Essential guidelines for Off-Road Vehicle Engineering laboratory class:

Experimental research on motion resistance in wheeled vehicles

Theoretical background

1. Objective of the exercise

The objective of the exercise is to introduce basic knowledge on motion resistance in wheeled vehi-
cles. The following introductory guide as well as the exemplary experiments conducted in the practical
part of the exercise will be mainly focused on the problem of rolling resistance in pneumatic tyres.

2. Introduction
While designing any vehicle, it is crucial to properly estimate resistance to motion which might occur
in real operating conditions. Motion resistance defines the amount of torque and power that needs to
be delivered by the power unit (e.g. combustion engine, hydraulic or electric motor) and transmitted
by the drivetrain (e.g. gearbox, differentials, shafts, etc.) in order to meet the requirements pertaining
to maximum speed, drawbar pull or slope inclination while moving uphill, which are set at the very
beginning of vehicle design process. If motion resistance of a vehicle is underestimated, these re-
quirements are not fulfilled, which deteriorates utility properties of the vehicle. Thus, while estimating
motion resistance of vehicles, care should be taken to allow for all possible factors resulting in motion
resistance.

3. Resistance to motion in vehicles

Nowadays, conventional earthmoving and agricultural machines as well as other off-road vehicles are
typically fitted with wheeled or tracked undercarriage. Half-tracks are also available in the market.
Regardless of the undercarriage type, vehicles always display some resistance to motion due to inter-
action with surrounding environment, called external motion resistance, and energy losses induced in
drivetrain and undercarriage, called internal motion resistance.

3.1. External motion resistance in wheeled vehicles

External motion resistance of wheeled vehicles might be classified into the following groups:
 resistance arising from work process,
 grade resistance,
 rolling resistance of wheels,
 aerodynamic drag,
 turning resistance,
 resistance attributed to inertia of the vehicle body.

Resistance arising from the work process occurs in working machinery or commercial vehicles. It
depends on the purpose of the machine. Tractors and trucks are usually subjected to drawbar pull in-
duced by trailers and agricultural implements, e.g. ploughs. Machines like loaders, graders or dozers
are designed to deliver pushing force needed to overcome the resistance arising from cutting and
shearing the ground.

Grade resistance is the resistance that occurs while moving uphill.

Rolling resistance of the wheels might be, to some extent, classified as external motion resistance
since some amount of energy is lost as a result of the interaction between tyres and the ground. The
problem of the external rolling resistance of tyres has been discussed in more details in section 4.2.

Turning resistance is the resistance that needs to be overcome in order to perform turning maneuver.
On a paved surface, e.g. tarmac or concrete, turning resistance is attributed mainly to rolling resistance
and sliding friction between tyres and road surface. In off-road conditions ruts are usually worn into
the ground. Thus, turning resistance is also caused by the forces acting on sidewalls of tyres due to
pushing, cutting and shearing the soil close to the rut sidewalls (Fig. 1.). Turning resistance reaches
maximum value when turning maneuver is performed at zero vehicle speed in off-road conditions
where wheels are slid against the ground.

Front view Top view

Fig. 1. Schematic view of a tire, a rut and the contact pressure acting on sidewalls of the tyre due to pushing,
cutting and shearing the ground while turning the wheel [1]

Turing resistance significantly affects performance of both: power unit and drivetrain of the vehicles
which are fitted with skid steering systems. This solution embodied in compact earthmoving ma-
chines, e.g. lightweight wheeled loaders manufactured, for example, by Bobcat company.

In articulated-body vehicles and the vehicles whose steering systems involve steering knuckles (e.g.
Ackerman steering system), steering input is delivered by the operator by means of a steering system
independent from the drivetrain. However, power steering systems are typically implemented in heavy
machinery, where relative motion of the front and rear section of the vehicle frame as well as motion
of steering knuckles relative to the vehicle frame is usually performed by hydraulic pistons. Hence,
computations of vehicle power demand should allow for power consumption of the hydraulic steering
system anyway.

Aerodynamic drag in ground vehicles arises mainly from the friction between vehicle body and air
particles as well as from the difference in the air pressure acting at the front- and rear-end of the vehi-
cle.

Resistance attributed to inertia of the vehicle body manifests itself when acceleration of the vehicle
is not zero. According to Newton’s law it is proportional to the mass and acceleration of the vehicle.

3.2. Internal motion resistance in wheeled vehicles

The internal motion resistance in wheeled vehicles arises from the following phenomena:
 energy losses in vehicle drivetrain,
 energy losses in vehicle undercarriage, resulting from:
o bearings friction and
o rolling resistance of wheels due to mechanical hysteresis of tyres,
 inertia of rotating masses of the drivetrain and undercarriage parts.
 4. Rolling resistance in pneumatic tyres
Rolling resistance in the wheels fitted with pneumatic tyres might
be classified as the external as well as the internal motion re-
sistance of a vehicle, depending on the phenomenon leading to
energy losses. It is usually represented by the coefficient of rolling
resistance (f, RCC), i.e. the ratio of rolling resistance FR to vertical
reaction force acting on the wheel from the ground R (vide Fig. 2.).
𝐹𝑅
𝑅𝐶𝐶 ≡ 𝑓 = 𝑅

The above representation is quite advantageous in terms of simpli-

fied engineering calculations where the overall rolling resistance of
a vehicle needs to be quickly estimated on the basis of the load
distribution to the consecutive vehicle axles.
Fig. 2. Schematic view of forc-
4.1. Internal rolling resistance es acting on a free-rolling
wheel rolling against a rigid
Internal rolling resistance in tyres arises mainly from mechani- surface [4]
cal hysteresis and repetitive deformation of consecutive tyre
sections while rolling against the ground. They cannot be avoided because maintaining appropriate
amount of tyre sag is crucial for providing enough grip. The bigger the sag, the bigger the flotation of
the vehicle while negotiating low capacity grounds as well. Furthermore, tyres are the only remedy for
damping dynamic loads induced by road bumps in numerous heavy vehicles.

Some small amount of internal resistance arises also due to sliding friction in the interface between
tyre bead bundle (vide Fig. 5.) and rim while accelerating or braking [3].

4.1.1. Mechanical hysteresis in pneumatic tyres

a) b) c)

Fig. 3. Schematic drawing explaining the mechanism of hysteresis losses in pneumatic tyres [4]

In order to explain hysteresis losses in pneumatic tyres an arbitrary wheel standing still on a rigid sur-
face subjected to no load should be considered (vide Fig. 3a.). In these conditions vertical reaction
under the wheel as well as tyre deflection are close to zero. In order to exert tyre deflection of arbitrary
value of δ, the wheel has to be gradually loaded with increasing amount of force Fz (Fig. 3b.). While
loading the tyre, the relationship between deflection and vertical reaction under the tyre is represented
by the curve 1 in Fig. 3c. from qualitative point of view. On the other hand, while unloading the tyre,
the deflection and the vertical load follow another curve (schematically represented by the curve 2).
The areas limited by the curves 1 and 2 represent the amount of energy delivered while loading the
tyre and recovered while unloading the tyre, respectively. Thus, the area between both these curves
corresponds to the amount of energy dissipated in a single load cycle. The property of the tyre de-
scribed above is called mechanical hysteresis.

While a wheel loaded with vertical load of Fz resulting in tyre deflection of δ is rolling, consecutive
sections of the tyre are subjected to repetitive load cycles. Hence, some amount of energy E has to be
delivered in order to make the tyre cover the distance s. The Fx force parallel to the ground surface that
should be applied to the wheel center in order to overcome rolling resistance FR can be calculated ac-
cording to the formula given below.

𝐸
𝐹𝑥 =
𝑠
a) b) c)

Fig. 4. Schematic view of forces acting on a free-rolling wheel rolling against a rigid surface [4]

Similar conclusions can be made considering equilibrium of forces acting on a free-rolling wheel roll-
ing against rigid surface. All the forces acting on a wheel rolling at constant speed, under arbitrary
vertical load Fz are presented in Fig. 4a. It should be emphasized that resultant vertical reaction force
under the wheel R is not coincident with the lateral plane of symmetry of the wheel. It is slightly shift-
ed towards the direction of motion due to tyre hysteresis1. Considerations on equilibrium of forces and
moments acting on the tire yield the following equations:

∑ 𝐹𝑖𝑦 = 𝐹𝑧 − 𝑅 = 0

∑ 𝐹𝑖𝑥 = 𝐹𝑥 − 𝐹𝑅 = 0

1
Note that sections of the tire approaching the center point of the contact patch between tyre and road are being
gradually loaded, whereas the sections leaving the contact patch are being unloaded. For this reason contact
pressure at the front-end is higher than the contact pressure at the rear-end of the contact patch.
 ∑ 𝑀𝐶 = 𝐹𝑥 𝑟𝑑𝑦𝑛 − 𝑅𝑒 = 0

According to the equation representing equilibrium of moments about the point C (vide Fig. 4b.), the
vertical reaction R multiplied by the distance e represents the moment preventing the tyre from rolling.
In order to overcome this resistance the Fx force parallel to the ground should be applied to the wheel
center. This force equals rolling resistance FR.

4.1.2. Causes for mechanical hysteresis of the tyres

Fig. 5. Design of an exemplary radial tire [3], 9 – body plies – the main reinforcing plies of the tyre,
5,7 – steel belt plies defining flat shape of the tyre crown, 8 – shoulder inserts defining the shape of the tyre
shoulders, 4 – nylon cap ply stabilizing the shape of the tyre crown at high speed, 1,2,3 – tread layers made from
various rubber compounds providing grip and low rolling resistance, 10 – innerliner providing air retention,
6 – belt wedges reducing interply shear at the belt edges, 11 – gum chafer, 12 – bead bundle, 13 – bead filler
(apex), 14, 15 – sidewall

In order to provide appropriate strength as well as to define and stabilize the shape of tyres while roll-
ing, they are fitted with reinforcing layers (vide Fig. 5.) made from variety of materials, e.g.: steel,
nylon, rayon, polyester, fiber glass or Kevlar plies and cords. The reinforcing layers are surrounded by
an envelope made from rubber compund, i.e. rubber, e.g.: natural rubber (NR), butadiene rubber (BR),
butadiene styrene rubber (SBR), filled with small particles of silica (SiO2), carbon black or other mate-
rials enhancing resistance to abrasion, thermal conductivity and other properties of rubber. The main
reasons for mechanical hysteresis of tyres are:

 mechanical hysteresis of rubber and

 internal friction in reinforcing cords and plies occurring while the tire is being deformed.

Mechanical hysteresis of rubber arises from viscoelasticity of rubber and manifests itself in similar
way as mechanical hysteresis of tyres.

First of all, consider a bar made from perfectly elastic material, e.g. steel. If the bar is subjected to
gradually increasing load, stress and strain are gradually increasing and the relationship between them
is represented by a straight line. If the load decreases, strain and stress follow the same line as they do
in the loading phase (Fig. 6a.). The area underneath the line represents strain energy of the bar. Thus,
the energy delivered to the bar while loading is completely recovered when the load disappears.
On the other hand, if a bar made from rubber were considered instead, the curves representing loading
and unloading phase would not concide with each other (Fig. 6b.). Thus, the area between them repre-
sents the amount of energy lost in a single load cycle.

a) b)

Fig. 6. Qualitative relationships between strain and stress in: a) perfectly elastic materials, e.g. steel,
b) viscoelastic materials, e.g. rubber [4]

Hysteresis and viscoelasticity in rubber arise from rubber macroscopic structure. Rubber consists of
polymer chains which tend to spontaneously coil up, if not subjected to any external load. Force ap-
plied to a piece of rubber while stretching results from elasticity of the chains and friction between
them. When the external force disappears, the piece of rubber recovers its original shape due to inter-
nal forces arising from elasticity of polymer chains, however, some internal friction in the material has
to be overcome. Consequently, some amount of energy delivered while loading the rubber piece is lost
(converted into heat).

According to [3] 80 % – 95 % of internal tyre rolling resistance is attributed to mechanical hys-

teresis of rubber. Hysteresis losses take place mainly in the region where the tyre makes contact
with the ground. As much as 70 % of hysteresis losses is caused by repetitive flexural defor-
mation in the tyre crown and compression of the tread blocks. Remaining 30 % arise from re-
petitive bending of tyre sidewalls.

HINT: More detailed information on tyre design can be found in [3], chapter 1., sections 2.2.
and 3. (pages 3 and 6).

HINT: More detailed information on mechanical hysteresis in tyres can be found in [3],
chapter 12., sections 1.1., 1.2., 1.3. and 2.1. (pages 476, 478, 480, 483).

4.2.External rolling resistance

The external rolling resistance in tyres is caused by the following phenomena:

 soil compaction,
 bulldozing effect,
 removal of water and contaminants from tyre-road interface,
 sliding friction in the tyre-road contact patch,
 aerodynamic drag.
 Fig. 8. Schematic view of external rolling resistance in tyres resulting from the interaction
between tyres and deformable ground [4]

Fig. 9. Exemplary soil wedge in front of an off-road vehicle wheel [5]

Soil compaction. Soils display plasticity under load. A wheel loaded with arbitrary vertical load sinks
into the ground causing compaction and permanent deformation of soil. Thus, ruts are worn into the
ground as a result of rolling the wheels. Soil compaction results in energy losses leading to increase in
rolling resistance. The energy consumed due to compaction of unit area of soil is represented by the
equation given below [1]:

𝑝0 ℎ𝑐𝑛+1
𝐸=
𝑛+1

p0 – elasticity modulus of the ground,

hc – depth of the rut (vide Fig. 8.),
n – non-dimensional coefficient depending on the ground type.

According to the above formula, the amount of energy dissipated due to soil compaction depends
on the depth of ruts worn into the ground. On the other hand, depth of the ruts is proportional
to the maximum unit ground pressure under tyres. In order to minimize rolling resistance arising
from ground compaction, contact patch between tyres and the ground should be maximized, whereas
the distribution of unit ground pressure under tyres should be possibly uniform. Maintaining low unit
ground pressure enables vehicles to negotiate low capacity grounds without getting stuck as well. For
these two reasons heavy off-road machines are usually fitted with special low-pressure tyres whose
carcass displays relatively small stiffness, so that the overall stiffness of the tyre is defined mainly by
inflation pressure. Inflation pressure of these tyres might be adjusted between 1.5 … 7.9 bar2.

Buldozzing effect is a phenomenon where a wedge-shaped body of soil forms and moves in front of
a wheel rolling against deformable ground (vide Fig. 8. and Fig. 9). Since it incorporates relative mo-
tion of the soil particles forming the wedge, it results in increased rolling resistance. The amount of
rolling resistance arising from bulldozing effect depends on the rut depth and soil mechanical proper-
ties such as the angle of internal friction and cohesion. In some conditions it might exceed the re-
sistance caused by soil compaction.

Removal of water and other contaminants. In order to provide grip on dirty paved roads or in wet
conditions, a film of contaminants, e.g. water, has to be removed from tyre-road interface. In order to
do so, tyre tread is covered with a pattern of grooves and some amount of energy needs to be deliv-
ered, which increases the overall rolling resistance of the tyre.

The biggest energy loss caused by sliding friction in the tyre-road contact patch occurs when the
tyre is subjected to driving or braking torque close to the value defined by the maximum friction coef-
ficient in the tyre-road interface. In these conditions grip arises essentially from sliding friction be-
tween tread blocks and road surface.

Some minor amount of sliding friction occurs also in the interface between road and free-rolling tyres.
In the middle of the tyre-road contact area tread blocks are pointed at the right angle towards the road
surface. On the other hand, when they approach or leave the contact area, they are oriented at an angle
substantially smaller then 90O with respect to the ground. Consequently, tread blocks that make con-
tact with road surface are subjected to shear. If the force arising from elastic shear deformation of
a tread block is higher than the elementary static friction between the tread block and the road surface,
the tread block slides against the road surface.

4.3. Factors affecting rolling resistance coefficient

Rolling resistance coefficient of pneumatic tyres is affected by the following factors:

 tyre design,
 ground surface and road conditions,
 tyre inflation pressure,
 vehicle speed,
 tyre temperature,
 tyre vertical load,
 the amount of torque applied to the wheel.

Tyre design. Generally two main tyre designs might be distinguished: bias (diagonal) tyres and radial
tyres. The main difference between them refers to the orientation of body plies. Body plies of radial
tyres are laid at right angle with respect to the longitudinal plane of symmetry of the tyre (Fig. 10b.).
On the other hand, body plies of bias tyres are laid at the angle smaller then 90O to the tyre longitudi-
nal symmetry plane, which means that they intersect each other (Fig. 10a.). The design of radial tyres
involves also some additional features, e.g.: belts embedded in the crown section for increasing punc-
ture resistance and maintaining flat shape of the crown at high speed as well as shoulder inserts defin-
ing the shape of tyre shoulders. Bias belted tyres highlighted in Fig. 10c. are also available where the

2
Please note that inflation pressure of conventional passenger car and truck tyres changes from 2.0 … 2.5 bar
and 5 … 7 bar, respectively.
body plies layout resembles the alignment typical of bias tyres, however, additional belt is placed in
the tyre crown section. Generally, radial tyres display smaller rolling resistance then diagonal
ones, which is usually explained by smaller amount of heat induced by the internal friction in
reinforcing plies.

a) b) c)

Fig. 10. Design of state-of-the-art tyres [1]: a) bias (diagonal) tyre, b) radial tyre,
c) bias belted tyre, 1 – body plies, 2 – belt, 3 – tyre tread with a pattern of grooves, 4 – bead bundle

Ground surface and road conditions. Table 1. summarizes exemplary values of tyre rolling re-
sistance coefficient determined in various road and off-road conditions. The smallest values are noted
in the tests carried out on dry tarmac or concrete, where the tyre is subjected to hardly any external
resistance. Coefficient of rolling resistance on soil or sand exceeds its respective value determined in
road conditions by at least 10 times. On the other hand, referring to the tests conducted only on paved
roads, removal of water from tyre-road interface leads to increase in rolling resistance by no more than
40 %.

Tab. 1. Exemplary values of rolling resistance coefficient determined in different conditions [1, 2, 3, 6]
Ground surface/road conditions Coefficient of rolling resistance
Dry tarmac or concrete 0,008 – 0,015
Wet tarmac or concrete 0,010 – 0,025
Dry dirt road 0,030 – 0,050
Bumpy and wet dirt road 0,150 – 0,200
Tilled soil 0,160 – 0,250
Sand 0,150 – 0,300

HINT: In practice, experiments on tyre rolling resistance are taken outdoors in typical road conditions
as well as indoors, involving special laboratory test stands (vide. Fig. 11.). In real road conditions
some amount of rolling resistance arises from tread deformations induced by small asperities of the
tarmac or concrete surface. Unfortunately, those asperities may not be properly reproduced by some
laboratory test stands. Consequently, the results of some tests conducted in laboratory conditions
might underestimate the actual value of tyre rolling resistance coefficient.
 a) b)

Fig. 11. Exemplary test stands for determination of tyre rolling resistance,
a) a test stand fitted with a curved runway, b) a test stand fitted with a flat runway resembling belt conveyor [3]

Tyre inflation pressure. Fig. 12. presents exemplary relationships between coefficient of rolling re-
sistance and tyre inflation pressure obtained in experimental tests on three passenger car tyres rolling
against smooth rigid surface. According to these results, rolling resistance decreases with increasing
inflation pressure, however, overinflating the tyre, i.e. increasing the pressure above 2.5 bar, does not
result in significant decrease in rolling resistance.

0,01
Coefficient of rolling resistance [-]

0,008

0,006

0,004

0,002

0
1,20 1,40 1,60 1,80 2,00 2,20 2,40 2,60 2,80 3,00
Tyre inflation pressure [bar]

Fig. 12. Relationships between coefficient of rolling resistance and tyre inflation pressure determined in experi-
mental tests on three exemplary passenger car tyres [4]

It must be emphasized that Fig. 12. should not be used in considerations on rolling resistance in
tyres in off-road conditions, where tyres are subjected to the resistance arising from the interac-
tion with deformable soil. Namely, the smaller the tyre inflation pressure, the bigger the tyre sag and
the contact area between tyre and the ground. Thus, reducing tyre pressure might lead to decrease in
unit ground pressure under the tyre which, according to section 4.2., results in reducing rolling re-
sistance arising from soil compaction and bulldozing effect, i.e. the main factors defining the amount
of tyre rolling resistance in off-road conditions.
Vehicle speed. According to numerous experimental research, coefficient of rolling resistance in tyres
increases with increasing vehicle speed. For example, according to [2] the relationship between rolling
resistance coefficient and velocity in road conditions for passenger car tyres is given with the follow-
ing equation:

𝑓 = 0,0136 + 0,04 ∙ 10−6 ∙ 𝑣 2

whereas analogous formula referring to the truck tyres is as follows:

𝑓 = 0,006 + 0,23 ∙ 10−6 ∙ 𝑣 2

where v represents vehicle speed expressed in km/h. According to the above formulas, at speed under
about 40 km/h the increase in rolling resistance caused by the increase in vehicle speed is marginal.
On the other hand, it might be clearly observed at speed close to 120 km/h. The main reason for that is
the phenomenon of standing wave (vide Fig. 13.).

Rolling direction - clockwise Rolling direction - anticlockwise

Fig. 13. Photography presenting the phenomenon of standing wave [3]

Generally, two regions might be distinguished in tyres: a region where the tyre makes and does not
make contact with the ground. If an arbitrary section of a tyre leaves the region of contact with the
ground, it spontaneously recovers its original shape. However, recovery time is limited by radial stiff-
ness, damping and mass properties of the tyre. At the speed where tyre sections are not able to fully
recover from the deformation before they re-engage the tyre-road contact area, standing wave starts to
form.

HINT: More details on standing waves in tyre can be found in [3], chapters 10 and 15,
pages 409 and 625.

Tyre temperature. Generally, increase in temperature leads to decrease in rubber loss modulus,
which is a parameter that defines mechanical hysteresis in rubber from quantitative point of view [3].
Thus, increase in tyre temperature usually results in decreased rolling resistance. According to the
above considerations, it might be concluded that increase in rolling resistance in wet road conditions
arises not only from energy losses caused by removal of water from the tyre-road interface. It might be
also related to decrease in tyre temperature since water is in fact a cooling medium [6].
Tyre vertical load. The higher the vertical load of a tyre, the bigger the tyre deflection is. In short
distance operation, increase in load results in increased hysteresis losses. Consequently, the coefficient
of rolling resistance rises. However, the energy lost due to hysteresis is converted into heat. Hence, if a
tyre subjected to high load covers relatively long distance, it heats up, which results in decreased loss
modulus of rubber. Thus, the coefficient of rolling resistance becomes smaller. Summing up, consider-
ing tyre rolling resistance in commercial vehicles that typically cover long mileage in a single shift of
operation, e.g. trucks, the coefficient of rolling resistance decreases slightly with increasing load. Ac-
cording to [3], the relationship between rolling resistance coefficient and tyre vertical load might be
represented by linear function.

Changes in the amount of torque applied to the wheel lead to changes in ground pressure distribu-
tion under tyres. Thus, the distance between tyre lateral plane of symmetry and the resultant vertical
reaction force under the tyre depends on the amount of torque applied to the wheel (vide Fig. 4.). Ac-
cording to [8], the higher the driving torque applied to the wheel, the higher the coefficient of rolling
resistance.

References:
[1] Pieczonka, K.; Inżynieria Maszyn Roboczych. Część I. Podstawy urabiania, jazdy, pod-
noszenia i obrotu; Wrocław University of Science and Technology Publishing House,
Wrocław 2007. (in Polish)
[2] Andrzejewski, R.; Dynamika pneumatycznego koła jezdnego; WNT, Warszawa, 2010.
(in Polish)
[3] Gent, A.N, Walter, J.D.; The Pneumatic Tire; NHTSA, Washington D.C., USA, 2005.
[4] A figure prepared by Jakub Chołodowski.
[5] A photography available on the Internet.
[6] Ejsmont, J., Sjoegren, L., Świeczko-Żurek, B., Ronowski, G.; Influence of Road Wetness
on Tire-Pavement Rolling Resistance; Journal of Civil Engineering and Architecture 9
(2015), pp. 1302-1310.
[7] Ogrokiewicz, R.; Technology of Tanks; Jane’s Information Group, United Kingdom,
1991.
[8] Siłka, W.; Teoria ruchu samochodu; WNT, Warszawa, 2002. (in Polish)