English Major

"WORLD OF LITERATURE"

Author's and their Works

Confucius- The Analects

Aeschylus- The Oresteia, Agamemnon

Homer- lliad , Odyssey

Sophocles- Theban plays: Oedipus Rex , Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone

Leqi-unninni, Scribe- The Epic of Gilgamesh

Thucydides- The history of the Peloponnesian war

Sun-Tzu- The Art of War

Aristophanes- Lysistrata , The Clouds , The Birds

Plato- The republic

Aristotle- Ethics, Politics, Peotics

Mencius- The book of Mencius

Valmiki- The Ramayana

Vyasa- The Mahabharata

Anonymous (200 BCE)- The Bhagavad Gita

Ssu- Ma ch'ien- Records of the Grand Historian

Lucretius- Of the Nature of Things

Virgil- The Aeneid

Aurelius- Meditations

Saint Augustine- The Confession

Kalidasa- The Cloud Messenger, Shakuntala/ Sakuntala

Muhammad- The Koran

Hui-Neng- The Platform Sutra of the Sixth Patriarch

Firdausi- Shah Nameh

Sei Shonagon- The Pillow Book

Murasaki, Lady Shikibu- The Tale of Genji (First novel of the World)

Khayyam,Omar- The Rubaiyat

Alighieri,Dante- The Divine Comedy

Kuan-Chung, Luo- The Romance of three kingdom

Chaucer, Geoffrey- The Canterbury tales

Anonymous (1500) - 1001 Nights / Arabian Nights

Machiavelli, Niccolo- The Prince

#Vocabulary_capsule ♥♥♥👸

Affable. 👉Friendly

Scrumptious. 👉 Delicious

Scion Heir

Ambivalence. 👉Uncertainty

Desolate. 👉 Lonely

Palpable. 👉 Noticeable

Shrewd.👉 Cleaver

Inscrutable. 👉Mysterious

Preposterous.👉 absurd
Deft. 👉Skillful

Apprise. 👉Inform

Peer. 👉Equal

Deleterious. 👉 Harmful

Secular.👉 Nonreligious

Vain. 👉Conceited

Quaint. 👉 Old fashion

Angst. 👉 Anxiety

Visage. 👉Face

Covet. 👉Want

Ire. 👉Anger

Quandary. 👉Problem

Impecunious👉. Poor

Anguish. 👉 Sorrow

Hegira. 👉 Exodus

Profound. Deep

Staunch. 👉Devoted

Laud. 👉Praise

Demur 👉modest

Sporadic. 👉Occasional

Patron.👉 Sponsor

Elated.👉 Delighted

Jetty. 👉Pier

Moribund 👉 dying
Liberal👉. Progressive

Bona fide. 👉Genuine

Rue. 👉 Regret

Abide. 👉 Tolerate

Condolence 👉Sympathy

Belligerent. 👉 Combative

Thwart. 👉 Stop

Malevolent 👉hateful

Rapid. 👉 Boring

Privy. 👉Secret

Abominable. 👉 Terrible

Manifestation. 👉 Indication

Uncouth. 👉 Rude

The four main linguistic schools

It would probably be useful to start out by explaining exactly what “linguistics” means.
Linguistics, to put it simply, is the study of languages, but in a scientific way. This means not just
looking at the meaning of words in a language, but at how the language is formed, the contexts
it is used in, and much more. Since it is the scientific study of languages, there are, of course,
numerous schools of thought related to it. Here are four of the most well-known linguistic
schools of thought:

1. Functionalism
This first school of thought focuses on how language is actually used in everyday life. Those who
abide by functionalism look at language as just another tool for humans to use, and thus tend
to focus on the function language and its different parts have in our lives. The theories of
functionalism focus on phonological, semantic, syntactic, as well as the pragmatic functions of
language. Functionalism emphasizes the importance of social context, usage, and the
communicative function of the grammar, phonology, orthography, and more, of a language.

2. Structuralism

Based on the work of Ferdinand de Saussure of Switzerland, structuralism is an approach to

linguistics that focuses on the idea that languages are fixed systems made up of many different
units that connect with each other. This school of thought marked a shift from historical
linguistic analysis to non-historical analysis. Later on, other linguists would come to see
structuralism as rather out-of-date. It worked for phonology and morphology, but the theories
it proposes don’t make as much sense as the ones proposed by new schools of thought.
Saussure was aware of the fact that, in his time, he would not be able to get a good
understanding of the human brain, and so left that to future linguists.

3. Generativism

The work of Noam Chomsky became the basis for the generativism approach to linguistics. It
was originally a way to explain how humans acquire language in the first place, but soon it
came to be used to explain the different phenomena that occur in all natural languages. The
generative theory of language suggests that, in its most basic form, language is made up of
certain rules that apply to all humans and all languages. This led to the theory of “universal
grammar”, that all humans are capable of learning grammar. All of this was developed in the
second half of the 20th century, with Noam Chomsky taking into account the work of Zellig
Harris as well.

4. Cognitivism
The last linguistic school of thought on our list emerged in the 1950s as a reaction to
generativism. In basic terms, cognitivism says that language emerges from human cognitive
processes. It challenges “universal grammar” by suggesting that grammar is not something that
all humans can inherently understand, but rather it is learned by using language. In this sense, it
is a bit similar to functionalism. However, the main focus of cognitivism is how language is
based on meaning that the mind creates.

Antony and Cleopatra by William Shakespeare.. .....

***Antony and Cleopatra is one of the tragedic play by William Shakespeare ,appeared during
1602 ( took place in Egypt and Rome) . Little bit this tragedic play reflects by Julius Caesar and
its characters having plot.

***Characters *****

Sextus Pompey ( son of Pompey the great), octavius Caesar (adopted child of Julius Caesar),
lepidus, agripa , Antony, Cleopatra, menas , menecrates ,enobarbus, Eros ,Fulvia ,Octavia

***Plot construction ***

The story takes place firstly in Egypt where Antonio and Cleopatra are revealing their love for
each other suddenly a messenger comes from Rome and inform about critical condition of
Rome. He was sent by Octavius but Antony was too much mad in the love of Cleopatra, he
didn't mind that and offended his proposal. When Octavius knew that he felt too much sad and
discuss with his fellow lepidus that how can Octavius be so change?? Suddenly a second
messenger comes Egypt and inform that Fulvia( Octavius's wife ) has died and the territories of
Asia have been taken away from the supremacy of Antony because he has become careless
toward his duty and isn't fulfilling his responsibility as well.
Now Antony decided to go Rome again. other hand Cleopatra is very angry to him and think
that Antony is betraying with her. now Antony comes to her and makes her understand.

Antony starts to Rome. here in Rome sextus pompay is discussing with the heads( menas and
menacrates) of his troops that if Antony won't come then it will be very easy to possess not
only over Rome but also entire Asia . But their intention seems to get failed, Antony has come
back.

Octavius Caesar scolds more and more Antony for his behavior while lepidus and their other
adviser make them understand that if we have to overcome over the strength of Pompey then
we need to be one.

here Agrippa advises Octavius that he should get antony married to Octavia (Octavius sister). it
will be better for both .Antony will stay forever in Rome.

second side in Egypt Cleopatra is missing antony suddenly she received a pearl( love symbol)
from Antony .now she decided that she would write him letter everyday.

in Rome Octavia and Antony are getting married. finally Octavius farewell his sister and they
start to Athens. When Cleopatra knows about their wedding then she agitate toward the
messenger who had been there with this news. she orders her maid servants to visit Octavia,
how is she?

finally she knows that Octavia is not more beautiful than her. she gets confidence and felt
proud to be her love.

in Italy Pompey has gotten agreement with lepidus, Octavius and Antony and drunk too much
wine on this opportunity. lepidus was drunkard too much. menas advises to Pompey that we
shouldn't lose opportunity and finish yet but Pompey forbids. here in Athens Antony complains
against Octavius to Octavia. she said that she would visit Rome and talk to him.

Pompey fights with Octavius and his troops. finally Pompey is defeated and lose his power.
lepidus was also powerless yet. now only Octavius and Antony were so mighty and had been
against each other.

here Octavia meets Octavius and ask for forgiveness but Octavius told her that he has betrayed
her and ran away from Rome. He also has made Cleopatra the duchess of Egypt and misused
his post. They have become United and looking for taking action against us.

Antony challenges Octavius for a horrible war under sea. Cleopatra also support him but
ebarbous showed his disagreement to war attending by female but Antony forbids and tell her
to attend. next day during war Cleopatra quit war in middle and comes castle. Antony gets rude
with her but makes understand.

here Octavius says that he will no show pity to Antony but he can forgive Cleopatra if she
surrender herself. he doesn't surrender and next day fight with bravery. finally once he triumph
over Octavius and celebrate his victory in Alexandria. Enbaborus join Octavius because of
Antony behaviour to Octavius . next day Antony goes for fighting but second time war is
prevented by Cleopatra for some reason. Antony shows his rudeness toward her and she
couldn't tolerate.

here the fellows of Cleopatra advises her to get herself in the tomb when Antony will know
about ur death really he will feel bad. She did same. Antony got news about her death. Now he
was broken and told Eros to kill himself. Eros didn't kill him so he killed himself in this
depression.

his body is brought to the tomb of Cleopatra. in the half injured body he knew truth from
Cleopatra and told her not to surrender herself ever and died. Octavius appreciate his bravery.

Octavius told Cleopatra either surrender or stay in Rome forever as a prisoner. she declare that
she will never let her prestige getting low. her Antony fought with bravery so how can she let
his sacrifice go in vain.

she orders her maid servants to bring new clothes and jewellery. she will die having looked
beautiful. she got herself bitten by a poisoneer snake. She died. Octavius praised both and got
her buried near the grave of Antony......

Sophocles

Sophocles is one of three ancient Greek tragedians whose plays have survived. His first plays
were written later than those of Aeschylus, and earlier than or contemporary with those of
Euripides.

Born: Hippeios Colonus, Athens, Greece

Died: 406 BC, Classical Athens

Genre: Tragedy

Tragedies: Antigone, Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Ajax, Philoctetes, Women of Trachis,
Tereus

Quote:

One word Frees us of all the weight and pain of life: That word is love.

Oedipus Rex or Oedipus the King Summary:

Oedipus the Kingunfolds as a murder mystery, a political thriller, and a psychological whodunit.
Throughout this mythic story of patricide and incest, Sophocles emphasizes the irony of a man
determined to track down, expose, and punish an assassin, who turns out to be himself.

As the play opens, the citizens of Thebes beg their king, Oedipus, to lift the plague that
threatens to destroy the city. Oedipus has already sent his brother-in-law, Creon, to the oracle
to learn what to do.

On his return, Creon announces that the oracle instructs them to find the murderer of Laius,
the king who ruled Thebes before Oedipus. The discovery and punishment of the murderer will
end the plague. At once, Oedipus sets about to solve the murder.

Summoned by the king, the blind prophet Tiresias at first refuses to speak, but finally accuses
Oedipus himself of killing Laius. Oedipus mocks and rejects the prophet angrily, ordering him to
leave, but not before Tiresias hints darkly of an incestuous marriage and a future of blindness,
infamy, and wandering.

Oedipus attempts to gain advice from Jocasta, the queen; she encourages him to ignore
prophecies, explaining that a prophet once told her that Laius, her husband, would die at the
hands of their son. According to Jocasta, the prophecy did not come true because the baby
died, abandoned, and Laius himself was killed by a band of robbers at a crossroads.

Oedipus becomes distressed by Jocasta's remarks because just before he came to Thebes he
killed a man who resembled Laius at a crossroads. To learn the truth, Oedipus sends for the
only living witness to the murder, a shepherd.
Another worry haunts Oedipus. As a young man, he learned from an oracle that he was fated to
kill his father and marry his mother. Fear of the prophecy drove him from his home in Corinth
and brought him ultimately to Thebes. Again, Jocasta advises him not to worry about
prophecies.

Oedipus finds out from a messenger that Polybus, king of Corinth, Oedipus' father, has died of
old age. Jocasta rejoices — surely this is proof that the prophecy Oedipus heard is worthless.
Still, Oedipus worries about fulfilling the prophecy with his mother, Merope, a concern Jocasta
dismisses.

Overhearing, the messenger offers what he believes will be cheering news. Polybus and
Merope are not Oedipus' real parents. In fact, the messenger himself gave Oedipus to the royal
couple when a shepherd offered him an abandoned baby from the house of Laius.

Oedipus becomes determined to track down the shepherd and learn the truth of his birth.
Suddenly terrified, Jocasta begs him to stop, and then runs off to the palace, wild with grief.

Confident that the worst he can hear is a tale of his lowly birth, Oedipus eagerly awaits the
shepherd. At first the shepherd refuses to speak, but under threat of death he tells what he
knows — Oedipus is actually the son of Laius and Jocasta.

And so, despite his precautions, the prophecy that Oedipus dreaded has actually come true.
Realizing that he has killed his father and married his mother, Oedipus is agonized by his fate.

Rushing into the palace, Oedipus finds that the queen has killed herself. Tortured, frenzied,
Oedipus takes the pins from her gown and rakes out his eyes, so that he can no longer look
upon the misery he has caused. Now blinded and disgraced, Oedipus begs Creon to kill him, but
as the play concludes, he quietly submits to Creon's leadership, and humbly awaits the oracle
that will determine whether he will stay in Thebes or be cast out forever.

📍 *Lecture * 📍

Uses of Modal verbs and their usage.

*Modal Verbs*
"Verbs, used with another verb to show/express permission, ability, possibility, suggestions
etc".

*Examples*

Modal verbs/modal auxiliaries include the following:

❤1. *_CAN_*

CAN is used for:

1⃣. For ability.

*Eg*. I can do this work.

2⃣. For permission.

*Eg*. You can go now.

3⃣. For request.

*Eg*. Can you translate this article for me please?

4⃣. For possibility. (Usually used in negative and interrogative sentences).

*Eg*. You can not get that book from Karachi.

5⃣. For anger.

*Eg*. Can you just shut up?

6⃣. For general truth.

*Eg*. By exercising daily, you can lose your weight.

7⃣. For offers.

*Eg*. Can I help you?

❤2. *_COULD_*

Could is used for:

1⃣. For past ability.

*Eg*. When I was in SSC, I could study for 7 hours daily.

2⃣. For past possibility.

*Eg*. The road could be blocked but the police reached in time.

3⃣. For polite way of asking.

*Eg*. Could I have my book back please?

4⃣. For uncertain possibility.

*Eg*. They could come any time.

5⃣. For suggestions.

*Eg*. We could have lunch outside today.

6⃣. For anger.

*Eg*. You could try to change it before my arrival.

7⃣. For suggestions.

*Eg*. You could go there before he had gone.

❤3. *_MAY_*

May is used for:

1⃣. For possibility (usually used in positive sentences).

*Eg*. It may rain today.

2⃣. For permission.

*Eg*. May I join you sir?

3⃣. For wish (usually in optative sentences).

*Eg*. May my mother live long.

4⃣. For request.

*Eg*. May I speak sir please?

5⃣. For prohibition.

*Eg*. You may not smoke in the office.

❤4. *_MIGHT_*

Might is used for:

1⃣. Possibility.

*Eg*. It might rain today.

2⃣. For politeness.

*Eg*. Might I take more?

3⃣. For suggestions.

*Eg*. I thought you might help me.

❤5. *_WILL_*

Will is used for:

1⃣. For future actions:

*Eg*. He will leave for India tomorrow.

2⃣. For willingness.

*Eg*. I will play with you.

3⃣. For asking something.

*Eg*. Will you give me your watch?

4⃣. For polite invitation.

*Eg*. Will you join me please?

5⃣. For anger.

*Eg*. Will you stop talking?

6⃣. For something possible.

*Eg*. Who is knocking the door? It will be Ali.

7⃣. For things, which usually happen.

*Eg*. It will last longer, if you used it carefully.

8⃣. For promise.

*Eg*. I will come there tomorrow.

❤6. *_WOULD_*

Would is used for:

1⃣. For a polite request.

*Eg*. Would you mind sitting here?

2⃣. For strong desire.

*Eg*. Would that I could see Quaid E Azam!

3⃣. For past habitual actions.

*Eg*. I would study very hard, when I was in Primary school.

4⃣. For typical behavior.

*Eg*. They always say we are busy. They would say that again.

5⃣. For reason.

*Eg*. Why would one miss such an offer?

❤7. *_SHALL_*

Shall is used for:

1⃣. For first person pronouns.

*Eg*. I/we shall go tomorrow.

2⃣. For a command (usually in 2nd or 3rd person).

*Eg*. You shall not enter to this room.

3⃣. For emphasis.

*Eg*. I shall kill you the day you abused me.

4⃣. For asking something.

*Eg*. Shall you forgive me?

5⃣. For permission.

*Eg*. Shall I collect the money from them Sir?

❤8. *_SHOULD_*

Should is used for:

1⃣. For something advisable.

*Eg*. If you can't sleep, you should go to a good physician.

2⃣. For expectations.

*Eg*. You should do it very easy.

3⃣. For a purpose.

*Eg*. Take umbrella lest you should get wet.

4⃣. For reason.

*Eg*. Why one should reject this offer?

5⃣. For advice.

*Eg*. You should not worry because he's alive.

6⃣. For expressing obligation or duty.

*Eg*. We should obey the law.

7⃣. For politeness.

*Eg*. I should like to help you.

8⃣. For supposition.

*Eg*. If it should rain, they will not come.

❤9. *_MUST_*

Must is used for:

1⃣. For necessary things.

*Eg*. You must study hard.

2⃣. For strong intention.

*Eg*. You must invite him.

3⃣. For emphasis.

*Eg*. I must say "you are great".

4⃣. For strong possibility.

*Eg*. He must be hungry.

5⃣. For obligation.

*Eg*. You must get up very early.

6⃣. For expressing logical certainty.

*Eg*. Living in so much crowd must be very difficult.

❤10. *_OUGHT TO_*

Ought To is used for:

1⃣. For expressing moral obligation or desirability.

*Eg*. We ought to love our neighbours.

2⃣. For expressing probability.

*Eg*. This book ought to be very useful.

3⃣. For expectations.

*Eg*. He ought to be at home now.

❤11. *_USED TO_*

Used To is used for:

1⃣. For repeated actions in the past.

*Eg*. We used to play a lot when we were younger.

2⃣. For expressing a discontinued habit.

*Eg*. I used to study a lot in SSC.

❤12. *_NEED_*

Need is used for:

1⃣. For necessity or obligation.

*Eg*. I need hardly to go.

Shakespeare (1564-1616)contribution...

William Shakespeare is called the father of eng drama. He extended his contribution from
elizabathen to Jacobean period. He is also known as bard of Avon ( sweet swan of Avon) and
popular for his 37 plays and 154 sonnets.

*****His life and works ****....

William Shakespeare was born on 1564 in Stafford England on sant George 'S day. He was the
son of John Shakespeare and Mary Arden (daughter of landowner). His father was a glove
maker. He was third Of all eight children and the eldest surviving son of John Shakespeare. Few
scholars assume that he went to king's New school. During 18 age he married to hatheway who
was eight years older than him during 1582. After six months she gave birth Susana, twin sona
hamnet and one girl Judith. later during 11 years hamnet died.

after wedding he spent most of his time in London, writing and plays .due to some well
investment he was able to secure a film background. he added to globe theatre and became
shareholders. the best of his investment was paying some real estate near Stratford in
1605.after few times he returned when he felt less profit and gave his more time in writing.

**** his works *****

Shakespeare era is divided into four parts :

a) first part contain from 1590 to 1595. during this time he wrote his 154 sonnets((( 1 to 127
sonnet deal about young men while rest explain about dark lady, rhyme scheme abab -cdcd-
efef-gg) )) and worked on earlier plays. He rewrote and reformed that by remodelling and
rewriting. Love labour lost and comedy of errors both were his earlier comedies.

b) second part include from 1595 to 1601.the plays of these times were not so serious but
deeply effected on human behaviour, promises and nature, appreciated in London. Twelfth
night, as u like it and Henry v were written during this time.

c) third part extended up from 1601 to 1608 .all tragedies were written during this time such as
Macbeth, Othello, king Lear and Hamlet. It was not only appreciated in London rather all over
Europe. it effected deeply.

D) rest of his life part from 1608 to 1612 fell on creations of tragicomedies. It was also known as
romantic part of Shakespeare life. The tempest, the winter's tale, cymbeline involved under it.
*****Shakespeare plays******

Shakespeare has written 37 plays :

17 comedies, 10 tragedies and 10 histories....

a)TRAGEDIES= Titus Anteronicus (1588-1590),Romieo Juliet (1591-1596-97),Timon (1600),Julius

Caesar (1601),Antony and Cleopatra (1602),Hamlet (1602),Othello (1604), king Lear
(1605),Macbeth (1606),coriolanns (1608)

b) COMEDIES=love labour lost (1590),comedy of errors (1591),two gentlemen of Verona (1592-

93),a midsummer night's dream (1593-94),the merchant of Venice (1598), taming of the shrew
(1597),merry wives of Windsor (1598),much ado about nothing (1598),As u like it (1599),
twelfth night (1600-1601),all's well thats ends well (1601-1605),measure for measure
(1603),cymbeline (1600),two noble kinsmen (1612)....

c) histories = Henry 6 (1590-91), 2 and 3 Henry 6(1591-92),Richard 3 (1593),Richard 2( 1594),

king John (1595),Henry 4 (1597-98),Henry 5(1599),Henry 8 (1612-13)

****** Shakespeare's tragedic elements :

a) fall of character =Bradle says that Shakespeare main entitled character of tragedy is killed
lastly. They fall and suffered for their faults.

b) pity and year = his tragedy create pity and fear in the mind of audience.

c) conflict = conflict is the soul of Shakespeare tragedy. Tragedic heroes are pushed into two
different directions.

D) tragic flaw =there is error of judgment, called hamartia.

e) poetic justice =it comes silently after evil destruction.

f) sobnambulism, ghosts and supernatural elements are famous.

g) mystery and suspense are required.

*****Shakespeare comedy elements :

a) there are heroines more than heroes.

b) Love, marriage and friendship always involved in his comedies.

c) Disguising and sweet revenge .

D) song, dance and music with happy ending.

e) Love examination and suffer by nature.

f) supernatural powers.

g) action take place far from land.

h) laughter moments.

Saussure's Basic Principles of Structural Linguistics

Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), was a Swiss Linguist who laid the great foundation of the
field of Linguistics in 20tth century. The book Cours de Linguistiques Générale, written by his
disciples published posthumously in 1916, is a compilation of his lectures given at University of
Geneva around 1901 or 1906. It has become an essential text in the literary canon of linguistics
as the book documents his research, ideas, and analysis of the nature of language that gives us
a great insight into the basics of structural linguistics.

For anyone new to the linguistics, it becomes necessarily important to be thoroughly familiar
with the major dichotomies or concepts that Saussure came up with in his Cours de
Linguistiques Generale (1916). Through these principles or concepts, we can trace back the
origins of the Structural Linguistics.
Langue & Parole

The language is constituted of two parts: langue and parole. And the linguistic communication
is just not possible if these two work independently and individually. The Langue represents the
system of language having signs, rules, and patterns devised by a particular social group for
communication. The parole meaning the utterance of that Langue and thus, it varies from
community to community and region to region. (However, this dichotomy is now
overshadowed by Chomsky's distinction between competence and performance.)

For example, in English, an apple is called an apple whereas it is called яблоко (yabloko) in
Russian. Hence, the langue in English has rules and patterns of letters which allows the parole
to utter an apple as an apple. The same goes with the latter.

Paradigm & Syntagm

Saussure named the relation between the words corresponding to our the operation of our
brain. A syntagmatic relation between words is when the words either spoken or written have
different grammatical roles in the sentence. The syntagmatic structures the words in the
sequence to form a meaningful whole. For example,

Rachael drinks juice a lot for keeping her body healthy.

On the contrary, a paradigmatic relation between the words will be when these two words can
substitute each other in a sentence without affecting the meaning of the sentence. A
paradigmatic

John likes to drink water a lot for keeping his body healthy.

Here are few more examples:

The boy eats an apple.

That girl eats an apple

This man eats an apple

If you look closely at the table, you can see that horizontally when words are sequenced in
order; it creates a meaningful whole that something is being eaten by someone whereas you
may see that vertically, the words can be replaced without changing this meaning. This
opposition of paradigmatic and syntagmatic relationship is a dichotomy in linguistics.

Synchrony & Diachrony

Saussure analysed the nature of language through the two different and opposed perspectives:
one he called synchronic and the other diachronic. Where synchrony studies the language
existing in a particular point of time, diachronic studies the language concerning its historic
development.

For example, you study the Old English in England, you are using a synchronic approach where
you are limiting your study to a particular period of time.

But if you are researching on the evolution of English language and its use from Middle English
to Modern English, it would be called a diachronic study or historical linguistics.

Arbitrariness of the Sign

Signs are the basic elements of the linguistic communication which Saussure called arbitrary. He
believed that signs are understood best on the basis of what is signified (mental image) and
what signifies (signifier). He argued that a word in any language is given the meaning through
the functioning of signs which forms the relationship between signifier and signified. And this
relationship he called purely arbitrary which has no logical meaning. Let us understand this
through this example:

The word cat has no logic why it refers to a cat, and hence there are different names for the cat
in various languages.

Cat: The Signifier

A small mammal with four legs: The Signified

However, if we can name a cat as Meow, it can be said to be logical because the cat actually
makes this sound.

Meow: The Signifier

A small mammal with four legs which makes the sound meow: The Signified

Hence, Saussure concluded that the relationship between signifier and signified is arbitrary.

These were the central concepts of Saussure that made his successors study the use and
function of language in a different perspective.

#LINGUISTICS_VS_LITERATURE

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#Difference_Between_Linguistics_and_Literature

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The key difference between linguistics and

literature is that linguistics refers to the

systematic study of a language whereas

literature can be defined as the study of

written works within a language. This clearly

highlights that the main difference between

these two fields of study are grounded on

structure and content though both have the

commonality of language as a basis for their

works. This article will attempt to define

these two terms, linguistics and literature,

while providing an understanding of the

differences that exist within the two fields.

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#What_is_Linguistics?

The human languages which enable us to

communicate with one another have very

systematic structures. Linguistics is a field

that studies these structural aspects of a

language. Hence, it can be defined as the

systematic and scientific study of a

language. It encompasses the study of

language in relation to its nature,

organization, origin, contextual impact,

cognitive and dialectical formation. Linguists

are concerned with the nature of languages,

their systematic component, the

commonalities and differences that exist

among human languages and the cognitive

processes that come into play.

The field of linguistics is made up of a

number of parts that create the totality of

linguistics. They are phonetics (the study of

the physical nature of speech sounds),

phonology (the study of the cognitive nature

of speech sounds), morphology (the study of

word formation), syntax (the study of

sentence formation), semantics (the study of

meaning) and pragmatics (the study of the

usage of language). Other than these there

are other disciplines that are connected to

linguistics such as psycholinguistics,

sociolinguistics, dialectology, ethno-linguisti

cs, etc.

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#What_is_Literature?
Literature includes written works that belong

to many genres ranging from poetry and

dramas to novels. Literature is a work of art.

It is a creation of a world that allows the

reader to not only dive into an alien world,

but also allows the reader to reflect on

various issues. It is not merely a recital of

the ordinary speech but contains artistic

value. There are different forms of literature

mainly prose and poetry. Prose includes

dramas, novels and short stories whereas

poetry refers to a more melodious and

rhythmic work of art. Unlike in linguistics,

literature is devoid of rigidity in the structure

and its relationships. It is not limited to a

certain sphere and has a vast canvas. If we

look at the English literature, the literary

works are divided into different eras also

known as literary periods in English literature

for the purpose of studying, such as the

renaissance, the romantic period, the

Victorian period so on and so forth. For each

period there are contemporary writers, poets

and playwrights that were prominent figures

of the time in terms of their literary work.

For example, in the Victorian period Alfred

Lord Tennyson, The Bronte sisters, Robert

Browning and Thomas Hardy were prominent

figures who gained popularity either among

the societies at the time or else later in for

the significance of their contribution to

literature.

What is the difference between Linguistics

and Literature?

• While linguistics is more of a systematic

study of language and human

communication, overall, literature takes a

different turn, making literary works its

material for study.

• A key contrast between the two disciplines

stems from the systematic nature associated

to the fields and subjectivity. In linguistics,

there is less room for subjective ideas and it

is a study that is very scientific and

objective whereas literature is more

subjective and is vast.

• However, both fields are built on the

component of language as their main

source.and if you want to add your views on

this topic it would be great to read your

comments on this sublime topic .

Romantic Poetry

Romanticism is the name given to a dominant movement in literature and the other arts –
particularly music and painting – in the the period from the 1770s to the mid-nineteenth
century:

It is regarded as having transformed artistic styles and practices

Like many other terms applied to movements in the arts, the word covers a wide and varied
range of artists and practices

It is a retrospective term, applied by later literary, art and musical historians. None of the artists
we refer to as Romantics would have so described themselves

It was a European phenomenon, particularly powerful in Britain, France and Germany, but also
affecting countries such as Italy, Spain and Poland. There was also, to some extent, an American
version of the movement.

Reaction to earlier age

Like many other literary movements, it developed in reaction to the dominant style of the
preceding period:

The eighteenth century is often described by literary historians as the Augustan Age because it
sought to emulate the culture of the reign of the Roman Emperor Augustus (27 BCE – 14 CE)

Classical standards of order, harmony, proportion and objectivity were preferred – the period
saw a revival of interest in classical architecture, for instance
In literature, Greek and Roman authors were taken as models and many eighteenth century
writers either translated or produced imitations of poetry in classical forms

In its early years, Romanticism was associated with radical and revolutionary political
ideologies, again in reaction against the generally conservative mood of European society.

Main Features

Central features of Romanticism include:

An emphasis on emotional and imaginative spontaneity

The importance of self-expression and individual feeling. Romantic poetry is one of the heart
and the emotions, exploring the ‘truth of the imagination' rather than scientific truth. The ‘I'
voice is central; it is the poet's perceptions and feelings that matter.

An almost religious response to nature. They were concerned that Nature should not just be
seen scientifically but as a living force, either made by a Creator, or as in some way divine, to be
neglected at humankind's peril. Some of them were no longer Christian in their beliefs. Shelley
was an atheist, and for a while Wordsworth was apantheist (the belief that god is in
everything). Much of their poetry celebrated the beauty of nature, or protested the ugliness of
the growing industrialization of the century: the machines, factories, slum conditions, pollution
and so on.

A capacity for wonder and consequently a reverence for the freshness and innocence of the
vision of childhood. See The world of the Romantics: Attitudes to childhood

Emphasis on the imagination as a positive and creative faculty

An interest in ‘primitive' forms of art – for instance in the work of early poets (bards), in ancient
ballads and folksongs. Some of the Romantics turned back to past times to find inspiration,
either to the medieval period, or to Greek and Roman mythology. See Aspects of the Gothic:
Gothic and the medieval revival

An interest in and concern for the outcasts of society: tramps, beggars, obsessive characters
and the poor and disregarded are especially evident in Romantic poetry
An idea of the poet as a visionary figure, with an important role to play as prophet (in both
political and religious terms).

#Who_were_the_Romantics?

Some authors have been regarded as pre-Romantic:

William Blake (1757-1827) a visionary poet who was also an artist and engraver, with a
particular interest in childhood and a strong hatred of mechanical reason and industrialization;

Robert Burns (1759-1796) who worked as a ploughman and farm labourer but who had
received a good education and was interested in early Scots ballads and folk-song;

Walter Scott (1771-1832), another Scot, who developed his interest in old tales of the Border
and early European poetry into a career as poet and novelist.

The first generation of Romantics is also known as the Lake Poets because of their attachment
to the Lake District in the north-west of England:

William Wordsworth (1770-1850) who came from the Lake District and was the leading poet of
the group, whose work was especially associated with the centrality of the self and the love of
nature;

Samuel Taylor Coleridge (1772-1834) was Wordsworth's closest colleague and collaborator, a
powerful intellectual whose work was often influenced by contemporary ideas about science
and philosophy;

Robert Southey (1774-1843), a prolific writer of poetry and prose who settled in the Lake
District and became Poet Laureate in 1813; his work was later mocked by Byron;

Charles Lamb (1775-1834) was a poet but is best-known for his essays and literary criticism; a
Londoner, he was especially close to Coleridge;

Thomas de Quincey (1785-1859) the youngest member of the group, best known as an essayist
and critic, who wrote a series of memories of the Lake Poets.

The second generation of Romantic poets included:

George Gordon, Lord Byron (1788-1824);

Percy Bysshe Shelley (1792-1822) was one of the leading poets;

John Keats (1795-1821) was a London poet, especially known for his odes and sonnets and for
his letters, which contain many reflections on poetry and the work of the imagination.

The poets named so far are those who, for many years, dominated the Romantic canon – that
group of writers whose works were most commonly republished, read, anthologised, written
about and taught in schools, colleges and universities.

More recently, however, a revised Romantic canon has begun to emerge, which lays more
emphasis on women, working-class and politically radical writers of the period:

Work by these writers can be found in two anthologies, both with useful introductions
discussing the justification for extending the canon in this way:

Duncan Wu. Romanticism: an Anthology. 3rd edition. Oxford: Blackwell, 2005;

Jerome J. McGann. The New Oxford Book of Romantic Period Verse. Oxford: Oxford University
Press, 1993

On time vs. In time

The difference between “on time” and “in time” is a subtle one, and the two expressions may
sometimes be used interchangeably. Nevertheless, they express two slightly different ideas:

in time = early enough; not late

on time = punctually; according to the schedule

They are often interchangeable when the implied meaning is “not too late”. Either variant is
possible in

The road is closed; I won’t be able to get to work in time / on time.

When you say that you “cannot get there in time”, the implied meaning is that you are going to
be late, and when you “cannot be there on time”, the implied meaning is that you are going to
miss the scheduled start of your working day, which is essentially the same thing.

On the other hand, when punctuality with respect to some specific time is required, “on time”
sounds more natural:

The meeting has been scheduled for 3 pm. Please, arrive on time.

Of course, it is probably fine to arrive at 2:55, but the point is that you should be present in the
correct conference room at 3 o’clock.

When it is the fact that you are not (too) late that matters, “in time” is the more natural variant;
in fact, you can still be “in time” even when you are not “on time”:

I didn’t arrive at the cinema on time, but I still arrived in time to see the whole film.

IRONY

Definition: There are three types of irony: verbal, situational and dramatic.

Verbal irony occurs when a speaker’s intention is the opposite of what he or she is saying. For
example, a character stepping out into a hurricane and saying, “What nice weather we’re
having!”
Situational irony occurs when the actual result of a situation is totally different from what you’d
expect the result to be. Sitcoms often use situational irony. For example, a family spends a lot
of time and money planning an elaborate surprise birthday party for their mother to show her
how much they care. But it turns out, her birthday is next month, and none of them knew the
correct date. She ends up fuming that no one cares enough to remember her birthday.

Dramatic irony occurs when the audience knows a key piece of information that a character in a
play, movie or novel does not. This is the type of irony that makes us yell, “DON’T GO IN
THERE!!” during a scary movie. Dramatic irony is huge in Shakespeare’s tragedies, most
famously in Othello and Romeo and Juliet, both of which we’ll examine later.

Why Writers Use It: Irony inverts our expectations. It can create the unexpected twist at the
end of a joke or a story that gets us laughing — or crying. Verbal irony tends to be funny;
situational irony can be funny or tragic; and dramatic irony is often tragic.

Irony in Shakespeare and Literature

Dramatic Irony in Othello

Othello is one of the most heartrending tragedies ever written, and Shakespeare’s use of
dramatic irony is one of the reasons the play is so powerful to read and watch.

We know that the handkerchief used as proof of Desdemona’s infidelity was, in fact, stolen by
Emilia at Iago’s behest. Desdemona was framed by Iago, and we know she is innocent. But we
are powerless to stop Othello; he has resolved to murder his wife.

Iago, whom Othello considers a friend, has been plotting Othello’s demise for the duration of
the play. Othello does not know that Iago is the one pulling the strings, but we do. We know he
is the one who convinces Roderigo to kill Cassio, even as we watch him pretend to help Cassio
after he is wounded. Only we see Iago kill Roderigo before he can reveal the truth. In this way,
we are complicit with Iago’s misdeeds. We are the only witnesses, and yet we can do nothing.

Dramatic Irony in Romeo and Juliet

In the final act of this archetypal love story, Shakespeare employs dramatic irony to keep the
audience on the edge of their seats.

Friar Laurence sends a messenger to tell Romeo about Juliet’s plan to drug herself into
deathlike coma. We watch in horror as the messenger fails to deliver this vital piece of
information. And though we know that Juliet is not really dead, we see Romeo poison himself
because he cannot live without her.

Verbal Irony in A Modest Proposal

Johnathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal is a classic example of verbal irony. He begins seemingly in
earnest, discussing the sad state of destitute children:

[…] whoever could find out a fair, cheap, and easy method of making these children sound,
useful members of the commonwealth, would deserve so well of the public as to have his
statue set up for a preserver of the nation.

Seems reasonable enough. But things take a very ironic turn:

I have been assured by a very knowing American of my acquaintance in London, that a young
healthy child well nursed is at a year old a most delicious, nourishing, and wholesome food,
whether stewed, roasted, baked, or boiled; and I make no doubt that it will equally serve in a
fricassee or a ragout.
Is Swift sincerely proposing that we eat children? No, but he has indeed inverted our
expectations and written a wonderfully ironic essay.

Situational irony in The Gift of the Magi

In this short story by O. Henry, a wife sells her hair to buy her husband a watch chain, and her
husband sells his watch to buy her combs for her hair. Both have made sacrifices in order to buy
gifts for one another, but in the end, the gifts are useless. The real gift is how much they are
willing to give up to show their love for one another.

Situational irony in “Messy Room” by Shel Silverstein

Whosever room this is should be ashamed!

His underwear is hanging on the lamp.

His raincoat is there in the overstuffed chair,

And the chair is becoming quite mucky and damp.

His workbook is wedged in the window,

His sweater’s been thrown on the floor.

His scarf and one ski are beneath the TV,

And his pants have been carelessly hung on the door.

His books are all jammed in the closet,

His vest has been left in the hall.

A lizard named Ed is asleep in his bed,

And his smelly old sock has been stuck to the wall.

Whosever room this is should be ashamed!

Donald or Robert or Willie or–

Huh? You say it’s mine? Oh, dear,

I knew it looked familiar!

The speaker criticizes the room’s owner at length, only to discover that the room is his own

" SUBJECT MATTER Of Plot"

According to Aristotle the subject matter of plot in tragedy is ideal truth. It is different from
factual truth. Poetry is not what has been or what is but what might be or ought to be. The
truth of poetry the truth of drama the highest form of poetry is not factual but ideal. Art deals
with universal and not with particular. That's why Aristotle says that poetry is more
philosophical than history. Poetry has high seriousness and high truth. Ideals have practical
importance in the life of man. Poetry by presenting ideal truth is trying to raise humanity above
the common level. It places great goals before man for which he must struggle. If these ideals
and high goals were not there, then man would sink into the level of animals and there would
have no meaning in life. So these ideal truth may not be real, if reality for us is what is or has
been, but they have also truth of their own. This should be the subject matter of plot and
drama.

Now some difficulty does arise. The playwright did not make their own subject matter, they did
not invent their own stories. Shakespeare for Instance, did not make his own stories. He took
from already existed myths and then developed and arranged them in a plot. The Greeks did
the same. The materials they borrowed were from the cycles of stories about heroes. These
were legends of great heroes. These stories were regarded historically true by the common
people as we regarded some of the legends historically true, The question is these stories were
about not what might be or ought to be but what had been, so ideal truth was to be objected
here...

Aristotle says that these stories must be converted into poetry by selecting and rejecting.
Because in the legends there is no poetic truth there is no vital connection of incidents. They
contain a great deal of Improbabilities. In constructing the plot, the artist should leave out the
improbable and irrelevant. He should select the relevant. This is poetic licence to him. The poet
has the right of selection and rejection. What about the impossible? These legends also
contained impossible. By impossible, Aristotle means supernatural and the miraculous.
Supernatural played a crucial role in these legends. Should they be included? Aristotle says that
impossible should not be included in tragedy may be included but making it probable.

He should create an atmosphere first because then the impossible don't appear impossible. He
should create the willing suspension of disbelief and transport the reader to a difficult world
where the impossible does not appear impossible but probable.

Aristotle says "Probable impossibility is better than impossible probability". Possible is natural
but if it is improbable possibility then it does not logically follow from what has taken place.
Improbable possibility is greater fault than the probable impossible. It does not mean that the
writer of tragedy must not include the impossible and the improbable. The writer of the epic
may include the impossible but he should not include improbable. But in tragedy both should
have no place.

18 Facts About War and Peace

Leo Tolstoy's epic—featuring hundreds of characters, numerous plot threads, and a battle
sequence that lasts more than 20 chapters—is the literary equivalent of a marathon. Here are a
few facts about the author, his struggles to bring War and Peace to life, and the lasting impact
the work has had in Russia and beyond.

1. ITS ORIGINAL TITLE WAS THE YEAR 1805.

The first installment of Tolstoy’s work—"The Year 1805"—appeared in the journal Russian
Messenger in February 1865. Serializing a work of fiction was common for writers at the time,
and a way for Tolstoy to support himself as he continued working on the novel. The stark title
indicated the year in which his story—and the rumblings of revolution—begins, and it’s one
Tolstoy always saw as a placeholder. Other provisional titles followed as he continued working
on the story, including, for a short time, “All’s Well That Ends Well.”
2. TOLSTOY WAS INSPIRED BY THE DECEMBRISTS’ REVOLT OF 1825.

The Russian count’s original plan for War and Peace was nothing like the end product. Tolstoy
envisioned a trilogy that centered on the attempted overthrow of Tsar Nicolas I by a group of
military officers who became known as The Decembrists.

The first book would examine the officers’ lives and ideological development during the
Napoleonic Wars. The second book would focus on their failed uprising, with a third book
following the officers during their exile and eventual return from Siberia. Tolstoy saw the
uprising as a seminal moment in Russian history—a turning point in the nation’s history when
Western ideals clashed with traditionally Russian ideals. As Tolstoy began writing, he was so
taken with the time period surrounding the Napoleonic Wars that he decided to make it his sole
focus.

3. HIS WIFE WAS INVALUABLE TO HIS WRITING PROCESS.

Tolstoy would often insist that his wife Sofya sit with him while he wrote. She also served as her
husband’s first reader, cleaning up his copy and noting changes she thought he should make. At
Sofya’s insistence, Tolstoy axed a particularly racy scene from Pierre Bezukhov’s wedding night.
Sofya would also copy her husband’s drafts into a more legible form for his publishers. As
Rosamund Bartlett writes in Tolstoy: A Russian Life, her deciphering of Tolstoy’s “execrable
handwriting, and then preparing a legible final draft of the manuscript was a gargantuan task.”

4. SOFYA WAS ALSO SHREWD ABOUT THE BUSINESS SIDE.

Tolstoy was pleased to see “The Year 1805” in serial form. The story was a hit with readers, and
the publishers of Russian Messenger paid him well. But Sofya Tolstoy urged her husband to
publish the work in book form, arguing that he could earn more money and reach a wider
audience. They led to the 1867 novel War and Peace, which was only half the final novel. The
book’s success inspired him to speed up his writing, which had begun to lag, and the complete
novel was published in 1869.

5. TOLSTOY BASED MANY OF HIS CHARACTERS ON FAMILY MEMBERS.

While visiting family in Moscow in 1864, Tolstoy read his relatives sections of his work in
progress. The family was surprised to hear numerous similarities between themselves and the
characters. In a novel with as many characters as War and Peace (559 in all), this was, perhaps,
inevitable.

It also added shades of authenticity, since some of Tolstoy’s family members, including his
distant cousin Prince Sergey Volkonsky, had actually fought in the Napoleonic Wars. (As the
name similarity might indicate, Tolstoy’s descendants inspired numerous members of the
fictional Bolkonsky relatives). According to Bartlett, though, this was a common practice for
Tolstoy. “Throughout his writing career, Tolstoy pillaged his family history for creative
material,” she writes.

6. FRIENDS AND FAMILY HELPED WITH HIS RESEARCH.

A historical novel as long and involved as War and Peace required exhaustive research. Tolstoy
read as many books about the Napoleonic Wars as he could. He also conducted interviews with
veterans and visited battlefields like Borodino. But being one man, he didn’t have time to
research everything himself. So he called on his father in law, Andrey Bers, who clipped old
newspaper articles for Tolstoy and reminisced about his childhood in the early 1800s. Tolstoy
also turned to historian friends for help, carrying on lengthy correspondences and even bringing
some of them to his estate of Yasnaya Polyana. The most important asset in Tolstoy’s research
may have been Moscow’s first public libraries, which opened in the 1860s as part of the cultural
awakening that swept through the city.

7. IT TOOK HIM A YEAR TO WRITE THE OPENING SCENE.

War and Peace opens at a high-society soiree that introduces the reader to many of the novel’s
principal characters. It’s an elegant beginning that took Tolstoy 15 drafts and nearly one year’s
time before he was satisfied. A perfectionist, Tolstoy insisted on getting the introduction right
before moving on. Thankfully for him, the rest of the novel came out at a faster pace.

8. TOLSTOY WAS CONSTANTLY REVISING.

Scholars note that Tolstoy’s progress on War and Peace frequently stalled as the author
reworked portions of the book again and again. The constant churn could be frustrating to the
author, who would often clear his head with hunting excursions on his estate at Yasnaya
Polyana. Even after the six volumes of War and Peace were completed, Tolstoy went back and
revised. He cut out pages and pages of commentary, eventually whittling the work down to four
volumes.

9. HE FOUGHT FOR A BIG PAY DAY—AND GOT IT.

When he had previously published in Russian Messenger, Tolstoy received 50 rubles for each
printer’s sheet. For Tolstoy’s war epic, publisher Mikhail Katkov wanted to continue paying the
author at this rate. But according to Bartlett, Tolstoy knew he was worth more than that, and
demanded 300 rubles per sheet. After hours of tense negotiations, Katkov agreed to the rate,
and Tolstoy received 3000 rubles for the ten sheets that made up the first installment of
“1805.” Consider that the average monthly wage for a Russian worker was 10 rubles, and you
get some idea of just how much money Tolstoy was bringing in.

10. IT APPEARED IN RUSSIAN MESSENGER AT THE SAME TIME AS ANOTHER RUSSIAN

MASTERPIECE.

In 1866, as the last installments of Tolstoy’s “1805” were being published; another story
appeared in Russian Messenger that generated considerable buzz: Fyodor Dostoevsky’s Crime
and Punishment. Appearing in monthly installments, the story—alongside “1805”—made
Russian Messenger one of the most significant literary journals in history. The significance may
have been lost on Katkov who, in addition to paying through the nose to Tolstoy, struggled to
get Dostoevsky’s monthly submissions in on time.

11. CRITICS WERE BEWILDERED.

“What genre are we supposed to file it into?” a reviewer in the journal Golos asked. “Where is
fiction in it, and where is history?” The question reflected a common sentiment amongst critics
upon reading a novel that told of real events, re-created real battles, and included real people
like Napoleon Bonaparte and Tsar Alexander I. Was War and Peace fiction, or was it non-
fiction? The truth, of course, is that it was both.

In dramatizing history with such scope and detail, Tolstoy had taken a massive leap towards the
modern historical novel. History, Tolstoy believed, is the chronicle of individual lives, and fiction
is the best way to reveal those lives. Many readers were on board, and War and Peace became
a smash success. “It is the epic, the history novel and the vast picture of the whole nation’s
life,” novelist Ivan Turgenev wrote.

12. IT PRESENTED A REVOLUTION IN NARRATIVE PERSPECTIVE.

Tolstoy wasn’t the first author to utilize internal monologue (or the internal thoughts of
characters), but many scholars credit him with revolutionizing its use. According to Kathryn
Feuer, a Tolstoy scholar who had access to the author’s early drafts, the author mastered the
art of presenting a character’s internal response to external objects and events.

She also noted, as others have, Tolstoy’s seamless use of multiple perspectives, from sweeping
battle scenes that situate the reader high above the mayhem, to the intimate goings-on within
the minds of Pierre Bezukhov, Natasha Rostova, and other characters.
13. TOLSTOY WROTE A DEFENSE OF THE BOOK.

Despite an overwhelmingly positive response to War and Peace from readers and critics,
Tolstoy wanted to address those who criticized the work's genre ambiguity. In the journal
Russian Archive, Tolstoy wrote an essay titled “A Few Words About the Novel War and Peace’”
(which, being Tolstoy, was much more than a few words).

He made clear his apathy toward European literary forms, famously claiming that War and
Peace was not, in fact, a novel: “What is War and Peace? It is not a novel, still less a [narrative]
poem, and even less an historical chronicle. War and Peace is what the author wanted to and
could express in the form in which it was expressed.”

14. IT TOOK A TOLL ON HIS HEALTH.

The six years Tolstoy toiled away on War and Peace taxed both his mind and body. Toward the
end of the writing process, he developed migraines, which he often tried to work through but
which would sometimes stop him in his tracks. After finishing the work, he came down with a
severe case of the flu that left him feeling drained for weeks. The author took a prolonged
hiatus from writing, focusing instead on learning Greek and building a schoolhouse for the
children who lived at Yasnaya Polyana.

15. MILITARY MINDS PRAISED THE BATTLE SCENES.

Tolstoy was no stranger to war. He served as an artillery officer during the Crimean War, where
he witnessed the bloody orchestra of battle at places like Sevastopol. Tolstoy channeled his
experiences into the battle sequences of War and Peace. The Battle of Borodino, in particular,
which comprises more than 20 chapters of the book, is widely praised as the finest battle
sequence ever written. Russian military commanders offered glowing praise for the novel’s
descriptive powers of battle and one former general even wrote that it should be required
reading for all Russian Army officers.
16. TOLSTOY WASN’T MUCH OF A WAR AND PEACE FAN.

Maybe it was all the time he spent with the story and all of its characters, or maybe the
development of his sensibilities as an artist, but Tolstoy became disenchanted with his seminal
work shortly after finishing it. He wrote to a friend that he hoped to never again write
something as bloated as War and Peace. In his diary, he wrote, “People love me for the trifles—
War and Peace and so on—that they think are so important.”

17. THE SOVIET FILM ADAPTATION OF THE WORK WAS APPROPRIATELY EPIC.

When American audiences think of grand, costly films, the likes of Gone with the Wind (1939),
Cleopatra (1963), and Titanic (1997) typically come to mind. But Sergei Bondarchuk’s 1966
adaptation of War and Peace has them all beat. Filmed over six years—the same time it took
Tolstoy to write the novel—and lasting six hours, the film supposedly had all the resources of
the Soviet Union at its disposal. This included more than 120,000 extras, many of them Red
Army soldiers, used to film the movie’s staggering battle sequences, and a budget that
ballooned to more than $100 million.

But talking to National Geographic in 1986, Bondarchuk said that these numbers largely weren’t
real: it was actually eight hours (“some tradesman in America cut it without my knowledge”)
and the 120,000 extras was an exaggeration and “all I had was 12,000.”

The movie, shown to audiences in two parts, was intended to bolster patriotism and to
showcase the strength of the Soviet film industry. That it also balances action with strong
performances and odd, intimate moments, like a soldier demanding a commendation in the
middle of a battle, is a testament to Bondarchuk’s artistry. “You are never, ever going to see
anything equal to it,” wrote Roger Ebert.

18. RUSSIA RECENTLY HELD A 60-HOUR LONG LIVE READING.

In 2015, Russian state television aired a unique live reading of War and Peace. Over the course
of 60 hours, more than 1000 Russians from all over the world read the book in three-minute
increments. One by one, readers from Washington, Paris, Beijing, Nepal and numerous other
locations took their turn. Cosmonaut Sergei Volkov, situated aboard the International Space
Station, even read an excerpt. The event was organized by Leo Tolstoy’s great-great
granddaughter, and included family members reading from Yasnaya Polyana, Tolstoy’s estate.