Elements, mixtures and compounds

An atom is the smallest particle of an element that can take part in a

chemical reaction.
An element is a substance made up of one kind of atom. It cannot be
simplified by any chemical process. All elements are found on the periodic
table of elements. E.g. sulfur, copper and oxygen.
A molecule is two or more atoms combined by covalent bonds. e.g. H2, N2,
CO2 and H2O. The atoms can be similar or different.
A compound is two or more elements chemically combined. e.g. H2O,
CO2, NaCl, CH4 and NaOH. A compound has different atoms.
A mixture is two or more different substances not chemically combined. It
can be separated by physical means. e.g. salt solution, sand and salt, air and
an alloy is a mixture of elements.

Compound
Always homogeneous (each sample
of the compound looks exactly the
same and it is not possible to identify
the separate elements in it).
Cannot be split by a physical
process.
The properties are totally unlike
those of the elements which combine
together to make the compound.
Elements are always in a fixed
proportion (i.e. constant
composition)
The melting points and boiling points
are fixed.
Mixture
May be homogeneous (e.g. water
plus ethanol) or heterogeneous (e.g.
iron and sulfur)
Separation is possible by physical
processes like evaporation
The elements in a mixture retain
their properties. A mixture has all
these properties.
Can have any composition e.g. 1 %
sulfur and 99% iron or 98% sulfur
and 2% iron.
The melting points and boiling points
are not fixed.

ATOMIC STRUCTURE

An atom is made up of protons, neutrons and electrons.

Protons and neutrons are in the nucleus of an atom
while electrons orbit around the nucleus in orbitals (or shells).
Particle Location Relative mass Relative charge
Proton nucleus 1 +1
Neutron nucleus 1 0
Electron orbital/shell 1/2000 or 1/1847 -1

Proton number

This is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

It is also called the atomic number.
This is shown at the bottom of the symbol of an element
in the periodic table of elements. e.g. 126C for carbon means
that its proton number is 6.

Nucleon number
-The sum of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
It is also called the mass number or the atomic mass.
e.g. 126C for carbon means that its nucleon number is 12.

In a neutral atom, the number of protons equals the number

of electrons. The number of neutrons is the difference
between the nucleon number and the proton number.

Examples

Particle Number of Number of Number of

protons electrons neutrons
7
3 Li 3 3 4
4
2He 2 2 2
35
17 Cl 17 17 18

37
17 Cl 17 17 20

35
17 Cl- 17 18 18
23
11 Na 11 11 12
23
11 Na+ 11 10 12
27
13 Al3+ 13 10 14
16
8 O2- 8 10 8
55
25 Mn7+ 25 18 30
55
25 Mn4+ 25 21 30
55
25 Mn2+ 25 23 30
207
82 Pb 82 82 125
207
82 Pb4+ 82 78 125
207
82 Pb2+ 82 80 125
Each element has its own atomic number so the atomic
number is used to identify each element on the periodic table.

ISOTOPES
Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons
and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

e.g. isotopes of hydrogen are protium (11H), deuterium (21H)

and tritium (31H).
Isotopes of carbon are carbon-12 (126C), carbon-13 (136C) and
carbon-14 (146C).
Isotopes of chlorine are chlorine-35 (3517Cl) and chlorine-37 (3717Cl).

Question:What is meant by the term isotope?

Answer:Isotopes are atoms with the same number of protons
and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

Atom Number of Number of Number of

protons electrons neutrons
1
H1 1 1 0
2
1H 1 1 1
3
1H 1 1 2
12
6C 6 6 6
13
6C 6 6 7
14
6C 6 6 8
35
17Cl 17 17 18
37
17Cl 17 17 20
235
92U 92 92 143
238
92U 92 92 146
60
27Co 27 27 33
59
27Co 27 27 32

There are two types of isotopes; the radioactive and the

non-radioactive ones. The radioactive isotope is unstable.
It decays into smaller, more stable atoms of another element
by emitting radiation and heat energy.
Uses of radioactive isotopes

1) Medical use.
(a)Cobalt-60 (6027Co) produces gamma rays used in
radiotherapy to cure cancer by killing cancer cells.
(b) Tracer studies of the body.
(c) Locating tumours.
(d) Sterilising instruments.

Kill cancer cure cancer cells

2) Industrial use.
a) Uranium-235 is a nuclear fuel used to provide
nuclear energy that turns water into steam which
turns turbines to produce electricity.
b) To check gas and oil pipes for leaks.
c) To check thickness of sheets and fullness of packets.

ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION

Elements are arranged in the periodic table in order

of the atomic number and the electronic configuration.
To show electronic configuration, fill up the inner shells first.

The first shell can hold up to 2 electrons.

The other shells can hold up to 8 electrons.

Proton number Name of element Electronic

1 Hydrogen 1
2 Helium 2
3 Lithium 2.1
4 Beryllium 2.2
5 Boron 2.3
6 Carbon 2.4
7 Nitrogen 2.5
8 Oxygen 2.6
9 Fluorine 2.7
10 Neon 2.8
11 Sodium 2.8.1
12 Magnesium 2.8.2
13 Aluminium 2.8.3
14 Silicon 2.8.4
15 Phosphorus 2.8.5
16 Sulphur 2.8.6
17 Chlorine 2.8.7
18 Argon 2.8.8
19 Potassium 2.8.8.1
20 Calcium 2.8.8.2

Other possible electronic configurations are 2.8.18.8 and

2.8.18.32.18.8

Examples are;
Selenium 2.8.18.6
Iodine 2.8.18.18.7
Radium 2.8.18.32.18.8.2

THE PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS

This is a method of classifying elements using the proton number and the
electronic configuration. The periodic table can be used in predicting the
properties of elements.

A Russian Chemist called Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleevdrew up the first

version of the periodic table in1869.
He is credited as being the creator of the first version of the periodic table of
elements. Using the table, he predicted the properties of elements yet to be
discovered. Vertical columns of elements in the Periodic table are called
groups. Horizontal rows of elements are called periods.
Elements in the same group have the same number of electrons in their
outermost shell. Elements in the same period have the same number of
shells.

Group I, II and III elements are metallic in nature because

they react by electron loss. Elements on the right hand side
of the periodic table are non-metals. Non-metals react by
electron gain to become stable while forming negative ions.

Group I elements includeion formed

Hydrogen (1) H+ (0)
Lithium (2.1) Li+ (2)
Sodium (2.8.1) Na+ (2.8)
Potassium (2.8.8.1) K+ (2.8.8)

Group II elements include

Beryllium (2.2) Be2+ (2)
Magnesium (2.8.2)Mg2+ (2.8)
Calcium (2.8.8.2)Ca2+ (2.8.8)

Group III elements include

Boron (2.3)B3+(2)
Aluminium (2.8.3) Al3+ (2.8)

Group IV elements include

Carbon (2.4) no ion formed
Silicon (2.8.4) no ion formed

Group V elements include

Nitrogen (2.5) N3- (2.8)
Phosphorus (2.8.5) P3- (2.8.8)

Group VI elements include

Oxygen (2.6) O2- (2.8)
Sulphur (2.8.6)S2-(2.8.8)

Group VII elements include

Hydrogen (1) H- 2
Fluorine (2.7) F-2.8
Chlorine (2.8.7) Cl…………

Group O elements include

Helium (2) No ion formed
Neon (2.8) No ion formed
Argon (2.8.8) No ion formed

Each element of group O has a full outer shell. These elements are called
noble gases. Noble gases are stable (unreactive). All other elements are not
stable. They react to make their outer shells full of electrons.Hydrogen is in
group I as it has one electron in its outermost shell and it can lose one
electron tobecome stable.
Hydrogen is also in group VII asit can gain one electron to become stable.
Horizontal rows of elements are called periods.Elements in the same period
have the same number of shells.There are sevenperiods on the periodic table.

Period 1 has elements with only one shell.

Hydrogen (1)
Helium (2)

Period 2 has elements with only two shells

Lithium(2.1)
Beryllium(2.2)
Boron (2.3)
Carbon (2.4)
Nitrogen (2.5)
Oxygen (2.6)
Fluorine (2.7)
Neon (2.8)

Period 3 has elements with only three shells

Sodium (2.8.1)
Magnesium (2.8.2)
Aluminium (2.8.3)
Silicon (2.8.4)
Phosphorus (2.8.5)
Sulphur (2.8.6)
Chlorine (2.8.7)
Argon (2.8.8)

Period 4 has elements with four shells only. These elements include;
Potassium (2.8.8.1)
Calcium (2.8.8.2)
TRENDS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Changes across a typical period.

Elements change from metals to non-metals across the periodic

table. Group IV of elements contains non-metals, semi-metals and
metals. i.e. carbon is a non-metal, silicon and germanium are semi-
metals (metalloids) while tin and lead are metals.

Types of oxides

Oxides change from strongly basic oxides e.g. sodium oxide and
magnesium oxide, to amphoteric oxides such as aluminium oxide,
to acidic oxides such as nitrogen oxides and sulphur oxides.

Reactivity trends

Reactivity increases down a group for metals i.e. potassium is

more reactive than sodium while caesium is more reactive than
rubidium and potassium. Francium is the most reactive metal.
Reactivity decreases from left to right e.g. calcium is less reactive
than potassium while aluminium is less reactive than magnesium.
The noble gases are unreactive. The reactivity of halogens (group
VII elements) increases up the group so fluorine is the most
reactive non-metal while astatine is the least reactive halogen.

Structure of elements

The structure of elements and their compounds follow a general

trend across a period. Metals form giant metallic lattices. Group IV
elements form giant molecular structures. Group V, VI and VII
form simple molecular structures. Noble gases (group VIII) have
free atoms called mono-atomic molecules.

Transition elements
Transition elements are between groups II and III. These
are metals with the following physical properties:
Have high densities.
Have high melting points and high boiling points.
They are hard.

Chemical properties are (CCCV):

1) They form coloured compounds. Examples: copper (II)
sulphate is blue, copper (II) carbonate is green, potassium
manganate (VII) is purple, potassium dichromate (VI) is
orange while iron (III) chloride is red-brown.
2)Transition elements and their compounds often act as
catalysts. Examples: iron is a catalyst for the Haber process
of making ammonia while vanadium (V) oxide is the
catalyst for the Contact process of making sulphuric acid.
3) They form complex ions.
4) They have variable oxidation states.
e.g. Fe2+ and Fe3+ for iron
Cr6+ and Cr3+ for chromium
Mn7+, Mn4+ and Mn2+ for manganese
Cu+ and Cu2+ for copper
Group I elements
Lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium etc in group I are a
collection of relatively soft metals showing a trend in
melting point, density and reaction with water.
Element Melting Density Atomic Reactivity
point/oC (g/cm3) radius/ nm
Lithium 180 0.535 0.183
Sodium 98 0.971 0.157
Potassium 63 0.862 0.203
Rubidium 39 1,530 0.216

Group I elements are called the alkali metals.

They are soft metals that can be cut with a knife.
They have low densities. They all (except rubidium) float
on water.
They have low melting points and low boiling points.
As we go down group I, reactivity increases while melting
point decreases. Lithium reacts quickly with water. Sodium
reacts vigorously with water while potassium reacts
violently with water.
Sodium burns vigorously in chlorine with a bright yellow
flame. Potassium burns faster than sodium.
Reactivity increases down the group because when the
atomic radius increases, the nucleus has less attraction of
the outer electrons. These electrons can be lost more easily
requiring less energy to remove them.
Group VII elements

These elements are called the halogens. Halogens are a

collection of diatomic molecules. Diatomic means having
two atoms per molecule (i.e. F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and At2).

Q. Why can iodine molecules see so well?

A. Because they have two I’s.
These elements show a trend in colour, state and reactivity.

Halogen molecule Colour State at r.t.p. Reactivity

Fluorine, F2 Yellow Gas
Chlorine, Cl2 Green Gas
Bromine, Br2 Red brown Liquid
Iodine, I2 Grey/ Black Solid
Purple vapour

Reactivity increases up the group as the atom gets smaller.

The colour gets darker down the group VII as the atoms get
bigger. The melting point increases down the group so
chlorine is a gas while bromine is a liquid and iodine is a
solid at room temperature and pressure.
Displacement reaction of halogens

A more reactive halogen displaces a less reactive halogen

out of its halide solution. Fluorine is not used because it is
very corrosive and toxic. It reacts with almost every
element or substance, even the glass of the container.

Displacement of halogens is similar to that of metals using

the reactivity series. A more reactive halogen displaces a
less reactive one by grabbingelectrons while a more
reactive metal displaces a less reactive one by giving
electrons.

The final colour of the solution shows the products formed.

Remember that halogen molecules are coloured but halide
ions (Cl-, Br-, I- e.t.c.) are colourless.

No reaction displacement displacement

Results
Halogen Water NaCl(aq) NaBr(aq) NaI(aq)
 (control) solution Solution solution
Chlorine green X Colourless to Colourles
brown to grey
Bromine brown Remains X Turns
brown grey

Equations:
Cl2 + 2KBr Br2 + 2KCl Cl2 + 2NaI I2 + 2NaCl
Cl2 + 2Br- Br2 + 2Cl- Cl2 + 2I- I2 + 2Cl-
Br2 + 2KCl no reaction

Oxidising power of halogens

Chlorine is a powerful oxidising agent (it can remove

electrons from another substance). The oxidizing power of
halogens decreases going down the group.

F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 At2

Group VIII (noble gases)

These elements are colourless gases, non-metals and

mono-atomic (exist as single atoms).
Noble gases are unreactive and mono-atomic because
their atoms already have full outer electron shells. The
density increases down group 0 because the relative
atomic mass increases.

Argon is the most abundant therefore the cheapest noble

gas. Argon being unreactive is used in providing an inert
atmosphere e.g. in lamps and in light bulbs containing
tungsten filaments. Argon prevents oxidation of the
filament metal so the bulb lasts longer.

Helium is light and non-flammable so it is used in

advertising balloons and any other lighter than air
balloons (not hot air balloons).

Neon is used in electrical discharge tubes where it

produces a red light ---“neon” lights for advertising.

Structure

The structure of a substance depends on the bonding, the

size and shape of the particles.
The packing of particles affects the properties of a
substance.
The four types of structure to be discussed are:
1) Simple molecular
2) Giant molecular
3) Giant ionic
 4) Giant metallic.
1. Simple molecular structure

These have separate (discrete) molecules with strong

covalent bonds between atoms and weak intermolecular
forces (weak Van der Waals forces). When melting or
boiling these substances, the strong covalent bonds are
not brokenbut the weak Van der Waal forces are broken.
Therefore simple molecular substances have low
melting points and low boiling points. They are usually
gases at room temperature and pressure or volatile
liquids. Solids can sublime. Examples; halogens (F2, Cl2,
Br2, I2 and At2), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen,
hydrogen, sulfur and methane (CH4). Most non-metals
have simple molecular structures.

Weak intermolecular forces

Strong covalent bonds

Cl ClClCl

Cl ClClCl

MACROMOLECULES

Carbon has two allotropes: diamond and graphite.

The large structures are called macromolecules.
Classwork 08/02/201225marks

1. What is a noble gas? [1]

2. Draw a diagram showing the electron configuration of a
noble gas, argon. Use your diagram to explain why argon is a
noble gas. [3]
3. What are isotopes? [2]
4. a) Name three isotopes of hydrogen. [3]
b) Which isotope of hydrogen has no neutrons? [1]
c) Which isotope of hydrogen the number of neutrons twice
that of protons? [1]
5. a) Draw a diagram showing the electronic configuration, number
of protons and number of neutrons for each of 35Cl and 37Cl. [4]
b) Use the two diagrams to explain why the two atoms of chlorine
are isotopes. [2]

6. Use the periodic table to find and name an element in

a) group II and period 6
b) group VI and period 5
c) group VII and period 3
d) group O and period 4 [4]

7. The electronic configuration of magnesium is given as 2.8.2

Using the same way, give the electronic configuration of
a) Calcium
b) Bromine
 c) Strontium
d) Sulfur [4]

BONDING