ............................................................................................. 88
10.4.4 Balances ................................................................................................................. 88
10.5 Regression/relation curves ........................................................................................... 89
10.7 Series homogeneity tests .................................................................................................. 91
10.8 Rainfall runoff simulation ................................................................................................ 92
Chapter 11: Rainfall-runoff modeling ................................................................................. 94
11.1 Overview of computer models ..................................................................................... 95
11.1.1 Classification of models ........................................................................................ 95
11.1.2 Categories of mathematical models ....................................................................... 95
11.2 Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) .................................................................. 96
Chapter 1: Hydro-meteorological network and data requirements for planning,
development and operation of water resources projects

1
1.1 Importance of hydro-meteorological network
The primary role of a hydro-meteorological service is to provide historical and real time data
of entire process of water cycle, encompassing an extremely wide range of phenomena. It
serves as an important resource for researchers to analyze the trend and additionally it can
also be used for future projections. It also provides necessary information to decision makers
to device constructive policies at regional and national level. The specific uses of the hydro-
meteorological information are as follows:

• Assessing national water resources for a particular country in terms of quantity, quality,
spatial and temporal distribution;
• Water resource related development in addition to ability to supply accountable demands;
• Planning, designing and operating water projects;
• Assessing the impacts on water resources of other non-water sector activities, such as
urbanization or agro-forestry;
• Provision of security to people and property against climatic hazards particularly storm,
floods, droughts;
• Assessing the environmental, social and economic impacts of meteorological variables
and adopting sound policies and strategies.

With the increased intensity and frequency of the disasters globally in addition to
environmental impacts of urbanization, there is a distinct requirement of reliable hydro-
meteorological information as the foundation for sustainable development and management
of various sectors. This additionally indicates the future along with the present generations
can continue to enjoy adequate and available water supplies to meet environmental, social
and economic needs.

1.2 Components of hydro-meteorological network

The area of application indicated by hydrological services in many countries focuses solely
on streamflow data whereas other types of data have additional applications. For elementary
water-resource assessment purposes, major elements of hydrological system that is
necessarily to be considered can be classified into inflows, storages and outflows. Moreover,
other types of data include groundwater levels, water quality, water use and non-
hydrological data including use of water for recreation, environmental flow and so on.

Considering altogether, colossal amount of water related data and information is required for
assessment and projection of future use and demand. Depending on the status of the socio-
cultural and economic development, sensitivity of natural environment to disturbance by
human activity and nature of the physical environment (climate, topography, water resources
and so on), the level of the information required is decided. A framework that has been
proposed leads to transition from ecological to construction and finally directs to resource-
management orientation. Each phase demands different category of data, depending on the
number and type of decision that has to be made. The first phase explicitly deals with society
adapting to environment including natural hydrological system. In the second, water resource
is increasingly exploited, yet is abundant relative to demand. Decision-making is tentatively
more focused on means of exploiting the resource by construction of dams, irrigation

2
schemes and so on. The main requirement for information relates to the statistics of spatial
and temporal variability of water resource. Third phase indicates resource limited resource
availability. Human activity is probable to have negative influence on size and quality of
resource. Decision making is focused on regulation of the demand and supply to allot
efficiently a valuable resource among the various users and therefore the data/information
required is beyond water resource; additionally inclusive of usage and the impact on usage.

In addition to the hydrological information, meteorological information is imperative.

Various natural hazards are triggered by different meteorological variables. It is necessary for
real-time preparation of weather analysis, forecasts and severe weather warnings, additionally
for climate study, local weather dependent operations and for research in meteorology and
climatology. Important variables from meteorology that needs to be traced are temperature,
relative humidity, atmospheric pressure, precipitation, snow cover, sunshine hours or solar
radiation, soil temperature and evaporation.

1.3 Meteorological data required and recording methods

1.3.1 Temperature

It is defined as a physical quantity characterizing the mean random motion of molecules in a

physical body. It also represents the thermodynamic state of a body and its magnitude is
identified by the net direction of the flow of heat among two bodies. For meteorological
purpose, commonly used variable measured is air temperature, additionally ground, soil and
sea water temperature. Air temperature is defined as “the temperature indicated by a
thermometer exposed to the air in a place sheltered from direct solar radiation”. In the
thermodynamic scale, temperature is represented either in Kelvin (K) or Degree Celsius (˚C)
although the later one is in SI units. In order to measure the temperature of an object, a
thermometer can be brought to the same temperature as the object and the temperature of the
thermometer can be measured. General types of thermometers available are enlisted:

Liquid in glass thermometer – This is the most commonly used thermometer to measure air
temperature, consisting wet-bulb, maximum and minimum temperatures. The differential
expansion of pure liquids with respect to the glass container is the basic working principle of
these thermometers. Different kinds of maximum thermometers are named based on their
applications:

Maximum thermometers – These kinds of thermometers have a typical constriction in the

bore between the bulb and the beginning of the scale. The provided constriction prevents the
mercury to recede a particular temperature. However, the temperature can be adjusted by
holding firmly the bulb-end downwards. It is necessary to mount the thermometer at 2˚ from
the horizontal position keeping the bulb-end downwards, ensuring that the mercury column
halts against the gravity forcing it to pass.

Minimum thermometers – This is a specific type of thermometer with a dark glass index of 2
cm long drenched in spirit. Due to the possibility of existence of air in the spirit tube, it is
necessary to provide a safety chamber at upper end in order to withstand 50˚C. In addition to

3
spirit, ethyl alcohol, toluol and pentane can also be used as alternative. Due to the tendency of
liquid to polymerize with the presence of light, it is essential for the liquid to be as pure as
possible.

Soil thermometers – The thermometer bulb is sunk into the ground at the desired depth and
the scale is read with the thermometer. A safety chamber is necessary to be provided at the
end of the stem for the expansion of the mercury. For measuring temperature at depths
greater than 20 cm, mercury-in-glass thermometers, mounted on wooden, glass or plastic
tubes, with bulbs embedded in wax or metallic paint, are recommended. In case of colder
regions, top of the tubes are necessary to be extended above the ground to a height greater
than the expected depth of snow. The technique of using vertical steel tubes is unsuitable for
measuring the diurnal variation of soil temperature, particularly in dry soil and calculations of
soil thermal properties based on such measurements could be significantly in error because
they will conduct heat from the surface layer.

Mechanical thermographs

Commonly used mechanical thermographs used are supplied with bimetallic or Bourdon-tube
sensors since these are relatively inexpensive, reliable and portable. Nevertheless, they are
not readily adapted for remote or electronic recording. Such thermographs incorporate a
rotating chart mechanism common to the family of classic recording instruments. Usually,
thermographs should be able to operate over a range of 60 K or even 80 K if they are to be
used in continental climates. A minimum reading of 0.2 K is provided for easy reading on a
reasonably sized chart. Provisions are necessary to be made for altering the zero setting of the
instrument according to the season.

Electrical thermometers

They are widespread used in meteorology for measuring temperatures. Their main virtue lies
in their ability to provide an output signal suitable for use in remote indication, recording,
storage or transmission of temperature data. The most frequency used sensors are electrical
resistance elements, semi-conductor thermometers and thermocouples. They can be
categorized into three types (i) Electrical resistance thermometers and (ii) Semiconductor
thermometers (iii) Thermocouples. Electrical resistance thermometers measures temperature
by measuring the electrical resistance of a material whose resistance varies in a known
manner with the temperature of the material can be used to represent the temperature.
Semiconductor thermometers consists a semiconductor with a large temperature coefficient
of resistance, which may either positive or negative depending on the actual material.
Mixtures of sintered metallic oxides are suitable for making practical thermistors, which
usually take the form of small discs, rods or spheres and are often glass coated.
Thermocouples works on the principle of the relative heating effect at junction of two metals
due to difference in the electromotive forces. By proper calibration process the temperature
difference is set for the variation in the electromotive force.

4
1.3.2 Atmospheric Pressure

It is defined as force per unit area that is exerted by atmosphere extending to outer limit in
terms of weight. It is normally measured as Pascals (Pa) (or newton per square meter).
Atmospheric pressure is generally measured by electronic barometers, mercury barometers,
hypsometers and aneroid barometers.

Mercury barometer

The basic principle of a mercury barometer is that the pressure of the atmosphere is balanced
against the weight of a column of mercury. Is certain barometers, the mercury column is
weighted on a balance but for normal meteorological purposes, the length of the mercury
column is measured against a scale graduated in units of pressure. Many times of mercury
barometers are in use for meteorological applications with fixed cistern and the Fortin types
being the most common. The length to be measured is the distance between the top of the
mercury column and the upper surface of the mercury in the cistern. Any change in the length
of the mercury column is, of course, accompanied by a change in the level of the mercury in
the cistern. The level of mercury in the Fortin barometer can be adjusted to bring it into
contact with an ivory pointer, the tip of which is at the zero of the barometer scale. The major
requirements of a good mercury station include its accuracy should not vary over long period
and it should be easy to take the reading.

Electronic barometers

Recent days barometers use transducers which transforms the sensor response into a pressure
related electrical quantity in the form of wither analogue signals, for example voltage (AC or
DC with a frequency related to the actual pressure) or digital signals for example pulse
frequency or with standard data communication protocols. The analogue signals can be
displayed on a variety of electronic meters. Monitors and data-acquisition systems such as
those used in automatic weather stations are frequently used to display digital outputs or
digitized analogue outputs.

Aneroid barometers

Compactness and portability of these barometers are the advantageous property over the
mercury barometers. Principle components include closed metal chamber, completely or
partially evacuated and a strong spring system that prevents the chamber from collapsing
under the external atmospheric pressure. At any given pressure, there will be equilibrium
between the force caused by the spring and that of the external pressure. The aneroid chamber
is preferred to be made of steel or copper that has elastic properties such that the chamber can
act as a spring individually. A calibrated system of levers amplifies the deflections and drives
the pointer over a scale graduated to indicate the pressure. Instead of these mechanical
techniques, some barometers are provided with a manually operated micrometer whose

5
counter indicates the pressure directly in tenths of a hectopascal. These types of aneroid
barometers are portable and are robust.

1.3.3 Humidity

It is mostly termed as relative humidity and is defined as “the ratio in percent of the observed
vapor pressure to the saturation vapor pressure with respect to water at the same temperature
and pressure”. It is an important climate variable which is necessary for forecasting climate
studies and for many special applications in hydrology, agriculture, aeronautical services and
environmental studies. Measurement of humidity is done based on the following methods:

Gravimetric hygrometry

This method uses the absorption of water vapor by a desiccant from a known volume of air. It
yields absolute measure of water vapor content of the air sample in terms of its humidity
mixing ratio. It is necessary to remove the water vapor from the sample and the mass is
determined by weighing the drying agent before and after absorbing the vapor. The mass of
the dry sample is determined either by weighting or by measuring its volume.

Psychrometric method

It primarily consists of two thermometers exposed side by side, with surface of the sensing
element of one being covered by a thin film of water or ice and termed the wet or ice bulb.
The second thermometer which is exposed to the air is termed as the dry bulb. Even though
there is evaporation of water from the wet bulb, the temperature measured by the wet bulb
thermometer is generally lower than that measured by the dry bulb. The difference between
the temperatures measured by the thermometers represents the humidity of air.

Sorption methods

Water vapor has the characteristics of being absorbed or adsorbed. By virtue of this property
humidity can be measured from the air sample considered based on use of many instruments.

The instruments that are used for measuring humidity are enlisted:

• The psychrometer
• The hair hygrometer
• The chilled-mirror dewpoint hygrometer
• The lithium chloride heated condensation hygrometer
• Electrical resistive and capacitive hygrometers
• Hygrometers using absorption of electromagnetic radiation

6
1.3.4 Surface wind

Mostly used wind associated data required includes average horizontal wind expressed in
polar coordinates as speed and direction. Due to the inconsistent wind speed and direction, it
is measured over a period of 10 to 60 minutes and is represented with standard deviation.
Climatological statistics usually require averages over each entire hour, day and night.
Aeronautical applications use shorter averaging intervals for precision. In addition to the
speed with standard deviation and direction defined, peak gust is also an important term to be
taken care of. It is defined as the maximum observed wind speed over a specified time
interval. With hourly weather reports, the peak gust refers to the wind extreme in the last full
hour. SI unit of wind speed is m s-1 or in knots to the nearest unit and should represent for
synoptic reports an average over 10 minutes. Wind direction is reported in degrees to the
nearest 10˚, using a 01 ….. 36 code (for example, code 2 means that the wind direction is
between 15 and 25˚) and should represent an average over 10 min. Wind direction is defined
as the direction from which the wind blows, and is measured clockwise from geographical
north, namely, true north. Surface wind is usually measured by a wind vane and cup or
propeller anemometer. The details of the instruments are techniques are mentioned in the
following section:

Simple instrumental methods

Simple hand-held anemometers can be used in the absence of the orthodox ones. It is
necessary to set up and read them in accordance with the marker’s instructions. The
measurement should be taken from the point well exposed to wind and not from the
obstructions site. If not then the measurement point should be at least 10 times away from the
obstruction height and upwind or sideways by at least twice the obstruction height. Wind
direction can be measured from the vane mounted from the pole with the pointer indicating
the principal points of the compass. The wind direction can be estimated to the nearest of the
16 points of the compass. In case of the oscillation of the vane, the direction can be assumed
to be the average direction about which the oscillation takes.

Cup and propeller sensors

They are commonly used to determine the wind speed and consist of two sub-assemblies: the
rotor and the signal generator. In well-designed anemometers, the calibration linearity is
independent of air density, has good zero and range stability and is easily reproduced in a
manufacturing process. However, near the starting threshold, for wind speed of less than 4 m
s-1, the calibration of cup anemometers can deviate substantially from linearity, if the arm
connecting the cup to the rotation axis is much longer than the diameter of the cup [11]. The
nature of the response of the cup and propeller type wind-speed sensors to changes in wind
speed can be characterized by a response length, the magnitude of which is directly
proportional to the moment of inertia of the rotor and, in addition, depends on a number of
geometric factors.

Wind-Direction vanes

For the purpose of obtaining a satisfactory measurement, a wind vane will be suitable if it is
well balanced so as not to have a preferred position in case the axis is not vertical. Multiple

7
vane fins should preferably be parallel to the vane axis, because a vane with two fins at
angles >10˚ to its axis has two equilibrium positions which each differ significantly from the
real wind direction. The response of the usual underdamped wind vane to a sudden change in
wind direction is normally characterized by overshoot and oscillation about its true position,
with the amplitude decreasing approximately exponentially. Two variables are used to define
this response: the “undamped natural frequency” and the “damping ratio”. Damping ratio
between 0.3 and 0.7 is considered to be good and as having not too much overshoot, and a
reasonably fast response.

1.3.5 Sunshine duration

Sunshine duration during a given period is defined as the sum of that sub-period for which
the direct solar irradiance exceeds 120Wm-2. The physical quantity of sunshine duration (SD)
is, evidently, time. The units used are seconds or hours. For climatological purposes, derived
terms such as “hours per day” or “daily sunshine hours” are used, as well as percentage
quantities, such as “relative daily sunshine duration”, where SD may be related to the extra-
terrestrial possible, or to the maximum possible, sunshine duration. The measurement period
(day, decade, month, year and so on) is an important addendum to the unit.

Pyrheliometric method

This method implies the definition of WMO and is therefore recommended to obtain
reference values of sunshine duration, requires a weatherproof pyrheliometer and a reliable
solar tracker to point the radiometer automatically or at least semi-automatically to the
position of sun. This method can be modified by the choice of the pyrheliometer, the field-of-
view angle of which influences the irradiance measured when clouds surround the sun. The
sunshine threshold can be monitored by the continuous comparison of the pyrheliometer
output with the threshold equivalent voltage Vth = 120 W m-2.

Pyranometric method

This method derives sunshine duration data based on the fundamental relationship between
the direct solar radiation (I) along with the global (G) and diffuse solar radiation (D).

I. cos ζ = G – D…………………………………Equation 1.1

Where, ζ is the solar zenith angle and I. cos V is the horizontal component of I. In the
absence of a sun – tracking pyrheliometer, but where computer-assisted pyranometric
measurements of G and D are available, the WMO sunshine criterion can be expressed.

(G-D)/cos ζ >120 W m-2………………………….Equation 1.2

8
The Campbell – Stokes sunshine recorder (burn method)

It consist essentially a glass sphere mounted concentrically in a section of spherical bowl.

The structure is designed in such a way that the sun rays focuses sharply on the diameter of
the bowl. The method of supporting the sphere differs according to whether the instrument is
operated in polar, temperate or tropical latitudes. Three overlapping pairs of grooves are
provided in the spherical segment so that the cards can be suitable for different seasons of the
year (one pair for both equinoxes), their length and shape being selected to suit the
geometrical optics of the system.

1.3.6 Evaporation

There are several definitions available for evaporation as described below:

(Actual) evaporation: Quantity of water evaporated from an open water surface or from the
ground.
Transpiration: Process by which water from vegetation is transferred into the atmosphere in
the form of vapor.
(Actual) evapotranspiration (also effective evapotranspiration): Quantity of water vapor
evaporated from the soil and plants when the ground is at its natural moisture content.
Potential evaporation (or evaporativity): Quantity of water vapor which could be emitted by
a surface of pure water, per unit surface area and unit time, under existing atmospheric
conditions.

Potential evapotranspiration: Maximum quantity of water capable of being evaporated in a

given climate from a continuous expanse of vegetation covering the whole ground and well
supplied with water. It includes evaporation from soil and transpiration from, the vegetation
from a specific region in a specific time interval, expressed as depth of water.

The rate of evaporation is defined as the amount of water evaporated from a unit surface area
per unit of time. It can be expressed as the mass or volume of liquid water evaporated per unit
of time. It is commonly read in millimeters per unit time. Depending on the type of
instrument, the usual measuring accuracy is 0.1 to 0.01 mm.

Direct measurement of evaporation or evapotranspiration from extended natural water or land

surfaces are not practicable at present. However, many indirect methods derived from point
measurements or other calculations have been developed which provide reasonable results.
Various instruments used are listed below:

Atnometers

It is an instrument that measures the loss of water from a wetted, porous surface. The wetted
surfaces are porous ceramic spheres, cylinders, plates or exposed filter-paper discs saturated
with water. The ceramic plate has a diameter of 5 cm, connected to the water reservoir bottle
by a glass or metal tube. The presence of the atmospheric pressure keeps the ceramic plate
saturated with water. The evaporating element of the evaporimeter is a disc of filter paper
attached to the underside of an inverted graduated cylindrical tube, closed at one end, which

9
supplies water to the disc. Successive measurements of the volume of water remaining in the
graduated tube give the amount lost by evaporation in any given time.

United States Class A pan

It is a cylindrical designed pan with 25.4 cm deep and 120.7 cm in diameter. The bottom of
the pan is supported 3 to 5 cm above the ground level on an open-wooden platform, which
enables air to circulate under the pan. The pan is constructed by 0.8 mm thick galvanized
iron, copper or monel metal and is normally left unpainted. The pan is filled to 5 cm below
the rim which is the reference level. The water level is usually measured by means of either a
hookgauge or a fixed-point gauge which in turn consists of a movable scale and vernier fitted
with a hook.

Russian GGI-3000 pan

It is of cylindrical design with a surface area of 3000 cm2 and a depth of 60 cm. the bottom of
the pan is conical shaped. The pan is set in the coil with its rim 7.5 cm above the ground. A
metal index is present in the centre of the tank upon which the volumetric burette is set when
evaporation observations are made. The burette has a valve, which is opened to allow its
water level to equalize that in the pan. The valve is then closed and the volume of the water in
the burette is accurately measured. A needle is attached to the metal index tube indicates the
height to which the water level in the pan should be adjusted.

Russian 20 m2 tank

It has a surface area on 20 m2 and a diameter of about 5 m; it is cylindrical with a flat bottom
and is 2 m deep. It is manufactured by a 4 – 5 mm thick welded iron sheets and is installed in
the soil with its rim 7.5 cm above the ground. The inner and exposed outer surfaces of the
tank are painted white. The tank is provided with a replenishing vessel and a stilling well
with an index pipe upon which the volumetric burette is set when the water level in the tank
is measured.

Evapotranspirometers (Lysimeters)

As per description of WMO, lysimeter consists of the soil-filled inner container and retaining
walls or an outer container, as well as special devices for measuring percolation and chances
in the soil-moisture content. There is no universal standard lysimeter for measuring
evapotranspiration. The surface area of lysimeters in use varies from 0.05 to 100 m2 and
depth from 0.1 to 5 m. Required plants can be grown on it and by daily water mass balance,
the amount of water lost by the evapotranspiration process is determined [15].

1.3.7 Water level

Water level or stage is defined as the elevation of the water surface of a stream, lake or
reservoir relative to the datum. Stage data is used for forecasting flows, additionally to

10
delineate flood hazard areas and to design structures in or near water bodies. Furthermore it
can also be used to estimate the flow of running water bodies. It should be measured with
instruments with an accuracy of one centimeter to three millimeters at continuous-record
gauging station.

The utmost necessity for getting proper stage data of a running water body is the selection of
a proper gauging station. Gauges on lakes and reservoirs are normally located near the
outlets, but significantly upstream to avoid the influence of drawdown.

Several types of recording and non-recording gauges are available for measuring stage and
used in hydrometric practice. The common types of non-recording gauges are enlisted:

• Graduated vertical staff gauge;

• Ramp or inclined gauge;
• Wire-weight gauge installed on a structure above the stream; and
• Graduated rod, tape, wire or point gauge for measuring the distance to the water surface.

Various types of continuously recording stage gauges are in use. They may be classified
according to both mode of actuation and mode of recording. A commonly used installation
consists of a stilling well connected to the stream by pipes and a float in the stilling well
connected to a wheel on a recorder by a beaded wire or perforated tape. In high velocity
streams, it is necessary to install static tubes on the end of the intake pipes to avoid drawdown
of the water level in the well. Numerous pressure actuated recording gauges in common use
operate on the principle that pressure at a fixed point in the stream bed is proportional to the
head of liquid above the point. The transmission of the pressure to the gauge is done by gas-
purge system. A small quantity of air is allowed to bleed through a pipe or tubing to an
orifice in the stream. The displaced liquid due to the pressure created by the disturbed air/gas
is further measured and converted to a shaft rotation by a servomanometer. The advantage of
the pressure actuated recorders is that they do not need a stilling basin/well and moreover
they are insensitive of sediment.

River stage can also be recorded on graphical (analogue) recorders. The time and stage scales
chosen for a particular station depends on the range in stage, sensitivity of the stage-discharge
relation and runoff characteristics of the basin. Electronic devices can be used to convert the
data from analogue to digital form.

The frequency of recording water level is determined by the hydrological regime of the water
body and by purposes for collecting the data. When a continuous data is needed, systematic
recordings, twice a day, supplemented by more closely-spaced readings during floods, are
sufficient for many streams. Installation of water level readings during floods is sufficient for
many streams. The non-recording gauge is frequently used as a part of flood-forecasting
systems, where a local observer is available to report on river stage. For some purposes, the
recording of only the maximum stages during floods are sufficient and maximum-stage
gauges are used.

11
1.3.8 Water discharge

River discharge, expressed as volume per unit time is defined as the rate at which water flows
through a cross-section. Discharge at a given time can be measured by several methods and
the choice of methods depends on the conditions encountered at a particular site.

Measurement of discharge by current meters

Measurement of discharge by the velocity-area method can be explained as the product of the
cross sectional area of the channel and the velocity of flow. The depth of the flow in the cross
section is measured at verticals with a rod or sounding line. As the depth is measured,
observations of velocity are obtained with a current meter at one or more points in the
vertical. The measured widths, depths and velocities permit computation of discharge for
each segment of the cross-section. The summation of these segment discharges is the total
discharge.

Measurement of discharge by float method

This method should be used only when current meter cannot be used due to unsuitable
velocities or depths or the presence of material in suspension or when a discharge
measurement must be made in a very short time. Three sections should be selected along a
reach of straight channel. The cross-section should be spaced far enough apart for the time
that the float takes to pass from one cross-section to the next to be measured accurately. A
travel time of 20 seconds is recommended, but a shorter time may have to be used on small
rivers with high velocities where it is impossible to select an adequate length of straight line.

Measurement of discharge by dilution methods

The measurement of discharge by this method depends on determining the degree of dilution
by the flowing water of an added tracer solution. This method is recommended only for those
sites where conventional methods cannot be employed due to shallow depths, extremely high
velocities or excessive turbulence and debris. The two principal tracer methods used for
discharge measurements are the constant-rate-injection method and the sudden-injection
method. A solution of a stable tracer is injected into the stream at either constant rate or at
once. Computation of the stream discharge requires knowledge of certain factors like, the rate
of injection for the constant-rate-injection method or the total amount injected for the sudden
–injection method; the concentration of tracer in the injected solution; and concentration of
the tracer in the stream after it has been well mixed laterally.

1.4 Introduction to satellite data and radar technology in water science

Precipitation can be estimated by using images registered by scanners or by imaging

microwaves radiometers. Scanners are widely used in operational weather satellites. The
amount of data from imaging microwave radiometers is limited and cannot be used
operationally at present. Various techniques have been developed for using images of
geostationary or polar-orbiting satellites for estimating hourly, daily and monthly
precipitation. Images are usually taken in visible or infrared parts of the electromagnetic

12
spectrum and the estimation is based on the albedo or the temperature of the cloud tops as
well on the shape, texture and life history of the clouds. Satellite images can be used for
estimating precipitation over areas ranging from the global to the very local scale in real or
near-real time.

Weather radar forecasts are essential for the determination of intensity and areal distribution
of rainfall and times of beginning and ending of precipitation over a specific river basin. For
record purposes, these data can be collected on photographic film or in digital form by a
computer linked to the radar. Film data can be collected continuously, at timed intervals or as
selected individual photographs. Photographs of video integrator processor (VIP) displays
that depict several levels of contoured echo intensity simultaneously or the entire uncalibrated
weather radar display could be included. The hydro-meteorological application of filmed
data, however, is limited because of the time for film development and the laborious task of
manual processing, whereas digitizing of radar data allows rapid and innumerable
investigations through computer processing. These digitized data can be readily transmitted
to forecast offices over teletypewriter or computer networks.

13
 References

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization/World Meteorological

Organization, 1988: Water Resource Assessment Activities – Handbook for National
Evaluation.
World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to hydrological practices – Data
Acquisition and Processing, Analysis, Forecasting and other Applications; WMO – No. 168,
Geneva
World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and methods
of Observation; Weather, Climate, Water. WMO – No. 8, Geneva
World Meteorological Organization, 1992: Measurement of Temperature and Humidity (R.G.
Wylie and T. Lalas). Technical Note No. 194, WMO – No. 759, Geneva
World Meteorological Organization, 1992: The WMO Automatic Digital Barometer
Intercompaison (J.P. van der Meulen). Instruments and Observing Methods Report No. 46,
WMO/TD-No. 474, Geneva.
United States Weather Bureau, 1963: Manual of Barometry (WBAN). Volume 1, first edition,
US Government Printing Office, Washington DC.
World Meteorological Organization, 1968: Methods in Use for the Reduction of Atmospheric
Pressure. WMO Technical Note No. 91, WMO-No. 226. TP.120, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1988: Technical Regulations. Volume I, WMO-No. 49,
Geneva.
Wexler, A. (ed.), 1965: Humidity ad Moisture. Volumes 1 and 3, Reinhold, New York.
Mazzarella, D.A., 1972: An inventory of specifications for wind-measuring instruments.
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 53, pp. 860-871.
Patterson, J., 1926: The cup anemometer. Transactions of the Royal Society of Canada, 20,
Series III, pp. 1-54.
Coppin, P.A., 1982: An examination of cup anemometer over speeding. Meteorologische
Rundschau, 35, pp. 1-11.
World Meteorological Organization, 2003: Manual on the Global Observation System.
WMO-No. 544, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1992: International Meteorological Vocabulary. Second
edition, WMO-No. 182, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 1997: Estimation of Areal Evapotranspiration.
Technical Reports in Hydrology and Water Resources No. 56, WMO/ TD-No. 785, Geneva.

14
Chapter 2: Introduction to the software for surface water data entry and validation

15
2.1 Necessity of software for surface water data
The ultimate goal of data collection in hydrology is to provide a set of sufficient good quality
data that can be used in decision-making in all aspects of water resources management, in the
wide range of operational applications as well as in research.

The management of hydrological data is therefore important work in itself and this work must
be performed effectively in order to maximize the results of the investments put in their
collection and their possibility of being effectively used.

Data management can be addressed from two complementary points of view: one aiming at
preserving from loss and degradation, making accessible and disseminating the data sets that
have been collected, the other aiming at increasing their value for final users and includes
error detection, quality control and various processes for generating computed (e.g.
evaporation or discharge) or aggregated data (e.g. time averaged mean discharges) or
estimating missing ones.

On the hydrological processes cycle, many process and calculation is involved. On the other
hand, the huge amount of data is needed on the calculation and is very costly if the data is
directly measure for every analysis.
On this end, the hydrological application to handle the hydrological data and management is
necessary.

2.2 Method to analyze time series data (daily/monthly/seasonal)

Ideally, the data which is used for the hydrology analysis should be consistent and
homogeneous. Consistency related with the type and technique of measurement, the sampling
interval and the manner of processing data. Homogeneity related to the constancy of the
measure site and of its environment condition and the disturbance to the climate and
hydrology process. However, the ideal consistent-homogeneous data is hard to obtain.
Therefore, quasi-consistent time series data (time series for which adequate correction have
been introduced) to account the change of measurement tool and technique, sampling interval
and data processing is acceptable.

The most difficult part of the analysis of long time series of data is the formulation and
testing of hypothesis concerning the long term fluctuation (trends, cycle, etc). Further
analysis of the nature of this characteristic is even more complex and required the
hydrological model. Therefore, on the initial stage the statistical analysis of the data is
required.

On the initial stage of analysis, the following basic statistic will be required:
• Mean
• Standard error of the mean
• Standard deviation
• Standard error of standard deviation
• Coefficient of variation
• Coefficient of skew
• Coefficient of kurtosis

16
• Ranks of each month
• Coefficient of autocorrelation
• Standard error of coefficient of autocorrelation
• Trend in the mean
• Trend in the variance

It is essential to compare the statistic value of different time series of data.

In addition of the numerical statistic analysis, the graphical plot of the following should also
be presented:

• Original data (monthly/yearly series) – the filled of missing data should be consider
• Histogram of the complete observation data
• Mean monthly and their standard deviation for various time series
• Autocorrelation of monthly and annual values

2.3 Available software for surface water data entry

2.3.1 HYDATA (Multi-purpose database for all hydrological data)

HYDATA was one of the first dedicated hydrological database packages available. Produced
by the Institute of Hydrology (now CEH) in the mid-1980s, it ran under the DOS operating
system using the mainframe database system in use at that time for the UK national surface
water archive. Since then, HYDATA has been upgraded several times: the last DOS version
was released in the mid-1990s. This and earlier versions of HYDATA have been used in
more than 50 countries worldwide, and form the national database system for surface water
data in more than 20 countries.

HYDATA is a purpose-built, Windows-based database and analysis system for processing

the hydro meteorological data that is essential for planning and operating water-related
schemes worldwide.

HYDATA is designed to store the types of data most commonly required in water resources
studies, including river levels and flows, reservoir, lake and tank levels and storages, rainfall
and other meteorological data. It includes facilities for developing rating curves relating river
levels to flows, and reservoir, lake and tank levels to storages. Output is provided in the form
of "yearbook" style tabulations and graphs, and there are also data transfer facilities.

Options are provided for routine hydrological analyses, including derivating flow duration
curves and calculating low flow statistics. HYDATA meets the need for a modern digital data
archiving and retrieval system, which can be used by staff with little experience of
computers, and yet is powerful enough to hold national records and to be used for advanced
hydrological analysis.

HYDATA offers complete flexibility in data types, intervals and units, allowing users to
define data types, the intervals at which they are measured and the units in which they are

17
stored and displayed, including having a data interval that changes through the time series.
Units used for storage and output need not be the same, and data may be stored at irregular
intervals. A flexible time series data structure such as this solves the problems of storing non-
regular time intervals of water level data or the zero levels that can occur through much of the
year in semi-desert and desert regions.

For the more information Hydata, please go to the website:

http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/software/cehsoftware-hydata.htm

2.3.2 HYRAD (Rainfall estimation from weather radar)

HYRAD is an advanced weather radar display system for PCs providing real-time receipt of
radar and other hydrometeorological products, database and archiving facilities, and a
hydrological processing kernel for improved rainfall estimation and forecasting.

The HYRAD kernel pre-processes radar data to remove residual anomalies, forms more
accurate rainfall estimates by merging radar and rain gauge data, and constructs rainfall
forecasts.

Catchment average time-series can be produced for all products. These time-series can be
displayed in total and cumulative form as a guide to flooding risk or passed via an automated
interface to Flow Forecasting and Modelling Systems used in flood warning.
The quality-assured software operates as resilient Client-Server system capable of serving
hundreds of clients.

HYRAD is the standard radar display system used by government agencies for flood warning
across England, Wales, Scotland and Belgium.

HYRAD application provides:

• Real-time reception of weather radar products and other space-time images conforming
to a standard format protocol (e.g. fields of potential evaporation, soil moisture, runoff,
weather prediction model forecasts of rainfall and temperature)
• Configurable inclusion of radar products, such as single-site radar, national and
European composites – handling different space-time resolutions and map projections
• System monitoring of real-time data reception
• Static and animated display of images in multiple windows and with zoom and pan
• User configured overlays and underlays providing geographical context information,
such as raingauge locations, river networks, catchment boundaries and coastlines
• Display of cumulative product fields over minutes, hours, days and months
• Statistical analysis of product fields for a selected point, rectangle or catchment
• An efficient database and archiving system
• Calculation of catchment average product time-series for display and onward
transmission to Flow Forecasting and Modelling Systems
• A Hydrological Processing Kernel providing:
- radar pre-processing to correct for static anomalies and transient clutter
- more accurate rainfall estimation by merging radar and rainfall data
- radar rainfall forecasting
- calculation of rainfall fields from raingauge data alone
18
• Tool for creating composite or modified products by merging, averaging and cropping
• An automated interface to Flow Forecasting and Modelling Systems

Fig. 2.1 User interface of Hydrad

For the more information Hyrad, please go to the website:

http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/software/cehsoftware-hyrad.htm

2.3.3 ANCLIM (Tool for processing monthly/daily time series data)

AnClim is software for time series analysis which has been specially created for climatologic
purposes. The software was created by Petr Stepanek, a student of Masaryk University,
Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geography and Cartography (1995–2000). Anlcim is the
freeware application which focusing on the non-comercial application.

AnClim has the general characteristic as follow:

• A comprehensive tool for processing monthly time series (from transformations through
quality control and homogenization to time series analysis)
• Works under Windows 95/98/NT/ME/2000/XP
• User friendly: a lot of graphical components, graphs clarifying the results, etc.
• Especially useful for tutorial purposes, students can play with and compare individual
methods

19
• Main development between 1995 and 2003
For the more information Anclim application, please go to the website:
http://www.climahom.eu/software-solution/anclim

Fig. 2.2 Anclim user interface

2.3.4 ProClimDB (Database software for processing whole climatological dataset)

ProClimDB is the software for processing climatological data (monthly means, sums,
extremes), as well as daily (or even sub-daily) data and is aimed at complementing AnClim
software. On the latest version, some new tools for time series analysis were added (SPI,
extreme value analysis, regression, etc.). The software was created by Petr Stepanek, a
student of Masaryk University, Faculty of Sciences, Department of Geography and
Cartography (1995–2000).

20
 Switch between Main form
monthly and daily
version

Input files Settings for

(Data file , the sotware
Data Info file
about processed
stations); User-data profiles
in paranthesis
(): the file is not
required for the Output files:
given function blue color means that the
file need not to exist;
black color - use a
Template file (e.g.
function Load Template
and Save as … copy);
red color: the required file
is missing
Options for the
given function

Right click to get

context menu to
manipulate with
the file

Information
about
processing

Fig. 2.3 Proclim user interface

The ProClimDB application has the general characteristics as follow:

• Database software for processing climatological datasets
• Automation of the processing (processing whole database or specified stations all at
once)
• Full control over the processing: many parameters for computing can be set, various
auxiliary outputs are created
• Open structure – you can define your own menus and your own scripts
• Flexible for modifying and adding new functions (FoxPro, R, ArcView)
• Continuous development since 2003 up to now
• Two modes of processing: monthly or daily data, some functions work for x-minute data
• The files can be displayed using build-in Viewer of edited in MS-Excel
• Possibility to run own commands to manage the database tables, you can even launch
scripts (sequence of commands)
• Software menu can be completely rebuilt, you can add new functions pointing to your
own scripts
• Batch mode for processing sequence of commands

For the more information ProclimDB application, please go to the website:

http://www.climahom.eu/software-solution/proclimdb

21
2.3.5 CLIMWAT (climate database)

CLIMWAT was developed by Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) as the joint
research of Water Development and Management Unit and the Climate Change and
Bioenergy Unit of FAO. CLIMWAT is a climatic database to be used in combination with
the computer program CROPWAT (www.fao.org) and allows the calculation of crop water
requirements, irrigation supply and irrigation scheduling for various crops for a range of
climatological stations worldwide.

CLIMWAT 2.0 (the latest version) offers observed agro climatic data of over 5000 stations
worldwide distributed as shown in the figure below.

Fig. 2.4 Location of stations included in CLIMWAT 2.0.

CLIMWAT provides long-term monthly mean values of seven climatic parameters, namely:
• Mean daily maximum temperature in °C
• Mean daily minimum temperature in °C
• Mean relative humidity in %
• Mean wind speed in km/day
• Mean sunshine hours per day
• Mean solar radiation in MJ/m2/day
• Monthly rainfall in mm/month
• Monthly effective rainfall in mm/month
• Reference evapotranspiration calculated with the Penman-Monteith method in mm/day.
All variables, except potential evapotranspiration, are direct observations or conversions of
the observations. The original data use as the database in CLIMWAT is coming from a large
number of meteorological stations; however, the data could not be uniform. For example,
humidity and radiation can be expressed through different variables.

22
With respect to humidity, data can be provided as relative humidity, dew point temperature or
water vapour pressure. These three variables can be uniquely converted into each other if the
mean temperature is known. However, if humidity is measured and provided in more than
one of these variables, the actual numbers would not necessarily be in line. In this case it is
necessary to decide which variable to use. In CLIMWAT, the water vapor pressure is used as
a core variable and only where it is not available, the dew point temperature and relative
humidity is used.

In term of radiation data, instead of the solar energy flux at the surface often only sunshine
hours or sunshine fraction are recorded, both of which though can be converted to radiation.
In order to calculate evapotranspiration using the Penman-Monteith method, both radiation
and sunshine fraction are necessary. To keep both these values in agreement, the observed
radiation was used as base variable and the sunshine fraction was estimated from it. When
only the sunshine fraction (or hours) has been observed it was used to estimate radiation. If
both (fraction and radiation) are observed radiation was preferred.

In compiling the data, an effort was made to cover the period 1971 - 2000, but when data for
this period were not available, any recent series that ends after 1975 and that has at least 15
years of data have been included. Some of the series are "broken", but they nevertheless have
at least 15 years of data (e.g. 1961-70 and 1992-2000).

The users are able to extract the data for a single or multiple stations in the format suitable for
their use in CROPWAT. Two files are created for each selected station. The first file contains
long-term monthly rainfall data [mm/month]. Additionally, effective rainfall is also included
calculated and included in the same file. The second file consists of long-term monthly
averages for the seven climatic parameters, mentioned above. This file also contains the
coordinates and altitude of the location.

For the more information Cropwat application, please go to the website:

http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_climwat.html

23
 References

World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to hydrological practices – Data

Acquisition and Processing, Analysis, Forecasting and other Applications; WMO – No. 168,
Geneva
USGS Techniques of Water-Resources Investigations of the United States Geological
Survey, Book 4, Hydrologic Analysis and Interpretation, Statistical Methods in Water
Resources.
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/software/cehsoftware-hyrad.htm
http://www.ceh.ac.uk/products/software/cehsoftware-hydata.htm
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/infores_databases_climwat.html
http://www.climahom.eu/AnClim.html
http://www.climahom.eu/software-solution/proclimdb

24
Chapter 3: Rainfall data measurement

25
All forms of water that reach the earth from the atmosphere, expressed as depth is called
Precipitation. It can be in the form of rainfall, snowfall, frost, hail or dew. Of all these,
rainfall and snowfall contribute significant amount of water. The main aim of rainfall data
measurement is to obtain representative sample of the fall that occurs in the specific area over
a specific period of time. The unit of rainfall is linear depth, usually millimeters (volume per
area) or kgm-2 (mass per unit area) for liquid precipitation. Daily measurements of rainfall
should be taken at constant times in the entire networks of interest. Snow is measured as the
depth on the ground covered in an even horizontal surface. It is necessary to measure the
rainfall depth accurately in hydrology. Thus, the selection of rain gauge location, type of rain
gauge and its exposure to external environment, evaporation loss and effects of winds and
splashing are to be considered during measurement.

This chapter discusses on the type of rain gauges and different methods of rainfall
measurement.

3.1 Gauge Location

The location of rain gauge should be selected with utmost care in order to obtain the real
representation of rainfall in the given area. The number and locations of rain gauge
determines the quality of rainfall data given by that rain gauge. Wind makes the measurement
inaccurate if instrument is not correctly installed. Wind has two types of effect: one is on the
gauge itself, which decreases the amount of water to be collected and the other is the effect of
location in the trajectory of wind, which can either collect high amount of rainfall or low
rainfall.

The effect of the wind can be reduced by selecting the site in such a way that the wind speed
at the level of orifice of the gauge is small as far as possible. Rainfall should not be blocked
by surrounding objects and the air flow should be parallel to the orifice. At the standard
condition, the gauge should be kept 1m above the ground. It should be noted that the rain
gauges within a particular catchment should be at the same height. The ground, surrounding
the gauges should be either grass or gravel but not any hard surface because hard surface
increases splashing. The rain gauge should be 2 to 4 times the distance away from an isolated
object (such as a tree or buildings) or in a forest a clearing with the radius at least the height
of tree or place the gauge at canopy level. At the sloping ground, the gauge should be placed
with the opening parallel to the ground. The gauge location should be shielded in the windy
sites. If the obstruction cannot be avoided, it should be far at least equal or to four times their
height.

If the site is not in natural condition, it is better to install gauge in a pit with its rim at ground
level for liquid precipitation. The anti-splash material should cover the pit and the anti-splash
grid should be 12.5m deep and spacing of 12.5m in a square dimension. It is necessary to
level the ground and no placement of any obstructions in the surrounding for at least 100m
distance in all directions.

Another alternative is to properly design the windshield around the instruments with the ideal
condition as follows:
• Ascertain the parallel flow of air over the orifice of the gauge;
• Avoid any local acceleration of the wind above the opening of orifice;
• Reduce to the degree possible the speed of the wind striking the sides of the receiver;

26
• Avoid splashing towards the opening of the gauge;
• Do not subject to capping by snow.

3.2 Non-recording gauges

The non-recording rain gauges are generally used by hydro-meteorological department for
their official record. The non-recording gauge consists of a funnel leading to empty cylinder,
which is then measured by graduated flask. The opening of orifice and height of gauge varies
from country to country.

3.2.1 Standard rain gauge

This type of rain gauge consists of a funnel emptying into a graduated cylinder. The size of
opening is not so important. The cylinder with an area of 1000 cm2 is used in some countries
but cylinder area of 200 -500 cm2 is found to be the most convenient. The criteria for the
standard rain gauge are as follows:

• The rim of the collector should have a sharp edge and should fall away vertically inside
and be steeply beveled outside. The gauge for recording snow fall should have less error
due to constriction of the opening;
• The area of the opening should be known to the nearest 0.5 percent and it should remain
constant;
• The vertical length of the gauge should be sufficiently deep and slope of funnel be steep
as well (at least 45o) to prevent rain splashing;
• The receiver should have a narrow neck and should be sufficiently protected from
radiation to minimize loss of water by evaporation;
• When a part of precipitation comes in the form of snow, the collector should be deep
enough to store the snowfall that can be expected during at least one day. It helps in
avoiding drifting of snow out of the receiver.

At the remote places where data are recorded weekly or monthly, the rain gauge should be of
similar design but with larger capacity.

3.2.2 Storage rain gauge

Storage rain gauge is placed in remote and sparsely inhabited areas where the data collection
is not done frequently. This type of gauge consists of a collector above a funnel shaped,
leading to a receiver with sufficiently large volume. The adjustment for evaporation loss and
wind disturbance should be made as described earlier. In snowy area, the collector should be
placed above the expected depth of snow fall. An anti-freeze solution should be used to
convert snow into liquid. The oil can be applied in the container in order to reduce
evaporation loss. The seasonal precipitation is calculated by either measuring the volume of
the container or weighing the container.

27
3.3 Methods of measurements
There are two commonly used methods for measurement of precipitation namely; a graduated
measuring cylinder and a graduated dip rod.

A measuring cylinder should be made of clear glass with a low coefficient of expansion. It
should be marked clearly with the size of gauge. The diameter should not be more than one-
third of that of the rim of the gauge. The graduation is to be engraved very finely. The
markings should be at 0.2 mm intervals in general. The marking of 0.1 mm is also to be
marked clearly. If fine accuracy is not required, every 0.2 up to 1.0 mm and every millimeter
above that should be marked and then at interval of 10 mm can be marked. For the accurate
measurement, the maximum error of the graduations should not exceed ± 0.05mm at or above
2mm of graduation mark and ± 0.02mm below this mark. The measurement should be taken
at the bottom of the meniscus. It is necessary that the measurement should be taken vertical
and parallax errors should be avoided.

Dip rods should be made of material that does not absorb water and a capillary effect is small.
Metals or materials which can be cleaned by oil are to be used if the oil is to be added in the
water. The graduation mark should be at interval of 10 mm and the maximum error should
not exceed ± 0.5 mm at every point.

3.4 Possible errors and their corrections

The occurrence of errors takes place during measurement readings. There are various factors
responsible for the errors. The exposure of instrument causes uncertainty in its reading. The
main sources of errors are wind speed, evaporation, spilling in and out of water and inability
of transferring water from receiver to the measuring cylinder. The possible errors are listed
below:
• Error due to systematic wind field disturbance over the opening of the gauge: generally 2
to 10 percent for rain and 10 to 50 percent for snow;
• Error due to wetting loss on the internal walls of the collector;
• Error due to wetting loss inside the container during emptying: generally 2 to 15 percent
in summer and 1 to 8 percent in winter;
• Error due to evaporation from the container, mostly in hot areas: 0 to 4 percent;
• Error due to blowing and drifting of snow;
• Error due to in- and out- splashing of water: 1 to 2 percent;
• Random observational and instrumental errors, including incorrect gauge reading.

The errors due to drifting of snow and in-out splashing of water can both be positive and
negative. These errors are generally adjusted using the following equation;

Pk = kPc = k (Pg + ∆P1 + ∆P2 + ∆P3 ± ∆P4 - ∆P5)……………… Equation 3.1

Where Pk is the adjusted amount of precipitation; k is the adjustment factor for the wind field
deformation; Pc is the amount of precipitation collected in the gauge; Pg is the amount of
precipitation measured by gauge; ∆P1 is the adjustment for the wetting loss on the internal
walls of the collector; ∆P2 is the adjustment for the wetting loss in the container caused

28
during emptying; ∆P3 is the adjustment for the evaporation loss from the container; ∆P4 is the
adjustment for in- and out- splashing of water; and ∆P5 is the adjustment for blowing and
drifting snow.

The correction for the above factor depends on the relationships between the components of
the error and the meteorological factors. The error due to wind field deformation is linked
with wind speed and rain fall structure. The detail is given in the table 1.

The correction factor k for wind effect of deformation is a function of two variables: wind
speed at the rim of gauge during precipitation and the velocity of precipitation particles.
Similarly, the wetting loss depends on the geometry and material type of the collector and
container, frequency and form of precipitation and the number of measurements.

The total monthly wetting loss ∆P1 is calculated using the equation:
∆P1, 2 = a .M …………………………………………….…Equation 3.2

Where ∆P1, 2 is the average wetting loss per day for a particular collector and container
respectively; and M is the number of days with precipitation.

Loss due to evaporation is estimated by

∆P3 = ie τe………………………………………………………Equation 3.3

The value of ie (intensity of evaporation) depends in material, geometry, color, form and
amount of precipitation. The value of τe (time elapsed between the end of the precipitation
and the measurement of precipitation) depends on number of observations per day (See figure
1 and 2).

The error due to drifting of snow can be considered on a day if wind speed is higher than 5
ms-1. The net error due to in- and out- splashing of water can be negative or positive; so it can
be considered as zero for properly designed gauges. Similarly, random observation and
instrument error can also be neglected since the systematic errors are greater than this error.
The corrections in the precipitation are done in daily or monthly precipitation; and also in
individual events wherever required. The additional data that may be required for further
adjustment are wind speed at the opening of the orifice, rainfall drop size, precipitation
intensity, humidity etc.

Table 3.1 Main components of the systematic error in precipitation measurement and their
meteorological and instrumental factors listed in order of general importance

Symbol Component of Magnitude Meteorological factors Instrumental factors

error
k Loss due to wind Wind speed at the The shape, orifice
field deformation gauge rim during area and depth of
2-10%
over the opening precipitation and the both the gauge rim
10-50%
of orifice of the structure of and collector
gauge precipitation
∆P1 + ∆P2 Losses from 2-10% Frequency, type and The same as above
wetting on amount of and, in addition, the

29
 internal walls of precipitation, the material, color and
the collector and drying time of the age of both the
in the container gauge and the gauge collector and
when emptying frequency of emptying container
the container
∆P3 Loss due to Type of precipitation, The orifice area and
evaporation from saturation deficit and the isolation of the
the container wind speed at the level container, the colour
0-4% of the gauge rim during and, in some cases,
the interval between the the age of the
end of precipitation and collector or the type
its measurement of funnel (rigid or
removable)
∆P4 Splash in- and Rainfall intensity and The shape and depth
splash-out wind speed of the gauge
1-2% collector and the
kind of gauge
installation
∆P5 Blowing and Intensity and duration The shape, orifice
drifting snow of snow storm, wind area and depth of
speed and the state of both the gauge rim
snow cover and the collector
Source: WMO training manual

30
Correction factor k as a function of the wind speed during precipitation at the level of the gauge rim (uph) and
the parameter of the precipitation structure N and t for: (a) liquid precipitation; and (b) mixed and solid
precipitation. 1 = Hellmann gauge without windshield; 2 = Tretyakov gauge with windshield; t = air temperature
during snow storms; N= fraction in percentage of monthly totals of rain falling with an intensity smaller than
0.031 minimum.

Fig. 3.1 Correction factor k as a function of the wind speed. (Source: WMO training manual)

3.5 Recording Gauges

Recording gauges have an advantage of providing better time resolution than in manual
recording. It also helps to reduce evaporation loss and wetting loss to some extent. Generally,
three types of recording gauges are used for measuring precipitation: weighing type, floating
type and tipping-bucket type. The weighing type recorder is capable of measuring all kinds of
precipitation whereas other two are limited to measuring only rainfall. These types of
recording gauges are described briefly below:

31
Intensity of evaporation (ie) for various gauges: (a) Liquid precipitation: (i) Australian standard gauge 1, 2, 7, 11
for P ≤ 1 mm; 1.1 to 20 mm; > 20 mm (all for wind speed, ue < 4 m/s), and for ue ≥4 m/s, respectively; (ii)
Snowdon gauge in a pit 3, 6, 8 for P≤1 mm, 1.1 to 10 mm and ≥10 mm, respectively; (iii) Hellmann gauge 4;
(iv) Polish standard gauge 5; (v) Hungarian standard gauge 9; (vi) Tretyakov gauge 10, 12, 13, 14 for wind
speeds at the level of the gauge rim of 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6 and 6 to 8 m/s, respectively; (b) Solid precipitation:
Tretyakov gauge 15, 16, 17, 18 for wind speeds 0 to 2, 2 to 4, 4 to 6 and 6 to 8 m/s, respectively, where ie is the
intensity of evaporation in mm/h and τe is the time elapsed between the end of the precipitation and the
measurement of precipitation.

Fig. 3.2 Evaporation losses from precipitation gauges. (Source: WMO training manual)

3.5.1 Weighing type recording gauge

In this type of recording gauge, the weight of both the container and the precipitation
accumulated are recorded continuously, by means of spring mechanism or with a system of
balance weights. It generally does not have provision of emptying itself. The evaporation loss
can be reduced by adding evaporation suppressants or sufficient amount of oil to form a film
over the water surface. The loss due to strong wind can also be reduced with an oil damping
mechanism. It can measure all kinds of precipitation such as snow, hail or their mixtures. The
weight of the container is measured by calibrated spring which is converted from a vertical
motion to angular through series of pulleys. The angular motion is communicated to a drum
or strip chart or digitized through a transducer. The accuracy of measurement by these gauges
depends on the manufacturer.

32
3.5.2 Float type recording gauge

This type of instrument consists of a float chamber containing a light float. When the rain
passes through the chamber, the water level rises and the float moves upward. The vertical
movement of the float leads to the movement of a pen on the chart or digital transducer by a
suitable mechanism. The chart scale can be changed by adjusting the size of orifice and
volume of the chamber.

The recording of precipitation for a useful periods (normally 24 hrs) can be done if the
chamber is sufficiently large or the chamber is capable of emptying itself automatically when
it becomes full, so that the pen comes down to zero. The siphoning arrangement is usually
done for this adjustment. The siphoning process is to be done in a definite time and should
not take longer than 15 seconds.

For the consideration of freezing condition, a heating device is to be installed. It prevents

damage due to freezing to float and its chamber. A small heating strip of electric lamp can be
used but the heat should be minimal so that there is no evaporation loss.

3.5.3 Tipping-bucket type recording gauge

The tipping-bucket type of gauge works on a simple principle. In this instrument, a light
metal container or bucket having two compartments is balanced in an unstable equilibrium
about a horizontal axis (Figure 3). In a normal condition, the bucket is in rest position at one
stop. When the rain passes from a collector into the compartment, the bucket will tip into
another rest position after collecting sufficient amount of water. The bucket is designed in
such a way that it empties after tipping and continuously keeps on tipping as the rain falls.
Amount of rainfall should be about 0.2 mm if detail records are required. Otherwise, 0.5 – 1
mm of rainfall also provides satisfactory data for heavy rainfall and flood warning system.
The merit of this instrument is that is can be recorded into a distant place through its
electronic pulse output. Some possible errors that can occur while using this instrument are as
follows:
• There is possible of loss of water during heavy rain which cannot be eliminated.
• The exposed surface of water is large in this instrument in its usual design, so the
significant loss can occur mainly during light rain and hot places.
• The records might not be accurate at time of drizzle or light rain due to its discontinuous
nature of recording.
• The water might adhere to its wall in the bucket, which can cause volumetric error.
• The stream of water falling from the funnel onto the exposed bucket may cause
over reading, depending on the size, shape and position of the nozzle;

33
 (a) (b) (c)

Fig. 3.3 (a) Exterior part (b) interior part and (c) recorder of tipping bucket type rain gauge

34
 References

World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to Hydrological Practices. Fifth Edition,

Chapter 7, WMO-No. 168, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2008: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and
Methods of Observation. 2008 Edition, Chapter 6, WMO–No. 8, Geneva

35
Chapter 4: Primary validation of rainfall data

36
4.1 Necessity of primary validation of data
Good quality hydro-meteorological data is essential in hydrology. Precipitation information is
one of the mostly used variables in hydrological modeling/design. Therefore it is important to
assure the quality of rainfall data observed from gauging station.

Data validation refers to the means of checking of hydrological data so that the final data
represents the true value of the variable at the measurement site at a given time or in a given
interval of time. The validation process recognizes whether the errors are occurring in the
measured value in the field and helps to increase the quality of the data.

Primary validation of rainfall data is concerned with the comparison of data at a single
station. This may either be a single data series of individual observations, or the different
measurement of a variable at single station (example-comparison of daily rainfall from a
daily gauge and an accumulated total from a recording gauge). The validation of data is done
after the data is checked and no transcription errors are ensured in data collection.

Different from other climatic variables, rainfall has high degree of spatial and temporal
variability which makes the validation a difficult task. Also, in the case where monsoon type
of climate involving convective precipitation is involved, this is more difficult.

4.2 Methods of primary validation

4.2.1 Instruments and observational methods

The method of observation in field and the type of instrument and their errors directly affects
the accuracy of data. The observed data can be suspected on the base of the method employed
and instruments used.

Generally three basic instruments are in use in climatological stations for the measurement of
rainfall.
• Standard daily rainfall gauge
• Syphon gauge with chart recorder
• Tipping bucket gauge with digital recorder

4.2.1.1 Daily rainfall gauge (SRG)

Daily rainfall is measured using standard gauge (SRG). This consists of a circular collector
funnel with a brass or gun metal rim and a collection area of either 200cm2 (diameter 159.5
mm) or 100cm2 (diameter 112.8 mm) leading to a base unit partly embedded in the ground
and containing a polythene collector bottle. The rainfall collected is measured by pouring into
measuring glass to determine rainfall in millimeters.

The gauge should be inspected every day, even it is thought that no rainfall took place within
the period. If rainfall is found to take place but there is no water found in gauge, this should
be indicated as ‘trace’ in record of rainfall. The instrument should be checked regularly for
any kind of damages or wear and tear.

37
4.2.1.2 Autographic raingauge (natural siphon) (ARG)

The natural siphon raingauge gives how much rainfall took place in the specified time. It
consists of a circular collector funnel with a gun metal rim, 324 sq cm in area and set at 750
mm above ground level, leading to a float chamber in which a float is located which rises
with water level collected from rainfall. A siphon chamber is attached to the float chamber
and siphon action is initiated when the water level reaches certain specified level (10 mm). A
pen is attached to the float spindle on the top of the float which records a chart placed on a
revolving drum driven by clockwork (mechanical clock).

When there is no rainfall, the pen draws a continuous horizontal line on the chart. If rainfall is
occurring, due to rising of float, it is given by a upward sloped line as per the intensity of
rainfall. The siphon action is initiated when the chamber is full and then the water flows out
through siphon. The recording pen returns to bottom position after the chamber is emptied.

4.2.1.3 Tipping bucket raingauge (TBRG)

It consists of a circular collector funnel leading to a wedge-shaped bucket of fixed capacity.

When one side is full, the bucket tips to empty adjoining bucket to fill. Each tip is recorded
on a counter by the help of magnet attached to the connecting pivot.

4.2.2 Comparison of daily time series for manual and autograph or digital data

The stations where an autographic or a digital recorder is used to measure the rainfall at
shorter durations, a standard raingauge is also available. This gives the rainfall data at a
station from two independent sources. These two independent data can be compared to find
the accuracy of the rainfall data. In comparing, the data obtained from standard raingauge can
considered more trustworthy as the autographic or digital recorder may have possibility of
malfunctioning in their mechanical and electromechanical systems.

• If the data obtained from recording type gauge are consistently higher or lower than daily
gauge (SRG), then the recording gauge is likely to be out of calibration. In such case,
accept the SRG and adjust ARG or TBRG.
• If the difference in data occurs in high intensity rainfall only, then there is likely to be
imperfect working by ARG- imperfect working by siphon in high rainfall or TBRG-
gauge is affected by bounce giving double tips. In such case, accept SRG and adjust
ARG or TBRG.
• If the positive discrepancy is followed by negative discrepancy and the rainfall is
occurring at the gauge station at the time of observation, then it is likely to measure the
SRG and ARG value at different time. Then the rainfall can be checked by summing up
for two consecutive days. And, in such case, accept ARG or TBRG and adjust SRG. The
variation in the data obtained from SRG and ARG are due to instrumental and
observation variations. So, these two data are not expected to be match exactly in
magnitude. If these two data matches exactly for each day for a long time, it can be

38
 deduced that one or both data are manipulated to match each other. Such manipulation in
the data is highly undesirable.

4.2.3 Checking against maximum and minimum data limits

The rainfall data is required to validate against the limits within which it can physically
occurs. This limit should be wide enough to incorporate the extreme events also. The rainfall,
obviously, cannot be less than zero which can be taken as a minimum limit. The maximum
limit of rainfall at a particular gauge station can be estimated on the basis of past experience
and physical laws governing rainfall process which will not be exceeded. The Probable
Maximum Precipitation (PMP) which gives the expected maximum amount that can
physically occur in a given duration at a given location can be the maximum limit for rainfall.
The setting of minimum and maximum limits filters the data outside the specified limits. The
data outside the specified minimum and maximum limits are considered suspicious. They are
checked whether there is mistake in transferring data. If there is no mistake in copying data,
the data is considered as suspicious and flagged. The data is examined in secondary
validation where the data from adjoining stations are available.

Nevertheless, when there are entries having more than the maximum limit and such data is
supported by the data processing staff (if it is fresh in the mind of data collecting and
processing staff), it entails that the maximum limit has been crossed. Then it is required to
reset the maximum limit to higher value. In contrast, the very high values can be accepted if
it is supported by similar higher values recorded by adjoining stations which is checked in the
secondary validation stage.

39
 References

World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to Hydrological Practices. Fifth Edition,

Chapter 7, WMO-No. 168, Geneva.
World Meteorological Organization, 2008: Guide to Meteorological Instruments and
Methods of Observation. 2008 Edition, Chapter 6, WMO–No. 8, Geneva

40
Chapter 5: Correction, completion and compilation of rainfall data

41
5.1 Importance of correction, completion and compilation of rainfall data
Several times in many developing countries it is observed that after the primary and
secondary validation of the meteorological data, a number of values are incorrect and
doubtful. Eventually many records are also found missing due to non-observation or loss on
recording or transmission. It is essential to replace the incorrect and missing values by
estimated values based on other observations at the same station or at neighboring stations.
The process of filling in missing values is normally referred as “completion”. It is definite
that the estimated values are less reliable than the actual measured values. Doubtful original
values are usually marked as a flag in the record book. If no neighboring stations are
available, missing values are left as ‘missing’ and incorrect values.

5.2 Data correction or completion procedure

Correction and completion of rainfall data is carried out by autographic raingauge (ARG) or
an ordinary or standard raingauge (SRG). One of them is usually preferred for the backup and
for correcting errors in the other in the event of failure of the instrument or the observer. The
retention of an SRG at stations with an ARG is based on the view of that the chances of
malfunctioning of automatic type of equipment is higher. Where an autographic record at a
station is erroneous or missing and there are one or more adjoining stations at which
autographic records are available these may possibly be used to complete the missing values.
Correction and completion of rainfall data using ARG and SRG data depends on which has
failed and the kind of failure. The procedure that needs to be followed is as given below:

5.2.1 SRG record missing or faulty – ARG available

The missing data is prominent and is possible due to faulty destitute observation technique,
either in form of a broken measuring glass or a leaking gauge. It is important to correct the
erroneous standard raingauge data or complete them by the use of autographic records from
the same station. Standard raingauge data in such cases are made of equal intervals so that
obtained from the autographic records. Normally the data is observed at two times in a day
i.e. 0830 hrs and 1730 hrs. Aggravated hourly data corresponding to those timings can also be
noted.

5.2.2 ARG record missing or faulty- SRG available

The records from ARG may sometimes be missing due to various reasons such as failure in
recording mechanism, blockage of the funnel, failure of electronic system/trace pen etc. To
complete the record, the SRG record can be used to compare with ARG record of
neighboring station. With reference to hourly record obtained from neighboring stations (one
or more), the hourly distribution rainfall can be estimated.

The estimate of hourly rainfall at station where autographic record is missing is:

42
 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑖𝑖
𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑗𝑗 = ∗ 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 … … … … … … … … … … . 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.1
∑𝑚𝑚24
𝑖𝑖=1 𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻, 𝑖𝑖

Where,
Hbase,i = hourly rainfall of neighboring station at ith hour Dtest = Daily rainfall at station
where ARG record is missing

For more than one neighboring station available, this process can be repeated and the average
value from all stations is calculated.

5.3 Correcting for entries to wrong ways

The daily rainfall data which are entered manually are susceptible to be entered to the wrong
day especially following the period with no rainfall. Such mistakes can be identified in
secondary validation stage.

The data should be identified for the amount of shift and the extent of data affected by shift.
Then, such shift can be corrected by either inserting the missing data or deleting the extra
data points causing the shift. While entering and deleting the data, one should be sure that
only the data affected by the shift are shifted.

5.4 Adjusting rainfall data for long time systematic shift

Changes in gage location, exposure, instrumentation, or observational procedure may cause a
relative change in the rainfall data. This will create inconsistency in the rainfall data which
should be adjusted. Such inconsistency can be checked by double mass curve analysis and
data can also be adjusted for such inconsistencies.

5.4.1 Double mass curve

The theory of the double mass curve is based on the fact that a graph of cumulation of one
quantity against the cumulation of another quantity during the same period will plot as a
straight line so long as the data are proportional. (Hardison, 1960)

The double mass curve technique is used to check the consistency of a rainfall series. The
data are assumed to be consistent when data from the same parent population are recorded.
The trend of rainfall data of any station can be checked for inconsistency with reference
stations. The cumulative value of rainfall is plotted on both axes. The cumulative value of
rainfall of reference station (or group of base stations) is taken as abscissa whereas the data to
be checked is taken as ordinate. The change in slope of straight line shows the inconsistency
and this is adjusted by multiplying the older (inconsistent) data by the ratio of slope of later
period to slope of earlier period.
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = ∗ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.2
𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Where, Pa= adjusted rainfall
Po= observed rainfall

43
 ma= slope of graph to which records are adjusted
mo= slope of graph at time Po was observed

Fig 5.1 Accumulated annual rainfall of n-station average

The data of annual rainfall of station to be checked as well as reference (base) stations are
arranged in reverse chronological order, i.e. the latest record as the first entry and oldest
record as last entry. The accumulated rainfall is calculated from both data series. Those
cumulative rainfalls are plotted. If there is change in slope of line, this indicates the long term
systematic shift in rainfall data. The rainfall values at the reference station are adjusted
accordingly.

5.5 Using spatial interpolation to interpolate erroneous and missing values

5.5.1 Arithmetic average method

This method is employed if the average annual rainfall of the station under consideration is
within 10% of the average annual rainfall at the adjoining stations. The simple average of the
neighboring stations is considered as the required erroneous/missing rainfall.
If Px is the rainfall under consideration for error/missing and P1, P2,………….., Pm are
rainfall corresponding to m neighboring stations, then:
1
Px =𝑚𝑚 (P1+P2+………. +Pn)………………………………Equation 5.3

5.5.2 Normal Ratio Method

Normal ratio method (NRM) is used when the normal annual precipitation at any of the index
station differs from that of the interpolation station by more than 10%. In contrast to
Arithmetic average method, the weight is given to each neighbouring stations and weighted
average is taken. The ratio of normal annual rainfall at station under consideration to normal
annual rainfall at given base station is taken as weight for the given base station.

44
The precipitation values at neighboring m stations 1,2,3,…..M are P1,P2,P3,….Pm
respectively and it is required to find the missing precipitation Px at a station X not included
in the above M stations. Further, the normal annual precipitations N1, N2, ……., N .. at each
of the above stations including station X are known. Then the estimate of missing
precipitation Px is given by:
𝑚𝑚
1 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = � � ∗ 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃� … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.4
𝑚𝑚 𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
𝑖𝑖=1

5.5.3 Distance power method

The rainfall at a station is estimated as a weighted average of the observed rainfall at the
neighboring stations. This method weights the neighboring stations on the basis of their
distance from the station under consideration assuming that the closer stations are better
correlated than farther one. The weights are equal to the reciprocal of the some power of the
reciprocal of the distance of the neighboring station from the station under consideration.

In this method, four quadrants are delineated passing through station under consideration. A
circle is then drawn with radius as the distance upto which significant correlation is assumed
to exist. Then neighboring stations are selected on the following basis:
• The stations must lie within the specified circle.
• A maximum of 8 adjoining stations are sufficient for the estimation of data.
• The numbers of stations taken are preferred to be equally selected from each quadrant so
as to minimize any directional biasness.

Fig.5.2 Definition sketch of Test and Base (neighboring) stations (Source: Training module
SWDP-10)

The estimated rainfall of the station under consideration is

∑𝑚𝑚 2
𝑖𝑖=1[𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ]
𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.5
∑𝑚𝑚 2
𝑖𝑖=1[1/𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷 ]

45
Where,
Px= Estimated rainfall at station under consideration
Pi= observed rainfall at station i
Di= Distance between neighboring station i and station under consideration
m= number of neighboring stations considered

5.6. Estimation of areal rainfall

The rainfall data observed from gauges are point rainfall. However in hydrological analysis
and design, mean rainfall over an area is frequently required. To move from point
measurements to a spatially distributed estimation, it is necessary to employ some form of
spatial averaging.
Let the rainfall data from m stations are P1, P2 … Pi ….…Pm. An estimate of rainfall over
the area can be given by
𝑚𝑚

𝑃𝑃 = �[𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∗ 𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊] … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.6

𝑖𝑖=1

Where, Wi is the weight of ith station. The various spatial averaging techniques differ in the
method of evaluation of these weights. The most commonly used methods are discussed here.

5.6.1 Arithmetic average

This is the simplest technique to estimate the average rainfall over a area by taking arithmetic
mean of observed point rainfall at gauges within that area. The average precipitation is given
by:
∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃
𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.7
𝑚𝑚
Where, Pi are the rainfall at ith gauge stations and m is total number of gauging stations over
the area.

In this case, each of the rainfall stations are weighted in equal magnitude i.e. reciprocal of
total number of stations considered. If the gauges are relatively uniformly distributed over the
catchment and the rainfall values do not have a wide variation, this technique yields good
result.

5.6.2 Weighted average using user defined weights

In this method, the user defined weights are assigned to the stations are different. To account
for orographic effects and especially where raingauges are predominantly located in the lower
valleys, it is required to weight the stations. The average precipitation is given by:
∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∗ 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.8
𝑚𝑚

46
Where, Ci= weight assigned to raingauge station i

5.6.3 Thiessen polygon method

In this method weights are assigned to each station according to the catchment area which is
closer to that station than to any other station. In this procedure, lines are drawn between
adjacent stations on a map. The perpendicular bisectors of these lines form a pattern of
polygons with one station in each polygon. The area each station represents is the area of its
polygon, and this is used as a factor for weighting station precipitation.

Fig. 5.3 Theissen's polygons for a series of rain gauges (ri) within an imaginary catchment.
(Source: Fundamentals of Hydrology, Tim Davie)

For the stations near the boundary of area, the polygon may extend beyond the area but only
the portion of polygon within the required area is used. Moreover, the polygon of station
outside the area may intersect the area and in this case the data of station outside our required
area is also considered.

The aerial rainfall value using Thiessen’s polygon is a weighted mean, with the weight being
ratio of the size of each representative area to the total area under consideration. The aerial
rainfall is estimated by this method as:
𝑚𝑚
∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃 = = � 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∗ � � … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.9
𝐴𝐴 𝐴𝐴
𝑖𝑖=1

Where,

Ai= area of Thiessen polygon for station I

A= total area under consideration

5.6.4 Isohyetal and related methods

47
The thiessen method does not account for orographic effect, whereas isohyetal method can
incorporate such effects. The isohyetal method requires construction of isohyets (the lines of
equal rainfall), using observed depths at rain gages and interpolation between adjacent gages.
The isohyetal contours may be drawn taking into account the spacing of stations, the quality,
and variability of the data.

Once the isohyetal map is constructed, the area Ai between each pair of isohyets, within the
watershed, is measured and multiplied by the average Pi of the rainfall depths of the two
boundary isohyets to compute the total depth of rainfall. This total value is divided by total
area to get average depth of rainfall over the area.

∑𝑚𝑚
𝑖𝑖=1 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃 ∗ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
𝑃𝑃 = … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . . 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 5.10
𝐴𝐴

Where,
Ai= area between successive isohyets
Pi= average rainfall between two isohyets

Fig. 5.4 Isohyetal method showing isohyets of 10 units interval (Source: Hydrology in
Practice, Shaw)

The isohyetal method is flexible, and knowledge of the storm pattern can influence the
drawing of the isohyets, but a fairly dense network of gages is needed to correctly construct
the isohyetal map from a complex storm.

The isopercental method takes care of long term patterns. This method includes the drawing
of isopercental lines in which the rainfall is expressed in terms of normal annual rainfall. The
detail procedure is

- Compute the point rainfall at each station as percentage of seasonal normal

- Draw isopercentals(line of equal percentage)
- Superimposing with the seasonal isohyetal map, the intersecting points are marked

48
- The value of rainfall at intersection point is estimated by multiplying isohyet value with
isopercental value.
- Using all these data points i.e. observed and estimated data, isohyets are drawn and
average rainfall is calculated.

The hypsometric method for evaluating areal rainfall takes account of catchment topography
in addition to the measured rainfalls. It is useful for small or medium sized representative
catchments in mountainous regions. This method uses the precipitation-elevation curve and
area-elevation curve (also called hypsometric curve) to determine the areal rainfall.

Fig. 5.5 Hypsometric method. (Source: WMO training manual)

• The area-elevation curve is constructed in quadrant (a) by plotting the area of basin lying
below the various elevation contours with area on x-axis and elevation on y-axis.
• Locations of stations are determined by backtracking from the station elevation on area-
elevation curve.
• Location of station identifiers in x-axis are projected at an angle of 60degrees from y-axis.
• The curve on quadrant (c) is constructed by plotting station rainfall against corresponding
stations.
• From quadrant (c), the values are projected to quadrant (d) and plotted against their
respective station identifiers to derive the precipitation curve.

The area of curve lying under precipitation curve in quadrant (d) gives total volume of
rainfall. The average depth of rainfall is calculated by dividing the total volume by the area of
basin.

49
 References

World Bank, 1999: Training module SWDP -10; How to correct and complete rainfall data.
DHV consultants BV, New Delhi
World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to Hydrological Practices. Fifth Edition,
Chapter 30, WMO-No. 168, Geneva.
Daive Tim, 2008, Fundamentals of Hydrology, Second Edition, Chapter 2, Routledge Taylor
& Francis Group,
Jain, S.K., Hydrological Measurements and Analysis of Data [PDF document], Retrieved
from Lecture notes online web site: http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/105107129/10

50
Chapter 6: Measurement of water level data

51
6.1 Gage House
Gage houses are the most common instrument which is used to measure water level of the
river/stream. A Gage houses are mostly used as the sources of river stage data. A gage house
consists of a well dug along the riverbank with an instrument house above it. The instrument
measures the water level based on the water level when it enters the well through one or more
inlet pipes. As the water surface rule, the water in the well will be at the same level as the
river, so the recording equipment above it actually records the water level in the well.

The electronic devices are installed to read the water level data automatically. The data then
can be either saved at the gage site (saved to the hard disk) or queried by telephone, or can be
transmitted via satellite or radio.

The diagram of the gage house is shown as below:

Fig. 6.1 The gage house schematic (Source:

http://www.erh.noaa.gov/marfc/Science/data.html)

6.2 Wire Weight Gage

This type of gage is usually mounted to the side of a bridge. It consists of a spool of wire,
with a weight attached to the end of the wire. The river level is measured by lowering the
weight until it touches the river surface. The distance between the bridge and the water is
measured, which is then subtracted from the distance from the bridge to the riverbed. The
resulting number is the river stage.

52
Most of the wire weight gage, in the some sites, is used as a reference gage. A type wire
weight gage consists of a drum wound with a single layer of cable, a bronze weight attached
to the end of the cable, a graduated disc, and a counter, all within a cast-aluminum box. The
disc is graduated in tenths and hundredths of a foot and is permanently connected to the
counter and to the shaft of the drum.

To measure the water level, the gage should be set by lowering the weight to a position a few
feet above the water surface and where leveling can be used to determine the elevation of the
bottom of the weight. The elevation of the check bar should be determined by levels, and also
by setting the weight on the check bar and reading the elevation from the counter and dial.
These two elevations should be identical; however, there will some-times be a small
difference, especially if the vertical distance between the gage and low water is large. Both
check bar elevations should be recorded, and the one determined from the dial reading should
be used for future checking to verify that the gage adjustments have not changed. In some
cases, the gage height of the water surface is determined by lowering the weight to the water
surface until it just touches it.

The counter and graduated dial are read to obtain the gage height. If there are waves or
turbulence, it may be necessary to take several readings at the crest and trough, and use the
average of these for the water-surface elevation. In very still water, it is sometimes difficult to
record when the weight touches the water. In this case, various methods are used, such as
creating a slight pendulum motion that will disturb the water surface at the low point of the
swing. Another method is to lower the weight into the water a few hundredths of a foot, and
raise it a hundredth at a time, each time making a quick upward movement of the weight. If
the weight is in the water or just at the water surface, the quick vertical movement will create
a visible disturbance of the water surface. If there is no noted disturbance, than the previous
elevation is the water-surface elevation.

Fig. 6.2 Wire weigh gage (A and B)

53
6.3 Staff Gage
The third type of gage is by far the simplest. A staff gage is basically a ruler attached to the
river bank, a bridge piling or anything next to the river. The river level is measured by
reading the markings on the gage.

Staff gage is the non-recording type of instrument. The water level must be read manually.
Staff gages may be either vertical or inclined. The inclined type should be carefully graduated
and accurately installed to ensure correct stage readings. Most permanent gages are enameled
steel plates bolted in sections to the staff. Care should be taken to install the gages solidly to
prevent errors caused by changes in elevation of the supporting structure.

For example in the concrete-lined canals, the gage can be mounted directly on the canal wall.
The value for measuring head on the sloping walls of trapezoidal-shaped canals must be
appropriately converted to vertical head values before entering the discharge tables. These
tables are usually made for stilling well use or vertical gage applications. The sloping gage
can be marked to read direct values or equivalent values of vertical head. Sometimes, sloping
staffs are marked to display discharge directly, but the discharge gradations are not equally
spaced. The gage may be mounted onto a vertical support for unlined canals.

Most permanent gages are enameled steel, cast aluminum, or some type of plastic resin.
Enameled linear scales marked in metric or English units are available from commercial
sources. Important flow rates can be noted on these scales by separate markings, allowing
convenient adjustment of control gates to desired discharges without requiring tables. For
convenience, the gages can be marked directly in discharge units rather than in measuring
head units.

Fig.6.3 Outside, vertical staff gage

54
Fig. 6.4 Inclined staff gage (A and B)

55
 References

http://www.erh.noaa.gov/marfc/Science/data.html
Sauer, V. B., Turnipseed. 2010: Stage measurement at Gaging stations, Chapter 7 of Book,
Section A. United States Geological Survey (USGS)

56
Chapter 7: Measurement of river flow and entry in surface water data entry system

57
7.1 Discharge measurements by current meters
A current meter measurement derives its name from the fact that it uses some type of
current meter to measure stream velocity. It is made by sub-dividing a stream cross
section into segments (sometimes referred to as partial areas or panels) and measuring
the depth and velocity in a vertical within each segment.

Selection of sites

The first step in making a current-meter measurement is to select a measurement

cross section of desirable qualities. If the stream cannot be waded and high-water
measurements are made from a bridge or cableway the we have the limitation to select a
measurement cross section. If the stream can be waded or the measurement can be
made from a boat, then there are some criteria which should be considered:

• The channel at the measuring site should be straight and of uniform cross section
and slope to minimize the abnormal velocity distribution
• Flow directions for all points on any vertical across the width should be parallel
to one another and at right angles to the measurement section
• A stable streambed free of large rocks, weeds and obstructions that would create
eddies, slack water and turbulence;
• The curves of the distribution of velocities should be regular in the vertical and
horizontal planes of measurement;
• Conditions in the section and in its vicinity should also be such as to preclude
changes taking place on the velocity distribution during the period of measurement;
• Sites displaying vortices, reverse flow or dead water should be avoided (not
recommended)
• The measurement section should be clearly visible across its width and
unobstructed by trees, aquatic growth or other obstacles;
• The depth of water in the section should be sufficient at all stages to provide for
the effective immersion of the current meter or float, whichever is to be used;
• The site should be easily accessible at all times with all necessary measurement
equipment;
• The section should be sited away from pumps, sluices and outfalls, if their operation
during a measurement is likely to create flow conditions inconsistent with the natural
stage-discharge relationship for the station;
• Sites should be avoided where there is converging or diverging flow;
However, it is usually not possible to satisfy all of these conditions. Select the best
possible reach using these criteria and then select a cross section.

Measurement of cross-sections

A current meter measurement is the summation of the products of the partial areas of the
streams cross section and their respective averages velocities. The cross section is defined by
depths at each location in the stream. At each location the velocities are sampled by current
meter to obtain the mean of the vertical distribution of velocity.

58
There are two method is used to define cross section computation: mid-section and mean
section method. In the midsection method, it is assumed that the mean velocity in each
vertical represents the mean velocity in a partial rectangular area. The mean velocity in each
vertical is determined by measuring the velocity at selected points in that vertical.
The cross-section area for a segment extends laterally from half the distance from the
preceding vertical to half the distance to the next vertical, and vertically, from the water
surface to the sounded depth as shown in Fig. 7.1.

Fig. 7.1 Definition of the section of computing cross-section area for discharge measurements

The mean section method is differs from the midsection method in computation procedure.
Partial discharges are computed for partial sections between successive verticals. The
velocities and depths at successive verticals are each averaged, and each partial section
extends laterally from one vertical to the next. Discharge is the product of the average of two
mean velocities, the average of two depths, and the distance between verticals. This is
repeated for each partial section. The additional discharge in the partial sections adjacent
to each bank is estimated on the assumption that the velocity and depth at the banks
are zero. If, however, this discharge is a significant part of the total flow then the mean
velocity in the vicinity of the bank should be estimated, or measured if possible. The total
discharge is obtained by summing the discharges from of all of the partial sections, including
the end sections near each bank.

59
Measurements of velocity

Current meter generally measure the velocity in a point. To convert the point velocity to the
discharge velocity, the various methods is used. The general method is used the mean
velocity from each of the vertical cross section. The mean velocity in a vertical is obtained
from velocity observations at several points in that vertical. The mean velocity can be
approximated by making a few velocity observations and using a known relation between
those velocities and the average velocity in the vertical.

The various methods of measuring velocity are:

• vertical-velocity curve;
• Two point;
• Six-tenths depth;
• Two-tenths depth;
• Three point;
• Surface and subsurface;
• Integration.
In the vertical-velocity curve method a series of velocity observations at points well
distributed between the water surface and the streambed are made at each of the
verticals. If there is considerable curvature in the lower part of the vertical velocity
curve it is advisable to space the observations more closely in that part of the depth.

In the two-point method of measuring velocities, observations are made in each

vertical at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth below the surface. The average of these two
observations is used as the mean velocity in the vertical.

In the sixth-tenth depth method, an observation of velocity made at 0.6 of the depth below
the water surface in the vertical is used as the mean velocity in the vertical. Actual
observation and mathematical theory has shown that the 0.6-depth method gives reliable
results.

The two-tenths-depth method consists of observing the velocity at 0.2 of the depth below
the surface and applying a coefficient to this observed velocity to obtain the mean in the
vertical It is used mainly during times of high water when the velocities are great, making it
impossible to obtain soundings or to place the meter at the 0.8 or 0.6 depth.

The three-point method consists of observing the velocity at 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8 of the
depth, thereby combining the two-point and six-tenth depth methods. The preferred
method of computing the mean velocity is to average the 0.2 and 0.8-depth observations
and then average this result with the six-tenth depth observation. However, when more
weight to the 0.2 and 0.8-depth observations is desired, the arithmetical mean of the three
observations may be used

Surface and subsurface methods consist of observing the velocity at the water surface or
some distance below the water surface. Surface measurements may be made with the
optical current meter or by observing and timing surface floats. Subsurface
measurements are made with a current meter at a distance of at least 0.6 m below the surface
to avoid the effect of surface disturbances. Surface and subsurface measurements are used

60
primarily for deep swift streams where it is impossible or dangerous to obtain depth and
velocity soundings at the regular 0.2, 0.6 and 0.8-depths.

In the integration method the meter is lowered in the vertical to the bed of the stream
and then raised to the surface at a uniform rate. During this passage of the meter the total
number of revolutions and the total elapsed time are used with the current meter rating table
to obtain the mean velocity in the vertical. The integration method cannot be used with a
vertical axis current meter because the vertical movement of the meter affects the motion of
the rotor.

In general, to measure the velocity, first we need to measure depth in each vertical cross
section and recorded as data required for the respective method. After the depth at a
vertical is measured and recorded determine the method of velocity measurement.
Normally the two-point method or the 0.6-depth method is used. Compute the setting of the
meter for the particular method to be used at that depth. Record the meter position as 0.8,
0.6, 0.2 or some other setting that might be used. After the meter is placed at the proper depth
let it adjust to the current before starting the velocity observation. The time required for such
adjustment is usually only a few seconds if the velocities are greater than about 0.3 m/s
but for lower velocities, particularly if the current meter is suspended by a cable, a longer
period is needed. After the meter has become adjusted to the current, count the
number of revolutions made by the rotor for a period of 40 to 70 seconds. Start the
stopwatch simultaneously with the first signal or click, counting zero, not one. End the
count on a convenient number given in the meter rating table column heading. Stop the
stopwatch on that count and read the time to the nearest second or to the nearest even second
if the hand is on a half-second mark. Record the number of revolutions and the time interval.
If the velocity is to be observed at more than one point in the vertical, determine the meter
setting for the additional observation, set the meter to that depth, time the revolutions and
record the data.

Computation of discharge

The total discharge for a current meter measurement is the summation of the products
of the partial areas of the stream cross section and their respective average velocities. The
equation is as follow:
𝑛𝑛

𝑄𝑄 = � 𝑎𝑎𝑖𝑖 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.1

𝑖𝑖=1
where Q = total discharge, in cubic meters per second (m3/s), ai = cross-section area, in
square meters (m2), for the ith segment of the n segments into which the cross section is
divided, and vi = the correspond-ing mean velocity, in meters per second (m/s) of the flow
normal to the ith segment, or vertical.

By using the cross section in figure 1, at each cross section the velocities are measured to
obtain the mean vertical velocity. The partial discharge is now computed for each partial
section as:
�𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 − 𝑏𝑏(𝑖𝑖−1) � �𝑏𝑏(𝑖𝑖+1) − 𝑏𝑏𝑖𝑖 �
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 � + � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.2
2 2

61
 �𝑏𝑏(𝑖𝑖+1) − 𝑏𝑏(𝑖𝑖−1) �
𝑞𝑞𝑖𝑖 = 𝑣𝑣𝑖𝑖 � � 𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑖 … … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.3
2
where qi = discharge through partial section i, vi = mean velocity at location i, bi =
distance from initial point to location i, b(i-1) = distance from initial point to preceding
location, b(i+1) = distance from initial point to next location, di = depth of water at
location i.

The summation of the discharges for all the partial sections is the total discharge of the
stream.

7.2 Discharge by float method

Use the floats

Floats have very limited use in stream gauging, but they can be used where flood
measurements are needed and the measuring structure has been destroyed or it is
impossible to use a meter. Both surfaces float and rod floats are used. Surface floats may be
almost anything that floats such as wooden disks, bottles partly filled, or oranges. Floating
debris or ice cakes may serve as natural floats. Rod floats are usually made of wood,
weighted on one end so they will float upright in the stream Rod. Floats are sometimes
made in sections so their length can be adjusted to fit the stream depth, however care
should be observed so they do not touch the streambed.

Two cross sections are selected along a reach of straight channel for a float measurement.
The cross sections should be far enough apart so that the time the float takes to pass from one
cross section to the other can be measured accurately. A travel-time of at least 20 seconds is
recommended, but a shorter time can be used on small streams with high velocities
where it is impossible to select an adequate length of straight channel. The edge of water
for both cross sections should be referenced to stakes (or other markers) on each bank. Those
points will be used at a later date, when conditions permit, to survey cross sections of the
measurement reach, and to obtain the distance between cross sections. The surveyed cross
sections will be used to determine the average cross section for the reach.

The procedure for a float measurement is to distribute a number of floats uniformly

over the stream width, noting the position of each with respect to the bank. They
should be placed far enough upstream from the first cross section so they attain the
velocity of the stream before they reach the first cross section. A stopwatch is used to time
their travel between the two cross sections. The distance of each float from the bank as it
passes the second cross section should also be noted.

The procedure for computing discharge is similar to that for a conventional current meter
measurement. The discharge in each partial section is computed by multiplying the average
area of the partial section by the mean velocity in the vertical for that partial section. The total
discharge is equal to the sum of the discharges for all the partial sections.

The amount of water passing a point on the stream channel during a given time is a function
of velocity and cross-sectional area of the flowing water.

62
 Q = AV………………………………….Equation 7.4
where Q is stream discharge (volume/time), A is cross-sectional area, and V is flow velocity

To use this method we need to prepare the equipment such as:

• tape measure
• stop-watch
• rod, yard or meter stick to measure depth
• at least three highly visible buoyant objects such as a drifting branches or logs, pine cone,
coffee stir sticks, half-filled bottles, or oranges (objects buoyant enough not to be effected
by the wind)
• stakes for anchoring tape measure to stream banks
• Waders

Float method – inexpensive and simple. This method measures surface velocity. Mean
velocity is obtained using a correction factor. The basic idea is to measure the time that it
takes the object to float a specified distance downstream.

Vsurface = travel distance/ travel time = L/t…………….Equation 7.5

Because surface velocities are typically higher than mean or average velocities
V mean = k* Vsurface

where k is a coefficient that generally ranges from 0.8 for rough beds to 0.9 for smooth beds
(0.85 is a commonly used value)

In the field, following is the step to measure the velocity using the float.

- Choose a suitable straight reach with minimum turbulence (ideally at least 3 channel
widths long).
- Mark the start and end point of your reach.
- If possible, travel time should exceed 20 seconds.
- Drop your object into the stream upstream of your upstream marker.
- Start the watch when the object crosses the upstream marker and stop the watch when it
crosses the downstream marker.
- You should repeat the measurement at least 3 times and use the average in further
calculations.
- Measure stream’s width and depth across at least one cross section where it is safe to
wade. If possible, measure depth across the stream's width at the start and stop markers
and average the two but if measuring one cross section choose the downstream side. Use
a marked rod, a yard or meter stick to measure the depth at regular intervals across the
stream. Ten depth measurements is the minimum required but more is better, especially
in larger streams. Or another method, walk heal to toe, and measure stream depth every
left big toe, along the downstream cross section. Average your cross-sectional areas (A):
Using the average area and corrected velocity, you can now compute discharge, Q.

63
Q = Cross section area (A) * mean velocity (V)

Essentially the cross section technique estimates each of the terms on the right hand side of
the equation(s) and multiplies them together. The cross section area of the channel is
estimated at a transect, across which water depth and average water column velocities are
measured at a series of points (verticals).

Tracer technique

Measuring the dilution of a known volume of conservative tracer is the basis of dilution-
gauging methods. One method called “slug injection” which is use mass of dissolved NaCl
tracer. A slug is a near instantaneous addition of a highly concentrated conservative tracer
solution. As the tracer moves downstream, a concentration-time profile known as a break-
through-curve (BTC) is recorded by sampling through time at a single downstream
monitoring location.

The discharge measurement is made using the following equation.

𝑀𝑀
𝑄𝑄 = 𝑡𝑡 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.6
∫0 𝐶𝐶(𝑡𝑡)

where, Q is discharge [M3/T], M is the injective mass [M], C is concentration [M/L3], and t
is time [T].

The denominator term on the right side of the above equation is a simple integration (area
under the curve) of the BTC, commonly known as the zero-th moment.

Two large assumptions are made when using this equation to estimate discharge from a slug
injection. First, we assume that all of the injected mass was recovered at the downstream
sampling location. Second, the tracer is completely mixed across the channel when it passes
the downstream sampling location. The nature of these two assumptions places emphasis on
choosing an acceptable reach length (distance from injection location to sampling location).
Therefore, the reach must not to be too long, where tracer might be removed by flow paths
which exit the spatial extent of the reach completely; the reach length is not to be too short,
such that the injection is not well mixed (both laterally and vertically) at the sampling
location. The procedures:

64
• Launch conductivity loggers to continuously sample at the downstream location. By
continuously sampling conductivity, we can make a simple conversion to NaCl
concentration using a laboratory-established relationship.
• After the logger is launched and logging, tie a bright piece of flagging to the logger and
position it in the downstream sampling location. Position the logger such that
measurements are made at approx 50% of the water depth. Record the river location of
the downstream sampling site.
• Once the downstream site is all set, move upstream to the injection location and mix the
injectate. Given the small nature of our stream, pour a pre-measured mass of NaCl into
the bucket, being sure to record the NaCl mass
• Inject the dissolved tracer by quickly pouring the bucket’s contents across the width of
the stream. Be sure to record the approximate time of injection.
• Immediately after pouring the injectate into the stream, rinse both the bucket and the
mixing stick in the stream water. This will ensure all the NaCl mass makes it into the
stream.
• Wait for the injection to completely pass the downstream location and the stream
concentration to return to ambient conditions before removing the data logger and
downloading its data. Bringing a handheld conductivity logger into the field is an easy
way to tell if the stream has returned to ambient conditions following the injection.
• Once the data is off the data logger and safely saved, you are ready to return to the lab
and process the data.

7.3 Computations of discharge by indirect methods

In some situation, for example flood, it is frequently impossible or impractical to measure

the peak discharges when they occur, because of limitation of access, personnel as well as the
measurement instruments.

Therefore, the peak discharge must be determined after the flood passes by indirect methods
such as slope-area, contracted-opening, flow-over-dam or flow-through-culvert.

Field survey

The data required for the computation of discharge by indirect methods are obtained by
surveying a reach of channel. The survey includes the elevation and location of high-water
marks corresponding to the peak stage; cross-sections of the channel along the reach;
selection of roughness coefficients; and description of the geometry of dams, culverts, or
bridges, depending on the type of peak-discharge determination to be made. The selection
of a suitable site is an important element in the application of each of the indirect
methods of discharge determination.

It is recommended that a surveying instrument such as a total-station be used to make the

survey of the selected site. That type of instrument combines vertical and horizontal control
surveys in one operation and is accurate, simple and speedy. All data are automatically
recorded electronically for easy plotting and analysis.
Slope-area measurements

65
The slope-area method is one of the most commonly used techniques of indirect discharge
determination. In the slope-area method, discharge is computed on the basis of a
uniform-flow equation involving channel characteristics, water-surface profiles and a
roughness or retardation coefficient. The drop in water-surface profile for a uniform reach
of channel represents energy losses caused by bed and bank roughness. In applying the slope-
area method, any one of the well-known variations of the Chezy equation may be used.
However, the Manning equation is preferred in most countries because it is simple to apply,
and the many years of experience in its use have shown that it produces reliable results

Measurement of flow through culverts

The peak discharge through culverts can be determined from high-water marks that define the
head-water and tail-water elevations. This indirect method is used extensively to measure
flood discharges from small drainage areas.

The placement of a roadway fill and culvert in a stream channel causes an abrupt
change in the character of flow. This channel transition results in rapidly varied flow where
acceleration, rather than boundary friction, plays the primary role. The flow in the approach
channel to the culvert is usually tranquil and fairly uniform. However, within the culvert
the flow may be tranquil, critical, or rapid if the culvert is partially filled, or the culvert may
flow full under pressure.

The peak discharge through a culvert is determined by application of the continuity equation
and the energy equation between the approach section and a section within the culvert barrel.
The location of the downstream section depends on the state of flow in the culvert
barrel. For example, if critical flow occurs at the culvert entrance, the head-water elevation
is not a function of either the barrel friction loss or the tailwater elevation, and the
terminal section is located at the upstream end of the culvert.

Measurement of flow through width contractions

The contraction of a stream channel by a bridge creates an abrupt drop in water-

surface elevation between an approach section and the contracted section under the
bridge. The contracted section framed by the bridge abutments and the channel bed is in a
sense a discharge meter that can be utilized to compute flood-flows. The head on the
contracted section is defined by high-water marks and the geometry of the channel and bridge
is defined by field surveys.
In computations of peak discharge at a contraction, the drop in water-surface level between
an upstream section and a contracted section is related to the corresponding change in
velocity. The discharge equation results from writing the energy and continuity
equations for the reach between these two sections, designated as sections 1 and 3 in the
below figure.

66
 Fig. 7.2 Sketch of open channel contraction

The discharge equation is

𝑉𝑉12
𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐴𝐴3 �2𝑔𝑔(∆ℎ + 𝛼𝛼1 − ℎ𝑓𝑓 ) … … … … … … … … … … … 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.7
2𝑔𝑔

where Q = discharge; g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 ms2); C = coefficient of

discharge based on the geometry of the bridge and embankment; A3 = gross area of section
3, this is the minimum section parallel to the constriction between the abutments and it is
not necessarily located at the downstream side of the bridge, hf = the head loss caused by
friction between sections 1 and 3.

Measurement of flow over dams and highway embankments

The peak discharge over a dam or weir can be determined on the basis of a field survey of
high-water marks and the geometry of the particular structure. The terms dam and weir are
used interchangeably. The basic equation for flow over a dam is:

𝑄𝑄 = 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐻𝐻 3/2 … … … … … … … … … … … … … … . 𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸𝐸 7.8

where Q = discharge; C = a coefficient of discharge having the dimensions of the square

root of the acceleration of gravity; b = width of the dam normal to the flow, excluding the
width of piers, if any, and H = total energy head (h + V2a / 2g) referred to the crest of
the dam, where h = static head, and Va = mean velocity at the approach section to the
dam.

67
 References

Sauer, V. B., Turnipseed. 2010: Stage measurement at Gaging stations, Chapter 7 of Book,
Section A. United States Geological Survey (USGS)
World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Manual of Stram Gauging, Chapter 5 and 8;
WMO – No. 1044, Geneva

68
Chapter 8 : Validation of flow data

69
The discharge is computed from the measured stage and the stage-discharge relationship. The
quality and reliability therefore depends upon the accuracy and quality of stage measurement
and the stage-discharge relationship which is being used. In addition, the use of wrong stage
discharge relationship and use of wrong units also leads to error in discharge, producing
discontinuity in discharge series. So, the validation of discharge is designed to identify such
problems by comparing the time series with neighboring stations as well as primarily by
checking against data limits.

8.1 Single station validation

8.1.1 Validation against data limits

Data will be checked against upper and lower boundary and the data that falls beyond this
specified limit are flagged for inspection. Also the data may be checked for the rate of
change.
• Absolute boundaries- The upper and lower boundaries are fixed using the absolute values
of the data series from the past. But, the actual extremes may sometimes be outside the
limit which should be taken care.
• Relative boundaries- The boundaries are fixed using mean and standard deviation of the
data series, i.e. Upper boundary = Mean + alpha* sd, Lower boundary = Mean – beta*sd.
The constant alpha and beta are fixed for the river basins.
• Rate of change- The difference between successive observations will be observed and
checked against a fixed value. If the change exceeds the value, the data is flagged for
inspection.

8.1.2 Graphical validation

The discharge plots are displayed for graphical validation which is rapid and effective in
detecting anomalies in data series. It is widely applied validation procedure. In the graphical
representation of discharge data, the units of data may be directly used as measured, as well
as the value may be log transformed if the variation of magnitude is of higher order.

The absolute and relative limits can be shown in the graphical display of discharge which will
be better in comparison than tables. The graphical validation checks for any abrupt
discontinuities in the data which are against expected hydrological behavior.

The figure given below shows the time series plot for checking streamflow data. The graphs
show:
• Use of incorrect stage-discharge relation for a part of year
• Use of incorrect units for some part
• Abrupt discontinuity in unrealistic recession
• Isolated highs and lows of unknown source

70
Fig. 8.1 Time series plot for checking streamflow data (Source: Guide to Hydrological
practices, WMO No. 168)

8.1.3 Validation of regulated rivers

In the rivers which are not completely natural (i.e. affected artificially to some extent), the
natural pattern cannot be observed completely due to artificial influences within the basin.
The influence can be observed in low and medium flows whereas high flows are mostly
unaffected. For the validation in such rivers with artificial influences, the location, magnitude
and the affect of such influences should be taken into account to identify the data to be
flagged for inspection.

8.2 Multiple station validation

8.2.1 Comparison plots

The difference in time series can be identified simply by plotting a comparative time series.
Although, there will be difference between time series from two different stations as
contributing catchment area and rainfall over the basins may be different, the gross difference
can be identified. The comparison of the sequential stations on the same river is very useful.
In order to ensure that different batch of data of a station contains no discontinuity; for

71
examining the current data, the plot should include the time series of at least previous month.
If the plot shows the similar behavior in two or more stations regarding the flagged data (e.g.
an extreme flood peak beyond pre-defined boundary), such data may be accepted.
Although, comparison plot is used in identifying the differences in time series, it does not
correct them if needed. It is useful to check the flagged data as well as to identify if wrong
data is allocated to a station.

Fig. 8.2 Plot of multiple discharge series of adjacent stations (source: Training module
SWDP-36, 1999)

8.2.2 Residual series

The comparative time series can also be expressed by plotting the difference of time series.
This method may be applied to the river flows along the channel to detect deviation in water
balance. However, this can also be plotted along with comparison plot. Water balances are
made of discharge series of successive stations along a river or of stations around a junction,
where there should be surplus, balance or deficit depending on whether water is added or lost.
Any anomalous behavior should be further investigated.

72
Fig. 8.3 Example of water balance between two stations (source: Training module SWDP-36,
1999)

8.2.3 Double mass curves

Streamflow record to be used in any analysis should be checked for consistency, and the
cause of any inconsistency investigated. Inconsistency can be due to a change in the method
of collecting streamflow data or to major changes in water use, storage, or evapotranspiration
in the basin. The double mass curve can be use to check for inconsistencies in streamflow
records in much the same manner as it is used to check for inconsistencies in precipitation
records.

Cumulative runoff at one station is plotted against average cumulative runoff for a group of
stations. If the resulting curve shows a break in slope, then the streamflow records are to be
checked for the inconsistencies.

Although the inconsistencies in the record may be detected by double-mass curve analysis,
the correction is not done by this method (as done in rainfall data). Instead, the adjustment
should be based on other analyses made after a probable source of inconsistency has been
found. If the cause of inconsistency cannot be identified, then adjustment is not done on the
record.

73
 References

World Bank, 1999: Training module SWDP -36; How to carry out secondary validation of
discharge data. DHV consultants BV, New Delhi
World Meteorological Organization, 1994: Guide to Hydrological Practices. Fifth Edition,
Chapter 30, WMO-No. 168, Geneva.
Searcy, J.K., and Hardison, C.H., 1960: Manual of Hydrology:Part-1.General Surface-Water
Techniques(Geological survey water supply paper 1541-B), United States Government
Printing Office, Washington.

74
Chapter 9: Establishing stage-discharge rating curve

75
9.1 Importance of stage-discharge rating curve
Discharge records in the gauging stations are generally computed by applying a discharge
rating for the site to a continuous or periodic record of stage. A stage-discharge rating curve
is the relation between the discharge at the gauging station and the stage or the other variables
as a rate change in the variables.

A rating analysis is basically a process in which the data from a series of discharge
measurements are plotted on graph paper, a curve defined by the measurements drawn,
and a table prepared from the curve. Other data items might include bank full stage,
the dates of artificial changes to the channel or of floods that may have scoured or
filled the channel, notes describing the presence or absence of backwater sources, and
field surveys or other information defining the general shape of the rating curve.

Most ratings relate discharge to gage height only and are called simple ratings. A
simple rating may be only one curve but is more often a compound curve consisting of
three segments, one each for the low-, medium-, and high-water (or overbank) ranges.
These segments of a compound curve may be connected by short transition curves. A
complex rating is one that relates discharge to stage plus some other independent
variable, usually either the rate of change in stage at one gage or the fall in a reach
between two gages. Complex ratings usually have a stage-discharge relation curve plus one
or more supplementary curves.

The discharge rating is used for the condition as the control of the channel. The relation of
stage to discharge is usually controlled by a section or reach of channel below the
gage, known as the station control, which eliminates the effect of all other downstream
conditions on the velocity of flow at the gage. A discharge rating is often a compound
curve consisting of three segments-one for low flow (section control), one for medium
flow (channel control),and one for overbank high-water flow (combined channel and
flood-plain control). On the other hand, the rating curve is used to fit the data more closely
if one or two of the discharge measurements were eliminated from the analysis.
Sometimes an outlier measurement is obviously and seriously in error, but, often, the
measurement is satisfactory and important to the rating analysis.

9.2 Factors affecting stage discharge curve

A simple stage discharge relation is one where discharge depends upon stage only. A
complex rating curve occurs where additional variables such as the slope of the energy line or
the rate of change of stage with respect to time are required to define the relationship. The
need for a particular type of rating curve can be ascertained by first plotting the observed
stage and discharge data on a simple orthogonal plot. The scatter in the plot gives a fairly
good assessment of the type of stage-discharge relationship required for the cross section. If
there is negligible scatter in the plotted points and it is possible to draw a smooth single
valued curve through the plotted points then a simple rating curve is required. There are
several factors affecting the stage discharge curve such as:

• The station is affected by the variable backwater conditions arising due for example to
tidal influences or to high flows in a tributary joining downstream

76
• The stage discharge rating is affected by the variation in the local acceleration due to
unsteady flow. In such case, the plotted points can be annotated with the corresponding
rate of change of slope with respect to time.
• The stage discharge rating is affected by scouring of the bed or changes in vegetation
characteristics
• The attributed to the observational errors. Such errors can occur due to non-standard
procedures for stage discharge observations.

9.3 Types of stage discharge curve fitting

9.3.1 Fitting of single channel simple rating curve

Single channel simple rating curve is fitted in those circumstances when the flow is contained
the main channel section and can be assumed to be fairly steady. There is no indication of any
backwater affecting the relationship. The bed of the river also does not significantly change
so as create any shifts in the stage discharge relationship. The scatter plot of the stage and
discharge data shows a very little scatter if the observational errors are not significant. The
scatter plot of stage discharge data in such situations. The fitting of simple rating curves can
conveniently be considered under the following headings:
• equations used and their physical basis

Two types of algebraic equations are commonly fitted to stage discharge data are:
• Power type equation which is most commonly used
• Parabolic type of equation\
• determination of datum correction(s)

The datum correction (a) corresponds to that value of water level for which the flow is zero.
• number and range of rating curve segments
• determination of rating curve coefficients
• estimation of uncertainty in the stage discharge relationship

9.3.2 Compound channel rating curve

If the flood plains carry flow over the full cross section, the discharge (for very wide
channels) consists of two parts: The river and floodplain. The rating curve for this situation of
a compound channel is determined by considering the flow through the floodplain portion
separately. This is done to avoid large values of the exponent b and extremely low values for
the parameter c in the power equation for the rating curve in the main channel portion.

77
 Fig. 9.1 Rating curve for compound cross-section

9.3.3 Rating curve with backwater correction

When the control at the gauging station is influenced by other controls downstream, then the
unique relationship between stage and discharge at the gauging station is not maintained.
Backwater is an important consideration in streamflow site selection and sites having
backwater effects should be avoided if possible. However, many existing stations in India are
subject to variable backwater effects and require special methods of discharge determination.

Typical examples of backwater effects on gauging stations and the rating curve are as
follows:
• by regulation of water course downstream.
• level of water in the main river at the confluence downstream
• level of water in a reservoir downstream
• variable tidal effect occurring downstream of a gauging station
• downstream constriction with a variable capacity at any level due to weed growth etc.
• rivers with return of overbank flow

Backwater from variable controls downstream from the station influences the water surface
slope at the station for given stage. When the backwater from the downstream control results
in lowering the water surface slope, a smaller discharge passes through the gauging station
for the same stage. On the other hand, if the surface slope increases, as in the case of sudden
drawdown through a regulator downstream, a greater discharge passes for the same stage.
The presence of backwater does not allow the use of a simple unique rating curve. Variable
backwater causes a variable energy slope for the same stage. Discharge is thus a function of
both stage and slope and the relation is termed as slope-stage-discharge relation.
78
 Fig 9.2 Rating shape by step-backwater method

9.3.4 Rating curve with unsteady flow correction

Gauging stations not subjected to variable slope because of backwater may still be affected
by variations in the water surface slope due to high rates of change in stage. This occurs when
the flow is highly unsteady and the water level is changing rapidly. At stream gauging
stations located in a reach where the slope is very flat, the stage-discharge relation is
frequently affected by the superimposed slope of the rising and falling limb of the passing
flood wave. During the rising stage, the velocity and discharge are normally greater than they
would be for the same stage under steady flow conditions. Similarly, during the falling stage
the discharge is normally less for any given gauge height than it is when the stage is constant.
This is due to the fact that the approaching velocities in the advancing portion of the wave are
larger than in a steady uniform flow at the corresponding stages. In the receding phase of the
flood wave the converse situation occurs with reduced approach velocities giving lower
discharges than in equivalent steady state case.

Thus, the stage discharge relationship for an unsteady flow will not be a single-valued
relationship as in steady flow but it will be a looped curve as shown in the example below.
The looping in the stage discharge curve is also called hysteresis in the stage-discharge
relationship. From the curve it can be easily seen that at the same stage, more discharge
passes through the river during rising stages than in the falling ones.

79
 References

Sauer, V. B., Turnipseed. 2010: Stage measurement at Gaging stations, Chapter 7 of Book,
Section A. United States Geological Survey (USGS)
World Meteorological Organization, 2010: Manual of Stram Gauging, Chapter 5 and 8;
WMO – No. 1044, Geneva

80
Chapter 10: Analysis of discharge data

81
10.1 Computation of basic statistics

Basic statistics which are commonly used to analyse discharge data or any other data series
are briefly described below:

• Arithmetic mean: Mean flow is the basic statistics of a flow. It is the area under the
hydrograph (time series plot of river discharge) divided by the length of the hydrograph.
The unit of discharge is L/s or m3/s (cumecs). Depth of runoff which is the mean flow
divided by the catchment area is easy to compare with other catchment variables such as
rainfall or evapotranspiration. The arithmetic mean is calculated as follows:
1 N
X = ∑ X i ………………………………………Equation 10.1
N i =1
where, Xi is any discharge at time interval i and N is the number of observation

• Median flow: Median flow is the flow that is equaled or exceeded half the time over the
period of analysis. It varies from mean as the flow is not a normally distributed quantity.

• Mode: It is the value of discharge X which occurs with greatest frequency.

• Standard deviation: The standard deviation of any parameter show how the value
deviates from its average values. A low standard deviation indicates that the data points
tend to be very close to the mean (also called expected value) whereas; a high standard
deviation indicates that the data points are spread out over a large range of values.
Standard deviation is calculated by the formula:

Sx =
∑(X i − X )2
……………………………..Equation 10.2
N −1

• Skewness: It measures how much the data is being deviated from a symmetrical
distribution. The skewness can be positive or negative or undefined. Different measures of
skewness are as follows:
- Karl Pearson’s mode or first skewness coefficient = (mean-mode)/standard
deviation
- Karl Pearson’s median or second skewness coefficient = 3(mean- mode)/ standard
deviation
- The adjusted Fisher-Pearson standardized moment coefficient is used mostly in
excel, SPSS etc.

 xi − x 
n 3
n
G= ∑
(n − 1)(n − 2) i =1  s 
…………………………Equation 10.3

Where, n is the sample size and s is the standard deviation.

82
• Kurtosis of peakedness of a distribution: It defines the peakedness of the probability
distribution of a variable. It is given by;

( X i − X ) ………………………Equation 10.4
4
( N 2 − 2 N + 3) N
Kx = ∑
( N − 1)( N − 2)( N − 3) i =1 S x4

10.2 Empirical frequency distributions and cumulative frequency distributions

The flow duration curves (FDCs) help in studying the variability of discharge. It is popularly
used in most of the hydrological analysis. Its uses are as follows:

• It helps to evaluate the dependable flows in the water resources planning and projects.
• It helps to evaluate the potential of any hydropower projects.
• It helps to design drainage system, flood control systems etc.
• It helps to assess the impact of river discharge and its abstraction in the ecology of the
river system.
• It helps to compute sediment and nutrient loads of the river.

Flow duration curve (FDC) represents the relationship between magnitude and frequency of
the river discharge. It is a plot of discharge against the percentage of time when the flow was
equaled or exceeded. FDC is the complement of the cumulative distribution function (cdf) of
daily river discharge.

The flow duration curve analysis can be done by following the procedure below:

Let us assume the number of years of flow record is N from any river gauge station. So there
are 365n daily mean discharges. Refer to table 1 as an example.
• The number of occurrence or frequency of discharge is counted (col. 2) for a particular
class.
• The class frequencies are arranged from the highest to the lowest one. The frequencies
are added as cumulative frequencies (col. 3).
• The percentage of the cumulative frequency is then calculated (col. 4). The percentage
frequency represents the percentage of time that discharge equals or exceed the lower
value of the discharge class interval.
• Discharge is then plotted against the percentage of time (Figure 1)
• The flow duration curve is further improved by plotting the cumulative discharge
frequencies on a log probability scale. (Figure 2) If the daily flows are log normally
distributed, they will be a straight line in the plot.
The slope of the flow duration curves indicates the response characteristics of a river. Steep
sloped curves indicate highly variable discharge while flat sloped curves indicate little
variation in the flow regime. The FDC does not represent any chronological sequence.

83
Table 10. 1 Determination of flow frequencies for constructing flow duration graph

Daily discharge class Frequency Cumulative frequency Percentage cumulative

frequency: (m/(n+1))
1 2 3 4
Above 260 3 3 0.24
210-260 5 8 0.64
155-210 16 24 1.92
120-155 34 58 4.65
105-120 30 88 7.05
95-105 50 138 11.06
85-95 48 186 14.90
75-85 45 231 18.51
65-75 55 286 22.92
50-65 72 358 28.69
47-50 80 438 35.10
42-47 73 511 40.95
37-42 84 595 47.68
32-37 103 698 55.93
26-32 152 850 68.11
21-25 128 978 78.37
16-21 141 1119 89.66
11--16 120 1239 99.28
Below 11 8 1247 99.92
Total days = 1247

350

300

250
Discharge (m3/s)

200

150

100

50

0
0.00 20.00 40.00 60.00 80.00 100.00 120.00

Percentage of time that the discharge is equalled or exceeded

Fig. 10.1 Flow duration curve plotted in normal scale

84
 Fig. 10.2 Sample of flow duration curve plotted in log-probability scale

10.3 Fitting of frequency distributions

Theoretical frequency distributions are mostly used to study the extreme events such as flood
or drought. Generally, two extreme cases of discharge are to be analysed in hydrology. One is
maximum of a series, which gives the maximum instantaneous discharge of a monthly, or
seasonal or annual series. The detail study can be done by analyzing maximum daily
instantaneous discharge. Other is a minimum of series which gives the minimum value of
series among the events. Normally, daily mean of periodic mean is considered for analysis.

For an instance, in case of flooding, the main objective of flood frequency analysis is to
assess the maximum probable maximum flood for a given return period or for a given
probability.

There are many frequency distributions for extreme events which are listed below:
• Normal and log-normal distributions and 3-parameter log-normal
• Pearson Type III or Gamma distribution
• Log-Pearson Type III
• Extreme Value type I (Gumbel), II, or III and General extreme value (GEV)
• Logistic and General logistic
• Goodrich/Weibull distribution
• Exponential distribution
• Pareto distribution
Different distributions fit in different sets of data. Since it is not clear that which distribution
fits which sets of data, the best sets of distribution can be chosen by keeping in mind

85
thelocation of place, physical characteristics of the area and with experience of frequency
distributions analysis in nearby areas.

10.4 Time series analysis

This test is carried out to test the variability, homogeneity of a trend of the flow series. It can
be done by four different ways:

• Moving averages
• Mass curves
• Residual mass curves
• Balances

10.4.1 Moving averages

Moving averages also called rolling average or rolling mean are useful to investigate the long
term variability or trends in series. A moving average series Yi of any series Xi is calculated
as follows:
j= i+M
1
Yi = ∑ X j ……………………………..Equation 10.5
(2 M + 1) j = i − M

Here, the average takes place over 2M+1 elements.

A sample example is shown in Table 2 and Fig. 3.

Table 10.2 Computation of moving average

Year Annual runoff (mm) Totals for moving average Moving average
Xi-1+Xi+Xi+1 Yi= Column 3/ 3
1 2 3 4
1980 270
1981 320 270+320+340=930 310.0
1982 340 320+340+250=910 303.3
1983 250 340+250+305=895 298.3
1984 305 250+305+300=855 285.0
1985 300 305+300+500=1105 368.3
1986 500 300+500+430=1230 410.0
1987 430 500+430+650=1580 526.7
1988 650 430+650+550=1630 543.3
1989 550 650+550+800=2000 666.7
1990 800 550+800+360=1710 570.0
1991 360 800+360+395=1555 518.3
1992 395 360+395+435=1190 396.7
1993 435 395+435+530=1360 453.3
1994 530 435+530+290=1255 418.3
1995 290 530+290+420=1240 413.3

86
1996 420 290+420+560=1270 423.3
1997 560 420+560++380=1360 453.3
1998 380

900 Original data

800 3 Years Moving

Average
700
Annual Runoff (mm)

600
500
400
300
200
100
0
1978 1983 1988 1993 1998

Time in years

Fig. 10.3 Moving average plot of annual runoff

10.4.2 Mass curves

Mass curve is the graph in which the cumulative of monthly data are plotted against time.
The mass curves of the cumulative flow volumes as function of time can be used to determine
the critical period of a reservoir showing the relationship between withdraws and addition to
the reservoir.

Fig. 10.4 Sample of a mass curve

87
10.4.3 Residual mass curves

Residual mass curve is the plot of the cumulative deviations of the data from the arithmetic
average of the series. Mean flow data is subtracted from each daily flow data and then plotted
as the accumulated residuals against time. It is shown in figure 5.

Fig. 10.5 Example of a residual curve

10.4.4 Balances

This method of analysis is used to check whether mass conservation is taking place or not in
the study. Water balances are required at series of successive stations along the river or
different stations around a junction. In hydrology, a water balance equation can be used to
describe the flow of water in and out of a system. A simple water balance equation is

P = Q+E+∆S………………………..Equation 10.6

Where, P is precipitation, Q is runoff, E is evapotranspiration and ∆S is the change in storage.

Water balance can be used in water supply system to predict water deficit situation, in
irrigation system, flood control systems and others.

Water balance method has four characteristics features:

• A water balance can be assessed for any subsystem of a hydrological cycle, for any
period of time and any size of area.
• It allows checking whether flow or other storage components are considered
quantitatively or not.
• It can help in calculation one unknown component of a water balance equation,
provided that other components are unknown.

88
• It can be used as a model in order to predict the effect of one component on other
components in the system and subsystem.

10.5 Regression/relation curves

Regression or relation curves are used for calibration and validation of the data records. The
regression curve is a smooth curve that is fitted to the set of paired data in regression analysis.
For linear regression, the curve is a straight line. In regression analysis, the relation is made
between dependent variable Yi (the one we want to estimate) with the independent variable
Xi.
In the given example (table 3 and figure 6), the regression relation between runoff and
rainfall is established by plotting then in a graph and finding the relationship equation. A
simple regression equation is established for R = f (P). The regression equation is R = -530 +
1.025xP, with σε = 130 mm and the coefficient of determination r2 = 0.75.

Table 10.3 Data of annual rainfall and runoff of a station

Year Rainfall Runoff Year Rainfall Runoff Year Rainfall Runoff

(mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm)
1961 1130 592 1968 1540 816 1975 1600 1340
1962 1280 832 1969 990 456 1976 1300 870
1963 1270 768 1970 1190 780 1977 1490 1060
1964 1040 488 1971 1520 1090
1965 1080 472 1972 1370 960
1966 1150 656 1973 1650 1240
1967 1670 872 1974 1510 1030

Fig. 10.6 Rainfall-runoff regression analysis

89
10.6 Double mass analysis

Double mass curve is a simple, visual and practical method. It is popularly used in the study
of the consistency and long-term trend test of hydro-meteorological data. This method was
first used to analyze the consistency of precipitation data in Susquehanna watershed United
States by Merriam at 1937 (Merriam, 1937). The theory of the double-mass curve is based on
the principle that a plot of the two cumulative quantities during the same period exhibits a
straight line so long as the proportionality between the two remains unchanged, and the slope
of the line represents the proportionality. It can smooth the time series and suppress random
elements in the series, and thus show the main trends of the time series.
It is used to analyse the data and observe the data are correct or not and if there is necessity of
any corrections to be made in data collection procedure or any other location. If there is any
break in the slope of double mass curve, it represents that there has been the change in
proportionality between two variables.

In using the double-mass curve, we assume that the relation between quantities X and Y can
be expressed by a line having an equation of the form Y= bX, where b is the slope of the
double-mass curve. This assumption is substantially correct for relations involving only
precipitation data but is not true for many of the relations involving discharge data or for
relations between precipitation and discharge.

The flow of a river is a sensitive indicator of climatic variations. It is due to the fact that
runoff is the residual of precipitation after the demands for evapotranspiration are fulfilled.
With loss in evapotranspiration, variation in annual runoff becomes wider in compared to
annual rainfall. Therefore, the consistency of discharge data should be checked for
consistency, and the cause of any inconsistency investigated.

For example, the consistency of the discharge can be checked by comparing it with the
records from a group of other stations lying within same area. To compare the group mean or
pattern, all records should be converted into homogeneous units.
3000
Cumulative Runoff for a stream

2500

2000
Break
X (mm)

1500

1000

500

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500
Cumulative Runoff at base stations (mm)

Fig. 10.7 Double mass curve

90
10.7 Series homogeneity tests
Series homogeneity test is done to analyse the trend or homogeneity of the data sets of flow.
It can be done for climate data as well. Series can be tested graphically to see the trends or
through some statistical hypothesis testing. The following are three main tests that can be
carried out for series homogeneity tests of discharge.
• Student’s t test for the stability of the mean
• Wilcoxon-W test on the difference in the means
• Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test
The inhomogeneity of discharge records can arise from a variety of sources such as data
error, climatic change, changes in land use in the catchment and changes in abstractions and
river regulation

Student’s t test for the stability of the mean

This test is done for checking stability of variance and mean. For a simple example, let us
consider there has not been changed in variance, then the test for stability of the mean
requires computation and then comparing the means of two or three sub-sets of the time
series. The‘t’ value is computed and is compared with the tabulated Student’s ‘t’ which is the
standardised test statistic, for corresponding degrees of freedom, for testing its significance:

| t | = |x1 - x2 | / S12……………………………………………….. Equation 10.7

 (n1 − 1) S12 + (n2 − 1) S 22  1 1  
= and, S1,2  *  + 
 n1 + n 2 −2  n1 n2  
where n1 and n2 are the number of data points in each sub-set, x1 and x2 are the corresponding
means and S12 and S22 are the corresponding variance values.

Wilcoxon-W test on the difference in the means

The Wilcoxon test again tests under the null-hypothesis that the means of two series Ai (i
=1,m) and Bj (j = 1,n) are the same. All values of Ai are compared with all Bj defining a value
of wi,j as follows:
Where Ai < Bj then wi,j = 2
Ai = Bj wi,j = 1
Ai > Bj wi,j = 0

The Wilcoxon statistic W is formed by:

m n
W = ∑∑ wi , j ………………………………………….Equation 10.8
=i 1 =j 1

Where the means are the same the W-statistic is asymptotically normally distributed with N
(µw, σw)
where µw = mn
σw2= mn(N+1)/3
N= m+n
The absolute value of the following standardised test statistic is computed as;

91
 | u | = | W - µw | / σw…………………………………………………….Equation 10.9

and comparison is made against a tabulation of the Normal distribution to test the validity of
the null- hypothesis at the significance level.

Wilcoxon Mann-Whitney U-test

The Wilcoxon-Mann-Whitney U-test investigates whether two series of length m and n are
from the same population. The series may again be split samples from a single series or series
from paired instruments on the same site but as we would hardly expect series from different
sites to be from the same population, this comparison is not recommended for such
comparisons.

The data of both series are ranked together in ascending order. Tied observations are assigned
the average of the tied ranks. The sum of ranks in each of the series, Sm and Sn, is then
calculated. The U statistic is then computed as follows:

Um = mn + m(m + 1) /2 -Sm
Un = mn - Um
U = min (Um, Un)

10.8 Rainfall runoff simulation

A rainfall runoff simulation can be done for data validation. Different hydrological models
available can be used based on the purpose of the study. A hydrological rainfall – runoff
model is used to transform the rainfall over an area of a certain catchment into runoff at a
specific outflow point in the study area. The complex processes in the river flow regime are
simplified in these models. Some examples are Sacramento model, Segment model etc. The
important use of using hydrological model is the filling of missing value of discharge data
and correcting them. It helps to validate discharge series and also predict the discharge from
the synthetic rainfall. It helps in flood forecasting and quantifying the impacts of different
factors on hydrological components and other components of the river system. Different
hydrological models have been developed to simplify the task such as HEC-HMS, HEC-
RAS, SWAT, HYMOS etc.

92
 References
Training modules: Hydrology Project Technical Assistance, 1999.
Manual of Hydrology Part 1: General Surface Water Techniques.
Shaw, E.M. 1994.Hydrology in Practice, Third Edition.
Githui F. W., Opere, A. and Bauwens, W. (n.d): Statistical And Trend Analysis Of Rainfall
And River Discharge : Yala River Basin, Kenya

93
Chapter 11: Rainfall-runoff modeling

94
11.1 Overview of computer models
A model relates the output (unknown) to the input (known) by undergoing many internal
computations. In case of rainfall-runoff modeling, rainfall is the input and we are interested in
runoff which is the considered output variable. The input can also be upstream flow and the
output is downstream flow in particular.

11.1.1 Classification of models

Physical, analog and mathematical models: Physical models are reduced-dimension

representations of real world systems whereas, analog models represents the flow of water
with flow of electricity in a circuit. Mathematical models are defined as an equation or a set
of equations that represent the response of hydrologic system component to a change in hydro
meteorological conditions. Common examples are application in the simulation of open
channel flows and simulating subsurface flows and rainfall-runoff modeling for physical,
analog and mathematical models respectively.

11.1.2 Categories of mathematical models

Event or continuous: An event model simulates a single storm which may range from hours
to few days. A continuous model has the capability to simulate a longer period including both
during and between storm events. This distinction applies primarily to watershed runoff
processes.

Lumped or distributed: A lumped model is one in which spatial variations of characteristics

and processes are averaged or ignored whereas in a distributed model these variations are
considered explicitly. HEC-HMS includes primarily lumped models whereas the ModClark
model is an exception. SWAT is considered as a semi-distributed model.

Empirical or conceptual: An empirical model is built on observation of input and output,

without representing explicitly the process of conversion. Values of model parameters are
determined by calibration. A conceptual model is built based on the knowledge of the
physical, chemical and biological processes that act on the input to produce output. The
model parameters are measurable and observable.

Deterministic or stochastic: In a deterministic model all input, parameters and processes are
considered as free of random variation and known with certainty. Instead if the model
describes random variation is input and output then it is stochastic model. All models
working inside SWAT are deterministic.

Measured or fitted parameters model: In a measured parameter model, the model parameters
can be determined from system properties either by direct or indirect methods of
measurement. In case of a fitted-parameter model, model includes parameters that cannot be
measured. Instead they must be found by fitting the model with the observed values of the
input and the output. Hence, empirical models are fitted-parameter and conceptual models are
measures-parameter.

95
11.2 Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT)
SWAT is a comprehensive, semi-distributed river basin model that requires a large number of
input parameters, with an ability to give many outputs. Due to the extended ability of this
model over other models, it has numerous parameters to be calibrated. The outputs of model
extend from soil water balance including surface and groundwater flow and crop yield based
on data fed in the model. SWAT was developed to evaluate the effects of alternative
management decisions on water resources and nonpoint-source pollution in large river basins
and ungaged watersheds. The model is a process based, computationally efficient and capable
of continuous simulation over long time periods. Major model components include weather,
hydrology, soil temperature and properties, plant growth, nutrients, pesticides, bacteria and
pathogens and land management. In SWAT, a watershed is divided into multiple sub
watersheds, which are then further subdivided into hydrologic response units (HRUs) that
consist of homogeneous land use, management, topographical and soil characteristics. The
HRUs are represented as a percentage of the sub watershed area and may not be contiguous
or spatially identified within a SWAT simulation. Alternatively, a watershed can be
subdivided into only sub watersheds that are characterized by dominant land use, soil type
and management.

Water balance is the main driving force behind all the process in SWAT because it impacts
the plant growth and the movement of sediments, nutrients, pesticides and pathogens.
Simulation of watershed hydrology is separated into the land phase, which controls the
amount of water, sediments; nutrient and pesticide lodgings to the main channel in each sub
basin and the in-stream or routing phase, which is the movement of water, sediments etc.,
though the channel network of the watershed to the outlet.

The hydrologic cycle is climate driven and provides moisture and energy inputs, such as daily
precipitation, maximum-minimum temperature, solar radiation, wind speed and relative
humidity that control the water balance. SWAT can read these data directly from files or
generate simulated data at runtime from observed monthly statistics. Snow is computed when
temperatures are below freezing and soil temperature is computed because it impacts water
movement and the decay rate of residue in the soil. Hydrologic processes simulated by
SWAT include canopy storage, surface runoff, infiltration, evapotranspiration, lateral flow,
tile drainage, redistribution of water within the soil profile, consumptive use through
pumping (if any), return flow and recharge by seepage from surface water bodies, ponds and
tributary channels. SWAT uses a single plant growth model to simulate all types of land
cover and differentiates between annual and perennial plants. The plant growth model is used
to assess removal of water and nutrients from the root zone, transpiration and biomass/yield
production. SWAT uses the Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE) to predict the
sediment yield from the landscape. In addition, SWAT models the movement and
transformation of several forms of nitrogen and phosphorous, pesticides and sediment in the
watershed. SWAT allows the user to define management practices taking place in every
HRU.

Once the loadings of water, sediments, nutrients and pesticides from the land phase to the
main channel have been determined, the loadings are routed through the streams and
reservoirs within the watershed. The water balance for reservoirs includes inflow, outflow,
rainfall on the surface, evaporation, seepage from the reservoir bottom and diversions.

96
Fig.11.1 Schematic of SWAT development history and model adaptations

97
 References

Arnold JG, Moriasi DN, Gassman PW, Abbaspour KC, White MJ, Srinivasan R, Santhi C,
Harmel RD, Griensven Av, Liew MWV, Kannan N & Jha MK, 2012. SWAT: Model Use,
Calibration and Validation. Transactions of the ASABE. 55(4): 1491-1508
Gassman PW, Reyes M, Green CH & Arnold JG , 2007. The Soil and Water Assessment
Tool: Historical development, applications and future directions. Transactions of the
ASABE. 50(4): 1211-1250
Green CH & Griensven Av, 2008.Autocalibration in hydrologic modeling: Using SWAT 2005
in small-scale watersheds. Environmental Modeling and Software. 23(4): 422-434
Du B, Saleh A, Jaynes DB & Arnold JG, 2006. Evaluation of SWAT in simulating nitrate
nitrogen and atrazine fates in a watershed with tiles and potholes. Transactions of ASABE.
49(4): 949-959

98
 99

View publication stats