JOSEPH ANDREW P.

ADARAYAN
BEEd-1A

1. By what criteria are the planets placed into either the Jovian or terrestrial groups?

There are four Jovian planets. They are Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. They are all
gas giants. There are four terrestrial planets. They are Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars.

2. Explain why different planets have different atmospheres.

All the sun's planets probably had similar atmospheres when they first formed, billions of
years ago. The most common gases were the light gases, hydrogen and helium, with smaller
amounts of oxygen, nitrogen and other gases.
The immense gravity of the giant planets, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune, was able
to hold the hydrogen and helium, which remain the predominant gases in their atmospheres,
along with methane formed by the combination of hydrogen with free carbon. However,
hydrogen and helium gradually escaped from the atmospheres of the smaller planets, where
gravity is insufficient to hold the light gases permanently.
Even the heavier gases, such as oxygen and nitrogen, as well as carbon dioxide and
water vapour, can gradually escape from smaller planets, such as Mars and Mercury. So,
these planets now have quite thin atmospheres. The Moon and other small bodies in the solar
system have essentially no atmosphere.
In our solar system, only the Earth and Venus are the right size to lose most of the light
gases, while retaining gases such as oxygen, nitrogen, carbon dioxide and water vapour.

3. What surface features do Mars have that are also common to an Earth?

Mars has plains, canyons, volcanoes, valleys, gullies, and polar ice similar to Earth.

4. Why are the Galilean satellites so named?

The Galilean moons are the four moons of Jupiter discovered by Galileo Galilei in
January 1610. They are the largest of the many moons of Jupiter and derive their names from
the lovers of Zeus: Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. Ganymede, Europa and Io participate
in a 1:2:4 orbital resonances. They are among the most massive objects in the Solar System
outside the Sun and the eight planets, with a radius larger than any of the dwarf planets.
The four moons were discovered sometime between 1609 and 1610 when Galileo made
improvements to his telescope, which enabled him to observe celestial bodies more distinctly
than had ever been possible before.[1] Galileo’s discovery showed the importance of the
telescope as a tool for astronomers by proving that there were objects in space that cannot be
seen by the naked eye. More importantly, the incontrovertible discovery of celestial bodies
orbiting something other than the Earth dealt a serious blow to the then-accepted Ptolemaic
world system, or the geocentric theory in which everything orbits around the Earth.
Galileo initially named his discovery the Cosmica Sidera ("Cosimo's stars"), but names
that eventually prevailed were chosen by Simon Marius. Marius claimed to have discovered
the moons at the same time as Galileo, and gave them their present names in his Mundus
Jovialis, published in 1614.
5. What is unique about Saturn’s satellite TITAN?

Titan (pronounced /taɪtən/, Ancient Greek: Τῑτάν), or Saturn VI, is the largest moon of
Saturn, the only natural satellite known to have a dense atmosphere, and the only object other
than Earth for which clear evidence of stable bodies of surface liquid has been found.
Titan is the sixth ellipsoidal moon from Saturn. Frequently described as a planet-like
moon, Titan has a diameter roughly 50% larger than Earth's moon and is 80% more massive.
It is the second-largest moon in the Solar System, after Jupiter's moon Ganymede, and it is
larger by volume than the smallest planet, Mercury, although only half as massive. Titan was
the first known moon of Saturn, discovered in 1655 by the Dutch astronomer Christiaan
Huygens.
The moon itself is primarily composed of water ice and rocky material. Much as with
Venus prior to the Space Age, the dense, opaque atmosphere prevented understanding of
Titan's surface until new information accumulated with the arrival of the Cassini–Huygens
mission in 2004, including the discovery of liquid hydrocarbon lakes in the satellite's polar
regions. These are the only large, stable bodies of surface liquid known to exist anywhere
other than Earth. The surface is geologically young; although mountains and several possible
cryovolcanoes have been discovered, it is smooth and few impact craters have been
discovered.
The atmosphere of Titan is largely composed of nitrogen; minor components lead to the
formation of methane and ethane clouds and nitrogen-rich organic smog. The climate—
including wind and rain—creates surface features similar to those of Earth, such as sand
dunes, rivers, lakes and seas (probably of liquid methane or ethane) and shorelines, and, like
on Earth, is dominated by seasonal weather patterns. With its liquids (both surface and
subsurface) and robust nitrogen atmosphere, Titan is viewed as analogous to the early Earth,
although at a much lower temperature. The satellite has thus been cited as a possible host for
microbial extraterrestrial life or, at least, as a prebiotic environment rich in complex organic
chemistry. Researchers have suggested a possible underground liquid ocean might serve as a
biotic environment. It has also been suggested that a form of life may exist on the surface,
using liquid methane as a medium instead of water; and anomalies in atmospheric
composition have been reported which are consistent with the presence of such a life-form,
but which could also be due to an exotic non-living chemistry.

6. Compare a meteoroid, meteor and meteorite.

A meteoroid is small chunk of debris in space (ranging from dust to boulders, from ice to
metal).
A meteoroid becomes a meteor when it's falling through the Earth's atmosphere and is
heated up by friction with air molecules.
The meteor becomes a meteorite when it has hit the Earth's surface.

7. Why are meteorite crater more common on the moon than on earth, even though
the moon is a much smaller target?

Meteor Crater is perhaps the best-known example of a small impact crater on the Earth.
Impact craters are the dominant landforms on many solid Solar System objects including
the Moon, Mercury, Callisto, Ganymede and most small moons and asteroids. On other
planets and moons that experience more-active surface geological processes, such as Earth,
Venus, Mars, Europa, Io and Titan, visible impact craters are less common because they
become eroded, buried or transformed by tectonics over time. Where such processes have
destroyed most of the original crater topography, the terms impact structure or astrobleme are
more commonly used. In early literature, before the significance of impact cratering was
widely recognized, the terms cryptoexplosion or cryptovolcanic structure were often used to
describe what are now recognized as impact-related features on Earth.
In the early Solar System, rates of impact cratering were much higher than today. The
large multi-ringed impact basins, with diameters of hundreds of kilometers or more, retained
for example on Mercury and the Moon, record a period of intense early bombardment in the
inner Solar System that ended about 3.8 billion years ago. Since that time, the rate of crater
production on Earth has been considerably lower, but it is appreciable nonetheless; Earth
experiences from one to three impacts large enough to produce a 20 km diameter crater about
once every million years on average. This indicates that there should be far more relatively
young craters on the planet than have been discovered so far.
Although the Earth’s active surface processes quickly destroy the impact record, about
170 terrestrial impact craters have been identified. These range in diameter from a few tens
of meters up to about 300 km, and they range in age from recent times (e.g. the Sikhote-Alin
craters in Russia whose creation were witnessed in 1947) to more than two billion years,
though most are less than 500 million years old because geological processes tend to
obliterate older craters. They are also selectively found in the stable interior regions of
continents. Few undersea craters have been discovered because of the difficulty of surveying
the sea floor, the rapid rate of change of the ocean bottom, and the subduction of the ocean
floor into the Earth's interior by processes of plate tectonics.
Impact craters are not to be confused with other landforms that in some cases appear
similar, including calderas and ring dikes.

8. What is the most basic method of determining stellar distances?

By means of parallax.

9. Explain the difference between a star’s apparent and absolute magnitudes.. Which
one is an intrinsic property of a star?

Apparent magnitude is the brightness of an object as seen from Earth without any
atmosphere.
Absolute magnitude is the brightness of an object as seen from a predetermined
distance, depending on the object.

10. What information’s about star can be determined from its color?

All Stars can have their type determined from their colour, due to different temperatures.
The types, colours and temperatures along with size can be seen on the Hertzsprung-Russell
Diagram.

11. Where on an H-R Diagram does a star spent most of its lifetime?

A star is a massive, luminous ball of plasma held together by gravity. At the end of its
lifetime, a star can also contain a proportion of degenerate matter. The nearest star to Earth is
the Sun, which is the source of most of the energy on Earth. Other stars are visible from
Earth during the night when they are not outshone by the Sun or blocked by atmospheric
phenomena. Historically, the most prominent stars on the celestial sphere were grouped
together into constellations and asterisms, and the brightest stars gained proper names.
Extensive catalogues of stars have been assembled by astronomers, which provide
standardized star designations.
 For at least a portion of its life, a star shines due to thermonuclear fusion of hydrogen in
its core releasing energy that traverses the star's interior and then radiates into outer space.
Almost all naturally occurring elements heavier than helium were created by stars, either via
stellar nucleosynthesis during their lifetimes or by supernova nucleosynthesis when stars
explode. Astronomers can determine the mass, age, chemical composition and many other
properties of a star by observing its spectrum, luminosity and motion through space. The total
mass of a star is the principal determinant in its evolution and eventual fate. Other
characteristics of a star are determined by its evolutionary history, including diameter,
rotation, movement and temperature. A plot of the temperature of many stars against their
luminosities, known as a Hertzsprung-Russell diagram (H–R diagram), allows the age and
evolutionary state of a star to be determined.
A star begins as a collapsing cloud of material composed primarily of hydrogen, along
with helium and trace amounts of heavier elements. Once the stellar core is sufficiently
dense, some of the hydrogen is steadily converted into helium through the process of nuclear
fusion. The remainder of the star's interior carries energy away from the core through a
combination of radiative and convective processes. The star's internal pressure prevents it
from collapsing further under its own gravity. Once the hydrogen fuel at the core is
exhausted, those stars having at least 0.4 times the mass of the Sun expand to become a red
giant, in some cases fusing heavier elements at the core or in shells around the core. The star
then evolves into a degenerate form, recycling a portion of the matter into the interstellar
environment, where it will form a new generation of stars with a higher proportion of heavy
elements.
Binary and multi-star systems consist of two or more stars that are gravitationally bound,
and generally move around each other in stable orbits. When two such stars have a relatively
close orbit, their gravitational interaction can have a significant impact on their evolution.
Stars can form part of a much larger gravitationally bound structure, such as a cluster or a
galaxy.

12. Why is interstellar matter important to stellar evolutions?

Hydrogen is what stars are mostly made of. stellar evolution starts when matter (regular
or dark), like dust and asteroids get close together.
When they do, they start bending space with their gravity so more hydrogen and space
dust collects. When enough hydrogen collects, it will reach a critical mass which nuclear
fusion starts, which starts nuclear fission and a star is born.
The theory is that if the universe is open then the fabric of space is being stretched and
getting thinner, like a rubber band so the density per area square is thinner but the over all
density of the universe is still the same.

13. Enumerate the steps thought to be involved in the evolution of the sun-like stars?

Stellar evolution begins with the gravitational collapse of a giant molecular cloud
(GMC). Typical GMCs are roughly 100 light-years (9.5×1014 km) across and contain up to
6,000,000 solar masses (1.2×1037 kg). As it collapses, a GMC breaks into smaller and smaller
pieces. In each of these fragments, the collapsing gas releases gravitational potential energy
as heat. As its temperature and pressure increase, a fragment condenses into a rotating sphere
of superhot gas known as a protostar.
Protostars with masses less than roughly 0.08 M⊙ (1.6×1029 kg) never reach temperatures
high enough for nuclear fusion of hydrogen to begin. These are known as brown dwarfs.
Brown dwarfs heavier than 13 Jupiter masses (2.5 × 1028 kg) do fuse deuterium, and some
astronomers prefer to call only these objects brown dwarfs, classifying anything larger than a
planet but smaller than this a sub-stellar object. Both types, deuterium-burning or not, shine
dimly and die away slowly, cooling gradually over hundreds of millions of years.
For a more massive protostar, the core temperature will eventually reach 10 million
kelvins, initiating the proton-proton chain reaction and allowing hydrogen to fuse, first to
deuterium and then to helium. In stars of slightly over 1 M⊙ (2.0×1030 kg), the CNO cycle
contributes a considerable portion of the energy generation. The onset of nuclear fusion leads
relatively quickly to a hydrostatic equilibrium in which energy released by the core exerts a
"radiation pressure" balancing the weight of the star's matter, preventing further gravitational
collapse. The star thus evolves rapidly to a stable state, beginning the main sequence phase of
its evolution.
A new star will fall at a specific point on the main sequence of the Hertzsprung-Russell
diagram, with the main sequence spectral type depending upon the mass of the star. Small,
relatively cold, low mass red dwarfs burn hydrogen slowly and will remain on the main
sequence for hundreds of billions of years, while massive, hot supergiants will leave the main
sequence after just a few million years. A mid-sized star like the Sun will remain on the main
sequence for about 10 billion years. The Sun is thought to be in the middle of its lifespan;
thus, it is on the main sequence.

14. Although all minerals have an orderly internal arrangement of atoms and
crystalline structure, most mineral samples do not visibly demonstrate their crystal
form. Why?

Minerals can form in clumps, as a druses over existing surfaces, and a variety of other
ways, all under different conditions. Quick cooling igneous rocks are composed of minerals,
but the crystalline structure is too small to see with the naked eye. Euhedral (perfectly
formed, visible crystals demonstrating the typical crystal form) crystals in most minerals are
a rare find for the average collector.

15. Why might it be difficult to identify a mineral by its color?

A mineral's color may be influenced by inclusions of other elements or minerals, or even

exposure to heat, light, and radiation. A more reliable identification based on color would be
the streak, or color of the powdered mineral.

16. If you found a glossy-appearing mineral while rock hunting and had hopes that it
was a diamond, what simple test might help you make a determination?

Attempt to scratch it with a known diamond. If no mark is left, then you have found a
diamond.
If you want to try something that will not damage your sample, (if it is not a diamond, it
will be scratched) you can try it the other way. Use the "Mohs" scale as your starting place,
try scratching it with your fingernail first. If it doesn't, then it passes the first two levels of
hardness. Then try a copper coin, if that leaves no scratch then you pass level three. If it isn't
"easily" scratched with a knife, then it passes level four, with stones such as Fluorite. Then if
you can not scratch it with your knife (not easily, (use some effort),it's passed level five,
Apatite is in that level. Then try a steel file, if you can't scratch it, you've passed level six.
Finally if it scratches window glass, it is at least level seven hardness and Quartz is one of the
stones in that level. If you've passed all the levels up to that and done nothing to damage your
sample, then I might test it with the diamond and not be so concerned about risking what is
called a semi-precious stone. You can always take the sample to a local jewelry store and ask
them to test the stone for you. Most retail stores keep a tester on site, for quick on the spot
testing. This wouldn't damage the stone in any way and then you would know if it was a
diamond or not.

17. What are the two most common elements in Earth’s crust? What is the term used to
describe the basic building block of all silicates minerals?

Silicon and Aluminum are both tightly bonded in the igneous rocks that make up the
earth's original surface.
Strange, because up until mid-20th Century, Aluminum was considered rare. The
technology to economically separate pure aluminum from the aluminum silicate did not exist
till mid 1930's. The Pyramid CAP on the Washington Monument is Aluminum. At the time it
was constructed, aluminum was very expensive.
The silicon-oxygen tetrahedron is the term used to describe the building block of all
silicates minerals.

18. What are the two most common silicate minerals? List three non-silicate minerals
that are commonly found in rocks. Contrast a mineral resources and a mineral
reserve.

The Feldspar and Quartz are the two most common silicate minerals and three non-
silicate minerals that are commonly found in rocks are non-calcite, halite, and gypsum.
Mineral reserves are currently economically feasible. Mineral resources are currently or
potentially economically feasible. They both answer the question 'how much is left?' and they
seek this answer with geologic and economic considerations. Reserves can be viewed as a
subset of resources. The McKelvey Box simplifies this difference by identifying economic
feasibility and geologic certainty. The box consists of (from top to bottom, then right to left)
reserves, marginal reserves, and demonstrated sub economic resources. Again, reserves are
economically extractable at present. Marginal reserves are reserves if economic conditions
change, and demonstrated sub economic resources exhibit data to show that the reserves are
actually there. On the second column of the chart lie hypothetical resources which are
undiscovered, but in known mining districts. And in the last column or section, there are
speculative resources which are undiscovered and geologically favorable to exploration.

19. What might cause of minerals deposit that had not been considered on one to
become reclassified as one?

A mineral deposit can become an ore when it becomes profitably extractable.

Nevertheless, factors affecting prices include supply versus demand, production costs, stocks
on hand, government (price controls), possibility of supply disruption, technology
(substitution, recycling), geopolitics, and exchange rate.

20. If a lava flow at Earth’s surface had a basaltic composition, what rock type would
the flow likely turn into upon solidification?

It would form into the rock basalt, an extrusive, mafic, igneous rock.

21. What igneous rock would form from the same magma if it did not reach the surface
but instead crystallized a great depth?

This cannot be answered without knowing the composition of the magma. For instance, a
magma that produces rhyolite on the surface forms granite if it cools slowly; likewise, a
magma that produces basalt in eruptions forms gabbro when it cools slowly.
22. What minerals are most common in detrital sedimentary rocks? Why are these
minerals so abundant?

The most common minerals in detrital sedimentary rocks are quartz grains and clay.

23. What is probably the single most characteristics features of sedimentary rock?

Strata or depositional layering from laying down of sediments.

24. What is metamorphism? What are the agents of change?

Metamorphism is the process by which any kind of rock is changed into a metamorphic
rock.
Intense heat, intense pressure, or the actions of watery hot fluids are needed to form
metamorphic rocks.

25. Distinguish between regional and contact metamorphism.

Regional metamorphism is the creation of metamorphic rock from large

geographically significant processes like plate tectonics.
Contact metamorphism is the creation of metamorphic rock from the proximity
of an existing rock to a heat source provided by a plutonic intrusion.

26. In what ways do metamorphic rocks differ from the igneous and sedimentary rocks
from which they formed?

A metamorphic rock is an igneous, sedimentary, or another metamorphic rock that has

either been squeezed by incredible pressures deep underground and/or has been exposed to
very high temperatures, altering its structure, mineral alignment, or chemical composition.
Metamorphic rocks are classified as contact (from proximity to a magmatic intrusion) or
regional (resulting from deep burial and pressures from plate collisions Metamorphic rock is
also classified as foliated or non-foliated, foliation being the parallel alignment of the
constituent minerals in bands that are perpendicular to the applied pressure. Metamorphic
rocks can also be described by the grade of metamorphism which has taken place from low to
high, high being the closest to the next stage in the rock cycle, melting. Examples of
metamorphic rock are slate, quartzite, marble, phyllite, schist, and gneiss.
An igneous rock is simply a rock that has solidified from magma or lava upon cooling.
Igneous rocks can be intrusive (solidified from magma underground) or extrusive (solidified
from lava at or near the surface). The bulk of Earth's crust is formed from igneous rock.
Examples of igneous rock include basalt, obsidian, rhyolite, granite, diorite, gabbro, and
pumice.
A sedimentary rock is one that is formed by the accumulation of small to large sediment
particles derived from all three types of rock and in some cases organic material, and
undergoes compaction, cementation, or evaporation from/precipitation from a saturated
mineral solution. Sedimentary rock is classified as organic, (derived from organisms), clastic
(formed from any size particle of preexisting rock), or non-clastic (also referred to as
chemical), where the sedimentary rock is formed from the evaporation of a solution that is
saturated with mineral compounds. Examples of organic sedimentary rocks are coal and
limestone. Examples of clastic sedimentary rocks are conglomerate and shale. Examples of
non-clastic or chemical sedimentary rocks are rock gypsum and rock salt.