Libyan Civil War (2014–present)

Second Libyan Civil War

Part of the Arab Winter and the Libyan Crisis

Military situation in Libya on 14 April 2020

Under the control of the House of Representatives and the Libyan National Army
Under the control of the Government of National Accord (GNA) and different militias forming the Libya
Shield Force
Controlled by local forces
(For a more detailed 2019 map, see military situation in the Libyan Civil War)

Date 16 May 2014 – present

(6 years and 3 days)
Location Libya
Status
Ongoing

As of January 2020 the House of Representatives controls the eastern Cyrenaica region
and parts of the southern Fezzan and Tripolitania regions and Sirte. The Government of
National Accord controls most of the coastal Tripolitania including Tripoli and Misrata.

Main belligerents

ISIL
(2014–16)[68]
 House of Government of National Wilayat Barqa[69][70]
Representatives National Accord Salvation
[1][2]
Wilayat Tarabulus[71]
(Tobruk-based) (Tripoli-based) (since Government
2016) (2014–17)[52][53] Wilayat Fezzan[71]
Libyan National Support:
Army[3][4] Libyan Ground Libya Shield Force[54] AQIM (2014–
Forces LROR[54] 2015;[72][73] alleged in
Libyan Air Force
(LNA–aligned) Libyan Air Force Libyan National 2016[74])
(GNA–aligned) Guard
Libyan Navy
(LNA–aligned) Libyan Navy[33] [55][56][57]

(GNA–aligned) Support:
Zintan brigades[5]
Others: Qatar (2014–
JEM[6] (from 2016) Presidential Guard[34] 16)[14][43]
SLM/A- Misrata Brigades[35] Sudan (2014–
Minnawi[7][8] 16)[58][44]
Sabratha Revolutionary
Sudan (RSF)[9]
Brigades[36] Turkey (2014–
(since 2019)
Petroleum Facilities 16)[14][59]
Wagner Group
[10][11][12][13] Guard[37] Iran[60] (allegedly)
Tripoli Brigade (until
Support:
2018) Shura Council of
Egypt[14] Benghazi
Tripoli Protection Force
United Arab (since 2018) Revolutionaries
Emirates[14][15] (2014–17)[61][62]
Misratan Third Force[38] al-Qaeda in the
Israel
[16][17][18][19]
Tuareg militias of Ghat[39] Islamic Maghreb
[63]
Toubou Front for the (2014–17)
Russia
Salvation of Libya[39]
(unofficial)[20][21] SCBR
Chadian rebels
Saudi Arabia[22] militia:
(FACT[40], CCMSR[40],
Chad[23] Ansar al-Sharia
URF[41] and UFDD[41])
(2014–17)[64]
Jordan
(2014–16, 2019–present) Syrian Interim Libya Shield 1
[24][25][26] Government (since (2014–16)
2019)[42]
Belarus[27][28] February 17th Martyrs
Turkey (since Brigade
Support
2020)
against ISIL: Rafallah al-Sahati
United States[29] Support: Brigade

United Kingdom[29] Qatar[43] Others:

Sudan[44] (until Shura Council of
France[29]
2019) Support Mujahideen in Derna
Diplomatic support:
against ISIL: (2014–18)
Greece[30]
United States[45] Ansar al-Sharia (Derna)
(2014–18)
Gaddafi United Kingdom[46]
Abu Salim Martyrs
loyalists[31] Italy[47] Diplomatic
(2014–15)
support:
 Popular Front for United Nations Benghazi Defense
the Liberation of European Union[48] Brigades[65][66]
Libya Ajdabiya
Tunisia[49]
Warshefana militias Revolutionaries Shura
Algeria[50]
[5][32][26] Council (2015–16)[67]
Italy[51]
Derna Protection
Force

Commanders and leaders

Fayez al-Sarraj Abu Nabil al-Anbari †
FM Khalifa Haftar (Chairman of the Nouri (Top ISIL leader in
(Commander of Presidential Council and Abusahmain (2014– Libya)[84][85]
Operation Dignity) 16)
Prime minister) Abu Hudhayfah al-
Aguila Saleh Issa (President of the
Col. Al-Mahdi Al- Muhajir[86]
(President of House of GNC)
Representatives) Barghathi Khalifa al-Ghawi (ISIL governor of Wilayat
Abdullah al-Thani (GNA Minister of (2015–17) Tripolitania)
[78]
(Prime Minister)[75] Defense) (Prime Minister)
Col. Wanis Abu Rida Issa[33] Sadiq Al-Ghariani
Khamada (Libyan Navy (Grand Mufti)
(Commander of commander)
Libyan Special
Forces) Abu Khalid al
Brig. Gen. Saqr Madani †
Geroushi (Ansar al-Sharia
Leader)[79]
(Chief of Staff of the
Libyan Air Force) Mokhtar
Chief of Staff Belmokhtar
Abdulrazek al-Nadoori (Commander of Al-
(Libyan Ground Mourabitoun, believed
Forces) dead)[80]
Adm. Faraj al- Musa Abu
Mahdawi Dawud † (AQIM
southern Zone
commander) [63]
Saif al-Islam
Gaddafi[76] Mohamed al-
Gen. Ali Kana Zahawi †[81]
(loyalist leader in (Former Ansar al-Sharia
Fezzan)[77] Leader)
Ateyah Al-Shaari
DMSC / DPF leader
Wissam Ben
Hamid †[82]
(Libya Shield 1
Commander)
Salim Derby †
(Commander of Abu
Salim Martyrs
Brigade)[83]
 Casualties and losses
8,788 killed[87][88][89][90]
20,000 injured (as of May 2015)[91]

The Second Libyan Civil War[92] is an ongoing conflict among rival factions seeking control of Libya.
After erupting in 2014, the conflict is mostly between :

the House of Representatives, elected in 2014 with a low turnout (18%), relocated to Tobruk,
which appointed Marshal Khalifa Haftar as commander-in-chief of the Libyan National Army
with the mission of restoring its sovereignty over the whole of Libyan territory.
the Government of National Accord, led by Prime Minister Fayez al-Sarraj, based in the capital
Tripoli and established after failed military coups and the relocation of the House of
Representatives to Tobruk.

The House of Representatives (also known as the Council of Deputies) is the unicameral parliament of
Libya relocated to Tobruk following the occupation of Tripoli by armed islamist groups in 2014. The House
of Representatives is in control of eastern and central Libya and has the loyalty of the Libyan National Army
of General Khalifa Haftar which was as officially made commander on 2 March 2015. The House of
Representatives has been supported by airstrikes by Egypt and the UAE.[93] The General National Congress,
based in western Libya and backed by various militias (mainly Libya Dawn in the west and Libya Shield in
the east) with some support from Qatar and Turkey,[93][94][95][96] initially accepted the results of the 2014
election, but rejected them after the Supreme Constitutional Court nullified an amendment regarding the
roadmap for Libya's transition and HoR elections.[13] Due to controversy about constitutional amendments,
the HoR refused to take office from GNC in Tripoli,[97] which was controlled by powerful militias from the
western coastal city of Misrata. Instead, the HoR established its parliament in Tobruk, which is controlled by
General Haftar's forces.

In December 2015 the Libyan Political Agreement[98] was signed after long talks in Skhirat. The LPA was
the result of protracted negotiations between rival political camps based in Tripoli, Tobruk, and elsewhere
which agreed to unite as the Government of National Accord. On 30 March 2016, Fayez Sarraj, the head of
the GNA, arrived in Tripoli and began working from there despite opposition from GNC.[99] Although the
Government of National Accord is currently the only internationally recognized government in the country,
its authority remains unrecognized by the House of Representatives, as specific details acceptable to both
sides have not yet been agreed upon, especially regarding the future of Haftar.

In addition to those three factions, there are also smaller rival groups: the Islamist Shura Council of
Benghazi Revolutionaries, led by Ansar al-Sharia, which had the support of the GNC and was defeated in
Benghazi in 2017;[100][101][102] the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant's (ISIL's) Libyan provinces;[103] the
Shura Council of Mujahideen in Derna which expelled ISIL from Derna in July 2015 and was later itself
defeated in Derna by the Tobruk government in 2018;[104] as well as many militias and armed groups,
whose allegiances often change.[93]

In May 2016, the GNA and the GNC launched a joint offensive to capture areas in and around Sirte from
ISIL. This offensive resulted in ISIL losing control of all significant territories previously held in
Libya.[105][106] Later in 2016, forces loyal to Khalifa al-Ghawil attempted a coup d'état against Fayez al-
Sarraj and the Presidential Council of the GNA.[107]

Contents
Background of discontent with General National Congress
 Political fragmentation of the GNC
GNC establishes the Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room (LROR)
Kidnapping of Prime Minister Zeidan
Expansion of armed groups during the GNC's term
GNC's political isolation law
Suppression of women's rights
GNC extends its mandate without elections
House of Representatives versus GNC
Opposing forces
Pro-GNC
Libya Dawn
Libya Shield
Revolutionary Shura Councils
Benghazi Defense Brigades
Amazigh militias
Operation Dignity
LNA
Salafist militias
Zintan brigades
Wershefana militias
Effects of the war
Ethnic tensions
Timeline
Peace efforts
Domestic reactions
Foreign reactions, involvement, and evacuations
Neighboring countries
Algeria
Egypt
Malta
Tunisia
Others
See also
References
Further reading

Background of discontent with General National Congress

At the beginning of 2014, Libya was governed by the General National Congress (GNC), which won the
popular vote in 2012 elections. The GNC was made of two major political groupings, the National Forces
Alliance (NFC) and the Justice and Construction Party (JCP). The two major groups in parliament had failed
to reach political compromises on the larger more important issues that the GNC faced.
Division among these parties, the row over the political isolation law, and a continuous unstable security
situation greatly impacted the GNC's ability to deliver real progress towards a new constitution for Libya
which was a primary task for this governing body.[108]

The GNC also included members associated with conservative Islamist groups as well as revolutionary
groups (thuwwar). Some members of the GNC had a conflict of interest due to associations with militias and
were accused of channeling government funds towards armed groups and allowing others to conduct
assassinations and kidnappings. Parties holding majority of seats and some holding minority of seats began
to use boycotts or threats of boycotts which increased division and suppressed relevant debates by removing
them from the congressional agenda;[109] voting to declare sharia law and establishing a special committee
to "review all existing laws to guarantee they comply with Islamic law";[110] imposing gender segregation
and compulsory hijab at Libyan universities; and refusing to hold new elections when its electoral mandate
expired in January 2014[111] until General Khalifa Haftar launched a large-scale military offensive against
the Islamists in May 2014, code-named Operation Dignity (Arabic: ‫' ;ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ اﻟﻜﺮاﻣﺔ‬Amaliyat al-
Karamah).[112][113]

Political fragmentation of the GNC

The 2012 elections, overseen by the Libyan electoral commission with the support of the UN Special
Mission In Libya (UNSMIL) and nongovernmental organizations like the International Foundation for
Electoral Systems (IFES), have been considered "fair and free" by most Libyans. However, the elections did
not necessarily create a strong government because the Parliament was fragmented due to the lack of
organized political parties in Libya post-revolution. The GNC was made up of two major parties, the
National Forces Alliance and the Justice and Construction Party, as well as independents in which some
were moderates and others conservative Islamists. The GNC became a broad-based congress.[108]

The GNA elected Nouri Abusahmain as president of the GNC in June 2013.[114][115] He was considered an
independent Islamist and a compromise candidate acceptable to liberal members of the congress, as he was
elected with 96 out of a total of 184 votes by the GNC.[116]

GNC establishes the Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room (LROR)

The GNC was challenged due to increasing security concerns in Tripoli. The GNC itself was attacked many
times from militias and armed protesters who stormed the GNC assembly hall.[117] Following his
appointment, Abusahmain was tasked with providing security. He set up the Libya Revolutionaries
Operations Room (LROR), which was initially intended to protect and secure Tripoli in August 2013. But
this armed group was responsible for kidnapping Prime Minister Zeidan in October of that year resulting in
the GNC dismissing it from its security function and Abusahmain himself as president.[118] During his term,
Abusahmain blocked inquiries into the distribution of state funds and it was alleged that Abusahmain was
channeling government funding towards the LROR.[116] The LROR was not an Islamist armed group but
rather was made of rebels from the city of Gharyan. Its commander was Adel Gharyani.

In October 2013, following the kidnapping of the Prime Minister, Abusahmain used his presidency to
change the agenda of the GNC in order to prevent a debate over disestablishing the LROR. At the same
time, he cancelled a request to establish a committee to investigate the allocation, by Abusahmain himself,
of 900 million Libyan Dinars (US$720 million) to the LROR and various other armed groups.[109] Instead,
the LROR had its responsibilities reduced by the GNC but was allowed to continue to operate, and no one
was prosecuted for the incident.

Kidnapping of Prime Minister Zeidan

Most journalists reported that the kidnapping of Zeidan was by the Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room
(LROR) (Ghurfat Amaliyat al-Thuwar) created by Abusahmain by decree 143 of 7 July. Yet there is
evidence to suggest that this is not the case and that armed groups such as the Duru3 actually conducted the
kidnapping.[119]

Expansion of armed groups during the GNC's term

Many Libyans blamed the GNC and the interim government for a continued lack of security in the country.
The interim government struggled to control well-armed militias and armed groups that established during
the revolution. Libyans in Benghazi especially began to witness assassinations and kidnapping and
perceived the GNC to be turning a blind eye to the deteriorating security situation in the east.

But security concerns increased across the country allowing armed groups to expand in both Tripoli and in
the east.

In 2012, the assassination of the US ambassador to Libya by Ansar al-Sharia took place.[120]
In October 2013, the kidnapping of Prime Minister Ali Zeidan by the LROR took place.
The kidnapping of Egyptian diplomats in January 2014 also by the LROR took place.
In March 2014, armed protesters allegedly linked to the LROR stormed the GNC parliament
building, shooting and injuring two lawmakers and wounding several others.[117]

In April 2014, an anti-terrorist training base called "Camp 27", located between Tripoli and the Tunisian
border, was taken over by forces fighting under the control of Abd al-Muhsin Al-Libi, also known as
Ibrahim Tantoush,[121] a long-serving Al-Qaeda organizer and former member of the Libyan Islamic
Fighting Group.[122] The Islamist forces at Camp 27 have subsequently been described as part of the Libya
Shield Force.[123] The Libya Shield Force was already identified by some observers as linked to al-Qaeda as
early as 2012.[124][125]

GNC's political isolation law

Although Islamists were outnumbered by Liberals and Centrists in the GNC, in May 2013 they lobbied for a
law "banning virtually everyone who had participated in Gaddafi's government from holding public office".
While several Islamist political parties and independents supported the law, as they generally had no
associations to the Qaddafi regime, the law enjoyed strong public support. Polls demonstrated that a large
majority of the Libyan people supported the exclusion of high-ranking Qaddafi-regime officials.[108]

The law particularly impacts elite expatriates and leaders of liberal parties. There existed reservations that
such a law would eliminate technocratic expertise needed in Libya at the time.

Armed militiamen stormed government ministries, shut down the GNC itself and demanded the law's
passage. This intimidated the GNC into passing the law in which 164 members approved the bill, with only
four abstaining and no member opposing it.[108]

Suppression of women's rights

GNC opponents argue that it was supporting Islamist actions against women. Sadiq Ghariani, the Grand
Mufti of Libya, is perceived to be linked closely to Islamist parties. He has issued fatwas ordering Muslims
to obey the GNC,[126] and fatwas ordering Muslims to fight against Haftar's forces[127]
In March 2013, Sadiq Ghariani, issued a fatwa against the UN Report on Violence Against Women and Girls.
He condemned the UN report for "advocating immorality and indecency in addition to rebelliousness against
religion and clear objections to the laws contained in the Quran and Sunnah".[128][129] Soon after the Grand
Mufti issued a clarification op-ed that there should be no discrimination between men and women yet
women have a greater role in the family, nevertheless, this does not mean Islam violates the rights of
women.[130]

Later in 2013, lawyer Hamida Al-Hadi Al-Asfar, advocate of women's rights, was abducted, tortured and
killed. It is alleged she was targeted for criticising the Grand Mufti's declaration.[131] No arrests were made.

In June 2013, two politicians, Ali Tekbali and Fathi Sager, appeared in court for "insulting Islam" for
publishing a cartoon promoting women's rights.[132] Under sharia law they were facing a possible death
penalty. The case caused widespread concern although they were eventually acquitted in March 2014. After
the GNC was forced to accept new elections, Ali Tekbali was elected to the new House of Representatives.

During Nouri Abusahmain's presidency of the GNC and subsequent

to GNC's decision to enforce sharia law in December 2013, gender
segregation and compulsory hijab were being imposed in Libyan
universities from early 2014, provoking strong criticism from
Women's Rights groups.

GNC extends its mandate without elections

Protesters stage a large
The GNC failed to stand down at the end of its electoral mandate in
demonstration in Shahat against the
January 2014, unilaterally voting on December 23, 2013 to extend
GNC's mandate extension plan.[112]
its power for at least one year. This caused widespread unease and
some protests. Residents of the eastern city of Shahat, along with
protesters from Bayda and Sousse, staged a large demonstration,
rejecting the GNC's extension plan and demanding the resignation of the congress followed by a peaceful
power transition to a legitimate body. They also protested the lack of security, blaming the GNC for failing
to build the army and police.[112] Other Libyans rejecting the proposed mandate rallied in Tripoli's Martyrs
Square and outside Benghazi's Tibesti Hotel, calling for the freeze of political parties and the re-activation of
the country's security system.[133]

On 14 February 2014, General Khalifa Haftar ordered the GNC to dissolve and called for the formation of a
caretaker government committee to oversee new elections. However, his actions had little effect on the
GNC, which called his actions "an attempted coup" and called Haftar himself "ridiculous" and labelled him
an aspiring dictator. The GNC continued to operate as before. No arrests were made. Haftar launched
Operation Dignity three months later on 16 May.[134]

House of Representatives versus GNC

On 25 May 2014, about one week after Khalifa Haftar started his Operation Dignity offensive against the
General National Congress, that body set 25 June 2014 as the date for new elections.[135] Islamists were
defeated, but rejected the results of the election, which saw only an 18% turnout.[136][137] They accused the
new House of Representatives parliament of being dominated by supporters of Gaddafi, and they continued
to support the old GNC after the Council officially replaced it on 4 August 2014.[93][138]

The conflict escalated on 13 July 2014, when Tripoli's Islamists and Misratan militias launched Operation
Libya Dawn to seize Tripoli International Airport, capturing it from the Zintan militia on 23 August.
Shortly thereafter, members of the GNC, who had rejected the June election, reconvened as a new General
National Congress and voted themselves as replacement of the newly elected House of Representatives,
with Tripoli as their political capital, Nouri Abusahmain as president and Omar al-Hasi as prime minister.
As a consequence, the majority of the House of Representatives were forced to relocate to Tobruk, aligning
themselves with Haftar's forces and eventually nominating him army chief.[139] On 6 November, the
supreme court in Tripoli, dominated by the new GNC, declared the House of Representatives
dissolved.[140][141] The House of Representatives rejected this ruling as made "under threat".[142]

On 16 January 2015, the Operation Dignity and Operation Libya Dawn factions agreed on a ceasefire.[143]
The country was then led by two separate governments, with Tripoli and Misrata controlled by forces loyal
to Libya Dawn and the new GNC in Tripoli, while the international community recognized Abdullah al-
Thani's government and its parliament in Tobruk.[144] Benghazi remained contested between pro-Haftar
forces and radical Islamists.[145]

Opposing forces

Pro-GNC

The pro-GNC forces were a coalition of different militias with different ideologies although most of them
are Islamist influenced especially in eastern Libya in Benghazi and Derna. Since LPA negotiations started in
Skhirat there has been a rift within the militias over support for the UN-sponsored talks and the proposed
Government of National Accord, which seeks to unite the rival governments.[146]

Since GNA started working from Tripoli in March 2015, Libya Dawn coalition the largest of Pro-GNC
militias has been disbanded and most of its forces changed allegiances to GNA.[147]

Libya Dawn

The Islamist "Libya Dawn" has been described as "an uneasy coalition" identified as "terrorists" by the
elected parliament in Tobruk[148] including "former al-Qaeda jihadists" who fought against Qaddafi in the
nineties, members of Libya's branch of the Muslim Brotherhood, and a "network of conservative merchants"
from Misrata, whose fighters make up "the largest block of Libya Dawn's forces".[149] The coalition was
formed in 2014 as a reaction against General Khalifa Haftar failed coup and to defeat Zintan brigades
controlling Tripoli International Airport whose aligned with him.

The Zawia tribe has been allied to Libya Dawn since August 2014,[150] although in June 2014 at least one
Zawia army unit had appeared to side with General Haftar, and reports in December claimed Zawia forces
were openly considering breaking away from Libya Dawn.[151] Zawia militia have been heavily fighting the
Warshefana tribe. In the current conflict, the Warshefana have been strongly identified with the forces
fighting against both Libya Dawn and Al Qaeda. Zawia has been involved in a long-standing tribal conflict
with the neighbouring Warshefana tribe since 2011.[152] The motivations of the Zawia brigades participation
in the war have been described as unrelated to religion and instead deriving foremost from tribal conflict
with the Warshafana and secondarily as a result of opposition to the Zintani brigades and General
Haftar.[153]

When the head of GNA Fayez Sarraj arrived in Tripoli, Libya Dawn has been disbanded as the interests of
the militias forming it conflicted when some of them choose to support GNA others chose to stay loyal to
GNC.

Libya Shield
The Libya Shield Force supports the Islamists. Its forces are divided geographically, into the Western Shield,
Central Shield and Eastern Shield. Elements of the Libya Shield Force were identified by some observers as
linked to Al-Qaeda as early as 2012.[124][125] The term "Libya Shield 1" is used to refer to the Islamist part
of the Libya Shield Force in the east of Libya.[154]

In western Libya, the prominent Islamist forces are the Central Shield (of the Libya Shield Force), which
consists especially of Misrata units and the Libya Revolutionaries Operations Room. Two smaller
organizations operating in western Libya are Ignewa Al-Kikly and the "Lions of Monotheism".

Al-Qaeda leader Abd al-Muhsin Al-Libi, also known as Ibrahim Ali Abu Bakr or Ibrahim Tantoush[122] has
been active in western Libya, capturing the special forces base called Camp 27 in April 2014 and losing it to
anti-Islamist forces in August 2014.[121] The Islamist forces around Camp 27 have been described as both
Al-Qaida[121] and as part of the Libya Shield Force.[123] The relationship between Al-Qaeda and Al Qaeda
in the Islamic Maghreb is unclear, and their relationship with other Libyan Islamist groups is unclear. Al
Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb are also active in Fezzan, especially in border areas.

Libya western and central Libya Shield force fought alongside Libya Dawn and were disbanded with it in
2015. While the eastern Libya Shield forces merged later with other Islamist militias and formed
Revolutionary Shura Council to fight Hafter LNA.

Revolutionary Shura Councils

In Benghazi, the Islamist armed groups have organized themselves into the Shura Council of Benghazi
Revolutionaries. These are:

Ansar al-Sharia
Libya Shield 1
February 17th Martyrs Brigade
Rafallah al-Sahati Brigade

The Shura Council of Benghazi has been strongly linked with ISIL as they fought together against Hafter in
Battle of Benghazi. Yet, the Shura Council never pledged allegiance to ISIL.[146]

Meanwhile, in Derna the main Islamist coalition Shura Council of Mujahideen which was formed in 2014 is
an al-Qaeda-affiliated group. The coalition has been in fight with ISIL in 2015 and drove them out from the
city.[146]

Ajdabiya had its own Shura Council of Benghazi Revolutionaries, which is the most ISIL linked among the
three Shura councils. Its leader Muhammad al-Zawi and a number of the council pledging allegiance to ISIL
played a major role in strengthening the Islamist group grip on Sirte.[146]

Benghazi Defense Brigades

Benghazi Defense Brigades was formed in June 2016 to defend Benghazi and the Shura Council from the
Libyan National Army, the Benghazi Defence Brigades (BDB) included various Libya Dawn militias and
was organized under the banner of the former Grand mufti Saddiq Al-Ghariyani.[155][156] Even thought it
pledged to support the GNA[156] and apparently working under Mahdi Al-Barghathi, the Defence Minister
of the GNA.[157] The GNA never recognized the BDB with some members calling for it to be demarcated as
a "terrorist organization".[158]
Amazigh militias

Even though the Amazigh militias mainly situated in Zuwara and Nafusa Mountains fought alongside Libya
Dawn, they consider themselves pushed towards that because Zintan brigades and the rest of their enemies
has been sided with HoR.[159] Still though, the Amazigh main motivations for fighting against Haftar is his
Pan-Arabic ideas which is conflicting with their demands of recognition their language in the constitution as
an official language.

While keeping their enmity towards Haftar, the Amazigh militias mostly became neutral later in the war
especially since the formation of GNA.

Operation Dignity

The anti-Islamist Operation Dignity forces are built around Haftar's faction of the Libyan National Army,
including land, sea and air forces along with supporting local militias.

LNA

The Libyan National Army, formally known as "Libyan Arab Armed

Forces", was gradually formed by General Khalifa Haftar as he fought in
what he named Operation Dignity. On 19 May 2014, a number of Libyan
military officers announced their support for Gen. Haftar, including officers
in an air force base in Tobruk, and others who have occupied a significant
portion of the country's oil infrastructure, as well as members of an
important militia group in Benghazi. Haftar then managed to gather allies
from Bayda, 125 miles east of Benghazi.[160] A minority portion of the
Libya Shield Force had been reported to not have joined the Islamist forces,
and it is not clear if this means they had joined the LNA forces.[161]
General Khalifa Haftar
Since then Haftar continued to strengthen his LNA by recruiting new
soldiers along with the advancements he made on the ground. In 2017
Haftar said that his forces are now larger by "hundred times" and now they are about 60 thousand
soldiers.[162]

Salafist militias

Salafists, called Madkhalis by their enemies, fought alongside Haftar LNA since the beginning against the
Islamist militias, especially Shura Council of Benghazi Revolutionaries and ISIL whom they considered
Khawarij after a fatwa from Saudi Rabee al-Madkhali.[163]

Zintan brigades

Since the Battle of Tripoli Airport, armed groups associated with Zintan and the surrounding Nafusa region
have become prominent. The Airport Security Battalion is recruited in large part from Zintan. The "Zintan
Brigades" fall under the leadership of the Zintan Revolutionaries' Military Council.

Wershefana militias
Wershefana tribal and mainly Gaddafi loyalists armed groups, from the area immediately south and west of
Tripoli, have played a big role in Haftar forces west of Libya On 5 August 2014, Warshefana forces captured
Camp 27, a training base west of Tripoli.[123] Wershefana armed groups have also been involved in a long-
standing tribal conflict with the neighbouring Zawia city since 2011.[152] Zawia has allied with Libya Dawn
since August 2014,[150] although its commitment to Libya Dawn is reportedly wavering.[151]

After being accused of kidnapping, ransoming and other crimes, a GNA joint force made up mostly from
Zintan brigades defeated them and seized the Wershefana district.[164] Zintan brigades were former allies of
Wershefana.

Effects of the war

As of February 2015, damage and disorder from the war has been
considerable.[165] There are frequent electric outages, little business
activity, and a loss in revenues from oil by 90%.[165] Over 4,000
people have died from the fighting,[87] and some sources claim
nearly a third of the country's population has fled to Tunisia as
refugees.[165]

Since Field Marshal Khalifa Belqasim Haftar had captured the ports
of Libya's state-run oil company, the National Oil Corporation, in Es
Sider and Ra's Lanuf, oil production has risen from 220,000 barrels a
day to about 600,000 barrels per day.[166]
Libyan oil fields, pipelines, refineries
The war has prompted a considerable number of the country's and storage
sizeable foreign labour force to leave the country as extremist groups
such as ISIL have targeted them; prior to the 2011, the Egyptian
Ministry of Labour estimated that there were two million Egyptians working in the country yet since the
escalation of attacks on Egyptian labourers the Egyptian Foreign Ministry estimates more than 800,000
Egyptians have left the country to return to Egypt.[167] Land mines remain a persistent threat in the country
as numerous militias, especially ISIL, have made heavy use of land mines and other hidden explosives; the
rapidly changing front lines has meant many of these devices remain in areas out of active combat zones;
civilians remain the primary casualties inflicted by land mines with mines alone killing 145 people and
wounding another 1,465 according to the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC).[168][169]

In a report, the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) revealed that it had registered over 45,600
refugees and asylum seekers in Libya during 2019.[170]

On October 22, 2019, the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) reported that children have been
suffering from different sorts of malnutrition in the war-torn nations, including Libya.[171]

Executive Director of UNICEF said on January 18, 2020, that thousands of Libyan children were at risk of
being killed due to the ongoing conflict in Libya. Since hostile clashes between the Libyan government and
Haftar’s LNA forces (backed by the UAE and Egypt) have broken out in Tripoli and western Libya,
conditions of children and civilians have worsened.[172]

The blockade on Libya’s major oil fields and production units by Haftar’s forces has sown losses of over
$255 million within the six-day period ending January 23, according to the National Oil Corporation in
Libya.[173] The NOC and ENI, which runs Mellitah Oil & Gas in Libya, have suffered a production loss of
155,000 oil barrels per day due to the blockade on production facilities imposed by Haftar’s LNA. The
entities claim losing revenue of around $9.4mn per day.[174]
Since the beginning of Libyan conflict, thousands of refugees forced to live in detention centres are
suffering from mental health problems, especially women and children, who are struggling to confront the
deaths of their family members in the war.[175]

On February 7, 2020, the UNHCR reported that the overall number of migrants intercepted by the Libyan
coast guard in, January, surged 121% against the same period in 2019. The ongoing war has turned the
country into a huge haven for migrants fleeing violence and poverty in Africa and the Middle East.[176]

On April 6, an armed group invaded a control station in Shwerif, the Great Man-Made River project,
stopped water from being pumped to Tripoli, and threatened the workers. The move by the armed group was
a way to pressure and force the release the of detained family members. On 10 April 2020, the United
Nations humanitarian coordinator for Libya, Yacoub El Hillo condemned the water supply cutoff as
"particularly reprehensible".[177]

On 21 April 2020, the UN took in to consideration the “dramatic increase” of shelling on densely populated
areas of Tripoli, and claimed that continuation of war is worsening the humanitarian situation of Libya. The
organisation also warned that such activities could possibly lead to war crimes.[178]

The United Nations Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL) in its first quarter report for 2020 on the civilian
casualty in Libya cited that approximately 131 casualties have taken place between 1 January and 31 March
2020. The figures included 64 deaths and 67 injuries, all of which were a result of the ground fighting,
bombing and targeted killing led by Khalifa Haftar’s army, the LNA, backed by the United Arab
Emirates.[179] [180]

On May 5, 2020, The International Criminal Court’s chief prosecutor Fatou Bensouda, raised concerns over
the continuous spree of attacks by Haftar on Tripoli. The prosecutor said that actions endanger lives and also
warned of possible war crimes, due to current state of affairs. “Of particular concern to my Office are the
high numbers of civilian casualties, largely reported to be resulting from airstrikes and shelling operations,"
she expressed in a statement.[181]

Ethnic tensions
In 2014 a former Gaddafi officer reported to the New York Times that the civil war was now an "ethnic
struggle" between Arab tribes (like the Zintanis) against those of Turkish ancestry (like the Misuratis), as
well as against the Berbers and Circassians.[182]

Timeline

Peace efforts
During the first half of 2015, the United Nations facilitated a series of negotiations seeking to bring together
the rival governments and warring militias of Libya.[183] A meeting between the rival governments was held
at Auberge de Castille in Valletta, Malta on 16 December 2015. On 17 December, delegates from the two
governments signed a peace deal backed by the UN in Skhirat, Morocco, although there was opposition to
this within both factions.[1][2] The Government of National Accord was formed as a result of this agreement,
and its first meeting took place in Tunis on 2 January 2016.[184] On 17 December 2017, general Khalifa
Haftar declared the Skhirat agreement void.[185]
A meeting called the Libyan National Conference was planned in Ghadames for organising elections and a
peace process in Libya.[186] The conference was prepared over 18 months during 2018 and 2019 and was
planned to take place 14–16 April 2019.[187] It was postponed in early April 2019 as a result of the military
actions of the 2019 Western Libya offensive.[188]

In July 2019, Ghassan Salamé, the head of the United Nations

Support Mission in Libya (UNSMIL), proposed a three-point peace
plan (a truce during Eid al-Adha, an international meeting of
countries implicated in the conflict, and an internal Libyan
conference similar to the Libyan National Conference).[189]

In September 2019, the Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the

African Union (AU) discussed the need for the PSC to play a greater The Libya Summit in Berlin, Germany
role in concluding the Libyan crisis, putting forward a proposal to on 19 January 2020
appoint a joint AU-UN envoy to Libya.[190]

Turkish President RT Erdogan and his Russian counterpart Vladimir Putin made a joint call for ceasefire,
starting January 12, 2020, to end the proxy war in Libya.[191] The ceasefire is said to have been broken
hours after its initiation. Both the warring parties – GNA supported by Turkey and LNA backed by Saudi,
UAE, Egypt and Jordan – blamed each other for the violence that broke out in Tripoli.[192] Turkey’s Foreign
Minister, Mevlüt Çavuşoğlu said Khalifa Haftar, who is backed by foreign powers including the UAE, does
not want peace and is seeking a military solution to the drawn-out war in the country.[193]

Haftar's forces launched attacks on Abu Gurain province, near the port city of Misurata, Libya’s UN-
recognized government claimed. The attacks were seen as a violation of cease-fire accord signed at the
Berlin Conference.[194] On February 12, the United Nations Security Council adopted a resolution
demanding a “lasting cease-fire” in Libya. Drafted by Britain, it received 14 votes, while Russia
abstained.[195] Around February 19, the government withdrew from peace talks following rocket attacks on
Tripoli.[196]

At the urging of the UN, both sides agreed to a new ceasefire in late March due to the novel coronavirus;
however, the ceasefire quickly fell apart. On 24 March shells hit a prison in an area held by the GNA,
drawing UN condemnation. The GNA launched a series of "counter-attacks" early on 25 March, in response
to what the GNA called "the heaviest bombardments Tripoli has seen".[197]

Domestic reactions
Khalifa Haftar and his supporters describe Operation Dignity as a "correction to the path of the revolution"
and a "war on terrorism".[198][199][200] The elected parliament has declared that Haftar's enemies are
"terrorists".[148] Opponents of Haftar and the House of Representatives' government in Tripoli claim he is
attempting a coup. Omar al-Hasi, the internationally unrecognized Prime Minister of the Libya Dawn-
backed Tripoli government, speaking of his allies' actions, has stated that: "This is a correction of the
revolution." He has also contended: "Our revolution had fallen into a trap."[201] Dawn commanders claim to
be fighting for a "revolutionary" cause rather than for religious or partisan objectives.[202] Islamist militia
group Ansar al-Sharia (linked to the 2012 Benghazi attack) has denounced Haftar's campaign as a Western-
backed "war on Islam"[203] and has declared the establishment of the "Islamic Emirate of Benghazi".

The National Oil Corporation (NOC) denounced calls to blockade oil fields prior to the Berlin Conference
on January 19, 2020, calling it a criminal act. The entity warned to prosecute offenders to the highest degree
under Libyan and international law.[204]
Dignitaries from Tripoli, Sahel and Mountain regions in Libya expressed discomposure at the briefing by
the UN envoy to Libya, Ghassan Salame at the Security Council, for equalizing the aggressors (Haftar's
forces backed by UAE and Egpyt) and the defender (GNA forces). They said Salame’s statements made
both the parties equal amid Haftar's offensive in Tripoli and the war crimes committed against civilians,
including children.[205]

Foreign reactions, involvement, and evacuations

Neighboring countries

Algeria

Early in May 2014, the Algerian military said it was engaged in an operation aimed at tracking down
militants who infiltrated the country's territory in Tamanrasset near the Libyan border, during which it
announced that it managed to kill 10 "terrorists" and seized a large cache of weapons near the town of Janet
consisting of automatic rifles, rocket-propelled grenades and ammunition boxes.[206] The Times reported on
30 May that Algerian forces were strongly present in Libya and it was claimed shortly after by an Algerian
journalist from El Watan that a full regiment of 3,500 paratroopers logistically supported by 1,500 other men
crossed into Libya and occupied a zone in the west of the country. They were later shown to be operating
alongside French special forces in the region. However, all of these claims were later denied by the Algerian
government through Prime Minister Abdelmalek Sellal who told the senate that "Algeria has always shown
its willingness to assist [our] sister countries, but things are clear: the Algerian army will not undertake any
operation outside Algerian territory".[207]

On 16 May 2014, the Algerian government responded to a threat on its embassy in Libya by sending a team
of special forces to Tripoli to escort its diplomatic staff in a military plane out of the country. "Due to a real
and imminent threat targeting our diplomats the decision was taken in coordination with Libyan authorities
to urgently close our embassy and consulate general temporarily in Tripoli," the Algerian Foreign Ministry
said in a statement.[208] Three days later, the Algerian government shut down all of its border crossings with
Libya and the army command raised its security alert status by tightening its presence along the border,
especially on the Tinalkoum and Debdab border crossings. This also came as the state-owned energy firm,
Sonatrach, evacuated all of its workers from Libya and halted production in the country.[209] In mid-August,
Algeria opened its border for Egyptian refugees stranded in Libya and said it would grant them exceptional
visas to facilitate their return to Egypt.[210]

Egypt

Egyptian authorities have long expressed concern over the instability in eastern Libya spilling over into
Egypt due to the rise of jihadist movements in the region, which the government believes to have developed
into a safe transit for wanted Islamists following the 2013 coup d'état in Egypt that ousted Muslim
Brotherhood-backed president Mohamed Morsi. There have been numerous attacks on Egypt's trade
interests in Libya which were rampant prior to Haftar's offensive, especially with the kidnapping of truck
drivers and sometimes workers were murdered.[211] Due to this, the military-backed government in Egypt
had many reasons to support Haftar's rebellion and the Islamist February 17th Martyrs Brigade operating in
Libya has accused the Egyptian government of supplying Haftar with weapons and ammunition, a claim
denied by both Cairo and the rebel leader.[212] Furthermore, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, who
has become increasingly popular among many Libyans wishing for stability,[213] has called on the United
States to intervene militarily in Libya during his presidential candidacy, warning that Libya was becoming a
major security challenge and vowed not to allow the turmoil there to threaten Egypt's national security.[214]
On 21 July 2014, the Egyptian Foreign Ministry urged its nationals residing in Libya to adopt measures of
extreme caution as it was preparing to send consular staff in order to facilitate their return their country
following an attack in Egypt's western desert region near the border with Libya that left 22 Egyptian border
guards killed.[215] A week later, the ministry announced that it would double its diplomatic officials on the
Libyan-Tunisian border and reiterated its call on Egyptian nationals to find shelter in safer places in
Libya.[216] On 3 August, Egypt, Libya and Tunisia agreed to cooperate by establishing an airbridge between
Cairo and Tunis that would facilitate the transfer of 2,000 to 2,500 Egyptians from Libya daily.[217]

On 31 July 2014, two Egyptians were shot dead during a clash at the Libyan-Tunisian border where
hundreds of Egyptians were staging a protest at the Ras Jdeir border crossing. As they tried to cross into
Tunisia, Libyan authorities opened fire to disperse them.[218] A similar incident occurred once again on 15
August, when Libyan security forces shot dead an Egyptian who attempted to force his way through the
border along with hundreds of stranded Egyptians and almost 1,200 Egyptians made it into Tunisia that
day.[210] This came a few days after Egypt's Minister of Civil Aviation, Hossam Kamal, announced that the
emergency airlift consisting of 46 flights aimed at evacuating the country's nationals from Libya came to a
conclusion, adding that 11,500 Egyptians in total had returned from the war-torn country as of 9 August.[219]
A week later, all Egyptians on the Libyan-Tunisian border were evacuated and the consulate's staff, who
were reassigned to work at the border area, withdrew from Libya following the operation's success.[220]
Meanwhile, an estimated 50,000 Egyptians (4,000 per day) arrived at the Salloum border crossing on the
Libyan-Egyptian border as of early August.[221]

Malta

Along with most of the international community, Malta continues to recognize the Government of National
Accord as the legitimate government of Libya.[222] I Eastern Libyan government chargé d'affaires Hussin
Musrati insisted that by doing so, Malta was "interfering in Libyan affairs".[223] Due to the conflict, there
are currently two Libyan embassies in Malta. The General National Congress now controls the official
Libyan Embassy in Balzan, while the Tobruk-based Eastern Libyan House of Representatives has opened a
consulate in Ta' Xbiex. Each of the two embassies say that visas issued by the other entity are not valid.[224]

Following the expansion of ISIL in Libya, particularly the fall of Nawfaliya, the Maltese Prime Minister
Joseph Muscat and Leader of the Opposition Simon Busuttil called for the United Nations and European
Union to intervene in Libya to prevent the country from becoming a failed state.[225][226]

Tunisia

Post-revolutionary Tunisia also had its share of instability due to the violence in Libya as it witnessed an
unprecedented rise in radical Islamism with increased militant activity and weapons' smuggling through the
border.[227]

In response to the initial clashes in May, the Tunisian National Council for Security held an emergency
meeting and decided to deploy 5,000 soldiers to the Libyan–Tunisian border in anticipation of potential
consequences from the fighting.[228] On 30 July 2014, Tunisian Foreign Minister Mongi Hamdi said that the
country cannot cope with the high number of refugees coming from Libya due to the renewed fighting. "Our
country's economic situation is precarious, and we cannot cope with hundreds of thousands of refugees,"
Hamdi said in a statement. He also added that Tunisia will close its borders if necessary.[229]

Tunisian Foreign Minister, Khemaies Jhinaoui, revived Tunisia's stance to stop the fighting in Libya and
follow the UN-led political suit. He stressed on rejection of military solutions to the war.[230]
In January 2020, Tunisia said its gearing up to accommodate a new inflow of migrants escaping the war in
Libya. The country has chosen the site of Fatnassia to receive Libyan refugees.[231]

Others
Supranational

United Nations – On 27 August 2014, the UN Security Council unanimously approved

resolution 2174 (2014), which called for an immediate ceasefire and an inclusive political
dialogue.[232] The resolution also threatened to impose sanctions, such as asset freezes and
travel bans, against the leaders and supporters of the various militias involved in the fighting, if
the individuals threaten either the security of Libya or the political process.[233] The United
Nations Secretary-General, Antonio Guterres, expressed his fears of a "full civil war" in Libya,
unless the international community finds a political solution for the country's conflict.[234] In
2019, the United Nations reported that Jordan, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates have
systematically violated the Libyan arms embargo.[235] In February 2020, Libya's Ambassador
to the UN, Taher Al-Sunni, emphasized on documenting attacks against civilians, medical
personnel and field hospitals in Libya, during his meeting with the Director-General of the
International Committee of the Red Cross.[236] Around 2 March 2020, Ghassan Salamé (the
UN special envoy to Libya) resigned, citing the failure of powerful nations to meet their recent
commitments.[237]

States

France – On 30 July 2014, the French government temporarily closed its embassy in
Tripoli, while 40 French, including the ambassador, and 7 British nationals were evacuated on
a French warship bound to the port of Toulon in southern France. "We have taken all
necessary measures to allow those French nationals who so wish to leave the country
temporarily," the foreign ministry said in a statement.[238][239] In 2016, a helicopter carrying
three French special forces soldiers was shot down south of Benghazi during what President
François Hollande called "dangerous intelligence operations."[240][241] In December 2019,
French government canceled the delivery of boats to Libya following a lawsuit filled by NGOs
opposing the move. The NGOs cited French donation as a violation of European embargo on
Libya for providing military equipment and arms to countries involved in war crimes.[242]
India – Ministry of External Affairs spokesman, Syed Akbaruddin, said that India's
diplomatic mission in Libya has been in touch with the 4,500 Indian nationals, through several
co-ordinators. "The mission is facilitating return of Indian nationals and working with the Libyan
authorities to obtain necessary exit permissions for Indian nationals wanting to return," he
said.[243]
Italy – The Italian embassy has remained open during the civil war[244] and the
government has always pushed for the success of UN-hosted talks among Libya's political
parties in Geneva. Prime Minister Matteo Renzi said "If there's no success, Italy is ready to
play a leading role, above all a diplomatic role, and then, always under the aegis of the UN,
one of peacekeeping inside Libya", adding that "Libya can't be left in the condition it is
now."[245] In 2015, four Italian workers were kidnapped by Islamic State militants near
Sabratha. Two of them were killed in a raid by security forces the following year while the other
two were rescued.[246] Between February 2015 and December 2016, however, Italy was
forced to close its embassy and every Italian citizen in Libya was advised to leave. The
embassy reopened on 9 January 2017.
Russia – In February 2015, discussions on supporting the Libyan parliament by supplying
them with weapons reportedly took place in Cairo when President of Russia Vladimir Putin
arrived for talks with the government of Egypt, during which the Russian delegates also spoke
with a Libyan delegation. Colonel Ahmed al-Mismari, the spokesperson for the Libyan Army's
chief of staff, also stated that "Arming the Libyan army was a point of discussion between the
Egyptian and Russian presidents in Cairo."[247] The deputy foreign minister of Russia, Mikhail
Bogdanov, has stated that Russia will supply the government of Libya with weapons if UN
sanctions against Libya are lifted.[248] In April 2015, Prime Minister Abdullah al-Thani visited
Moscow and announced that Russia and Libya will strengthen their relations, especially
economic relations.[249] He also met with Sergei Lavrov, the Russian Minister of Foreign
Affairs, and said that he request Russia's assistance in fixing the country's government
institutions and military strength.[250] The prime minister also met with Nikolai Patrushev, the
Russian president's security adviser, and talked about the need to restore stability in Libya as
well as the influence of terrorist groups in the country. Patrushev stated that a "priority for
regional politics is the protection of the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Libya."[251] A
private army of 100 mercenaries from the Wagner group, backed by Russian President
Vladimir Putin, has begun offensive on the forward base in Libya.[252] On October 2, 2019, at
least 35 Russian mercenaries were killed in Libya while fighting for Khalifa Haftar's forces.[253]
According to the reports, senior commander in Russian Wagner Group, Alexander Kuznetsov
was injured while fighting alongside Haftar's militias in south of Tripoli.[254] In a joint press
conference with the German Chancellor Angela Merkel, the Russian President Vladimir Putin
agreed the involvement of Russian mercenaries in Tripoli’s ongoing conflict. He also said they
are not affiliated to Moscow and are not funded by the government. These fighters were
transferred to Libya from the de-esclation zone in Syria's Idlib.[255] French daily, Le Monde
reported that Saudi Arabia was funding the operations of Russian Wagner mercenaries
deployed to support Khalifa Haftar in Libya. It also claimed that over 2000 Russian
mercenaries were involved in carrying out attacks on Tripoli in late 2019.[256]
Thailand – In late July 2014, the Thai government asked Libya's authorities to facilitate the
evacuation of its nationals by exempting the need for exit visas.[257] As of 14 August, over 800
Thai workers have been successfully evacuated from the country,[258] while Thailand's Ministry
of Labour announced that it would prepare jobs for more than 2,800 workers residing in
Libya.[259]
Turkey – Turkey has been one of the most vocal critics of the civil war, mostly aimed
against the Eastern Government led by Khalifa Haftar. Turkey was found to have transported
arms, ammunitions and aids to the Western Government led by Fayez al-Sarraj against
Haftar's force.[260][261] The Libyan National Army accused the Turkish authorities of supporting
terrorist groups in Libya for many years, adding that the Turkish support has evolved from just
logistic support to a direct interference using military aircraft to transport mercenaries, as well
as ships carrying weapons, armored vehicles and ammunition to support terrorism in
Libya.[262] In July 2019, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, the President of Turkey, threatened to declare
war on Khalifa Haftar after receiving news of six Turkish citizens arrested by Haftar's force.[263]
On 27 December 2019 Bloomberg reported that Turkey intended to deploy its navy to protect
Tripoli and send troops to help train GNA forces. Additionally Turkmen rebel groups fighting in
northern Syria were expected to transfer to Tripoli.[264] The Speaker of the Turkish Parliament
subsequently announced Turkey’s plans to send troops to help Libya's Presidential Council's
government, especially after the efforts of Haftar's backers, including UAE, to pressurize Fayez
Al-Sarraj to recede the request for Turkey’s support.[265] On 2 January 2020, the Turkish
Grand National Assembly voted 325–184 to send troops to help the internationally-recognized
Government of National Accord in Libya.[266]
United Kingdom – Following France's evacuation of some British nationals, the UK's
embassy in Tripoli was the only diplomatic mission still open in the war-torn city. However,
British diplomats residing there have sought refuge in a fortified compound south-west of the
city to avoid the repetitive rocket attacks by warring militias.[267] Three days earlier, a convoy
carrying British diplomats from Tripoli to Tunisia came under fire when their vehicles refused to
stop at an unofficial checkpoint in the outskirts of the city.[268] On 2 August, the Foreign and
Commonwealth Office finally announced that it would temporarily close its embassy in the
capital and evacuate its staff. Ambassador Michael Aron said that the embassy would continue
to operate from Tunisia.[269] The following day, the Royal Navy ship HMS Enterprise managed
to evacuate more than a hundred foreign nationals from the country to Malta, most of whom
were British, in an operation off the coast of Tripoli.[270] In March 2016, Ambassador Peter
Millett called for "a much more coordinated approach between the different groups, regions
and forces and the armed groups in Libya" in order to defeat ISIL in Libya.[271] Head of British
Embassy in Libya, Nicholas Hopton said that Britain is drafting a resolution in the Security
Council in order to genuinely end the Libyan crisis. The draft resolution urges the U.N. and the
international community to effectively achieve a ceasefire with the help of a monitoring mission
and other sources, the HCS Information Office said.[272]
United Arab Emirates – In June 2019 the GNA discovered a cache of US-made Javelin
anti-tank missiles in a captured LNA base in the mountains south of Tripoli. Markings on the
missiles’ shipping containers indicate that they were originally sold to Oman and the United
Arab Emirates in 2008. Emirati forces, who previously conducted airstrikes on Islamist targets
in Libya, were suspected of backing General Khalifa Haftar. The United States State
Department and Defense Department stated they have opened investigations into how the
weapons ended up on the Libyan battlefield.[273][274] The Emirati Ministry of Foreign Affairs
issued a statement denying ownership of weapons found in Libya and stated that it supported
United Nations-led efforts to broker a political solution to the conflict.[275] France later released
a statement that the missiles found in the base belonged to France, and that they were
damaged and out of use.[276] Nevertheless, the UAE has been identified as a strong supporter
of Khalifa Haftar and the LNA, which saw the Libyan general and his forces as the best
bulwark to contain and combat various Islamist groups in the war torn country; the UN reported
that the UAE supplied Haftar's forces with aircraft, over 100 armoured vehicles and over
US$200 million in aid.[277] According to The Libya Observer, a covert deal between Khalifa
Haftar and figures from the Muammar Gaddafi-era, Revolutionary Committees, was signed in
Abu Dhabi, UAE. Both the parties agreed to share power in Libya, enabling Gaddafi’s loyalists
to retrieve power in return for supporting Haftar in the ongoing fighting.[278] According to a
French Intelligence website, UAE supplied around 3,000 tons of military equipment to Haftar
forces in late January 2020. The transit operation was completed through "Antonov 124"
aircraft, owned by Abu Dhabi Crown Prince Mohammed bin Zayed, and operated by
Makassimos Air Cargo Company.[279] In April 2020, it was reported that the United Arab
Emirates secretly purchased an advanced missile system from Israel. The UAE, which had
been supplying weapons to Khalifa Haftar in the Libyan civil war, also deployed the Israeli-
made missile system in the war through the LNA.[280] On April 20, 2020, the Financial Times
reported the suspected violation of an international arms embargo by the United Arab
Emirates. It reported the claims after reviewing documents that cited 11,000 tonnes of jet fuel
shipment worth nearly $5 million was sent by the UAE to Khalifa Haftar-controlled eastern
Libya, in March 2020. The shipment is currently under probe by a panel of experts from the
United Nations.[281]. According to Human Rights Watch, on 18th November 2019, the UAE
launched a drone attack on a biscuit factory in Al-Sunbulah that killed 8 civilians and injured
27. Post the attack the factory was shut down. As per the investigation led by HRW, the factory
had no military presence. The remnants of four laser-guided missiles – Blue Arrow-7 (BA-7) –
were found, which were launched via a Wing Long -II drone.[282] On May 1, 2020, Anadolu
Agency citing a source said that an Emirati delegation paid visit to Sudanese capital Khartoum.
And that the move was made to assist Khalifa Haftar by convincing Sudanese officials to send
fighters to Libya. “The visit came as Haftar’s allies have become unable to send more
mercenaries to help the Libyan general in his Tripoli battle,” the statement from the source
read.[283] In May 2020, a confidential report by the United Nations revealed that the UAE had
been supporting the mission of Khalifa Haftar through two Dubai-based companies, Lancaster
6 DMCC and Opus Capital Asset Limited FZE. These firms deployed a team of 20 Western
 mercenaries, led by South African national Steve Lodge, to Libya for a “well funded private
military company operation”, in June 2019.[284]
United States – The United States has been active in post-2011 Libya with the military
carrying out sporadic airstrikes and raids in the country, predominantly against Islamist groups.
In 2014, U.S. commandos seized an oil tanker bound for anti-government militias and returned
it to the Libyan national government.[285] Two months later, the U.S. embassy in Tripoli was
evacuated due to a heavy militia presence in the capital.[286] In 2015, U.S. warplanes killed the
head of the Islamic State in Libya in a strike.[287] In 2016, U.S. President Barack Obama stated
that not preparing for a post-Gaddafi Libya was the "worst mistake" of his presidency.[288] On
19 January 2017, the day before President Obama left office, the United States bombed two IS
camps in Libya, reportedly killing 80 militants.[289] These types of operations have continued
under the Trump administration with a September 2017 airstrike killing an estimated 17 IS
militants.[290] On September 25, 2019, airstrike carried out by the U.S. killed 11 suspected ISIL
militants in the town of Murzuq, Libya. This was the second airstrike in a week against the
militant group, according to U.S. Africa Command.[291] A U.S. military air-raid, on September
27, killed 17 suspected ISIL militants in southwest Libya, making it a third strike against the
militia group within a month.[292] On September 30, US Africa Command said it conducted an
airstrike in southern Libya that killed 7 ISIL militants, alongside the Government of National
Accord. This marked the fourth raid in the region against ISIL in two weeks.[293] On February
10, 2020, at least six Libyan families sued Haftar and the UAE government in the U.S. District
Court of the District of Columbia for committing war crimes in Libya. The families of victims
who were either killed, injured or faced attempted killings, demanded $1 billion in damages,
said the plaintiffs’ attorneys, Martin F. McMahon & Associates.[294]
Ukraine - A number of Il-76TD turbofan strategic airlifters, belonging to Ukraine-registered
companies have been destroyed in Libya. There were reports in Russian information outlets,
which claimed the aircraft were possibly smuggling arms to both sides of the civil war.[295]

Sports

Libya had been awarded the rights to host the 2017 Africa Cup of Nations in association
football; however, the tournament was stripped from the country in August 2014, due to
concerns over the ongoing conflict.[296]

See also
European migrant crisis
American intervention in the Second Libyan Civil War

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Further reading
Daveed Gartenstein-Ross, Terrorism in North Africa After Benghazi: The Jihadist Regional
Outlook (International Centre for Counter-Terrorism - The Hague, 2013) (https://web.archive.or
g/web/20141029202928/http://www.icct.nl/publications/icct-commentaries/terrorism-in-north-afr
ica-after-benghazi-the-jihadist-regional-outlook)
Pelham, Nicolas. Libya Against Itself (http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2015/feb/19/lib
ya-against-itself/) (February 2015). "Libyans feel even more isolated than when the UN
imposed sanctions on Qaddafi. The civil society that briefly emerged after the colonel's
downfall has all but disappeared. Each activist can reel off the names of colleagues shot dead
or kidnapped, often by Islamists." New York Review of Books
Kampmark, Binoy. How Interventions Come Back to Haunt Us: Demolishing Libya (http://www.
counterpunch.org/2015/02/19/demolishing-libya/) (Feb. 2015). CounterPunch

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