NFS386 – Role of Protein and Ferulic Acid in the Emulsification Properties of Sugar Beet Pectin (Main Study Sheet)

Abstract:
 Complete coverage of oil by pectin: @ 2% w/w when size of oil drops stopped decreasing in size as pectin is added
 % of Whole Pectin Sample present: 2.7% Protein + 1.06 % Ferulic Acid
 Amount absorbed to oil drop : 9.5 mg/m2 Pectin + 1.4 mg/m2 Protein + 0.2 mg/m2 Ferulic Acid
 % of Absorbed Pectin : 14.7 % Protein + 2.1% Ferulic Acid
o Of all the pectin that absorbed, how much of that was Protein + F.A
o Therefore, most of what was absorbed was Protein + F.A
 Direct Measure of % Absorbed Pectin: 11.1% Protein + 2.16% F.A
o Close to indirect measurements (14.4 P + 2.16 F.A)

 Main conclusion: P + FA play major role in emulsification properties of Pectin; were selectively adsorbed

Introduction:
 Pectin morphology:
o Main chain: galacturonic acid + rhamnose
o Side chain: neutral sugars: galactose, arabinose, xylose, glucose, mannose, fucose, glucuronic acid
 Traditional use: gelling agent, found in citrus peels + apple pomace
o ↑-ester pectin => gels @ ↓ pH < 3.5 (chain-chain assoc. ) + in presence of solids (sucrose)
o ↓-ester pectin => gels in presence of divalent cations (Ca +) which cross links carboxylate groups of dimers
 Sugar Beet Pectin:
o Poor gelling (↑ acetyl groups, bad chain-chain assoc.) ; good emulsifier (↑ protein)
 Ferulic Acid + Protein:
o Addnal components closely associated with “sugar chain” via H-bond / covalent-bonds due to impure extrac n
o Ferulic Acid: Aromatic w/ 1) OH, 2) COOH, 3) OCH 3

Methodology:
 FA Detection: Spectrophotometer  absorbance @ 310 nm to find aromatic ring
 Size exclusion chromatography (Gel Permation Chromotography) : ↑er molecular weight components elutes first
(has a lower elution volume[time])
o  eg: a ↓er volume of it is needed to cause it to elute b/c ea. particle is heavier
o 0.131 mL/g pectin elutes before 0.141 mL/g Gum Arabic
 3 Parts to GPC: UV detector detects aromatic ring of FA; Light Scattering & Reflective Index measure
total pectin
 Surface Tension: P + FA aims to disrupt surface tension  the more stable the emulsion the lower its S.T
 Measurement of adsorption :
o Indirect Method:
 Adsorbed (things in oil) = Total added to emulsion – unadsorbed (things in water)
 Since whatever adsorbed bound to oil in the oil phase, unadsorbed things ended up in aq. Phase
o Direct Method:
 Emulsion  isolate oil phase (contains adsorbed P + FA)  put SDS in oil phase (desorption)  mix
to separate 2 phases  take pectin out of aq. phase (analyse for P + FA)
Results & Discussion
 Surface Tension Results:
o Table 4: sugar beet pectin is a better emulsifier than apple/citrus; similar to GA; not as good as SDS
o Good emulsifier = ability to significantly ↓ surface tension
 G P Chromatography Results:
o Figure 1: UV detector > Light scatter + RI  ferulic acid is present in ↑er molecular weight than the rest of
pectin
o Figure 4 & 10: ↓ in UV > ↓ in RI  ferulic acid (b/c ↑molecular mass) is being preferentially adsorbed to
the oil
 Trends :
o Droplet size ↓as more pectin is added until plateauing @ 2% pectin = full coverage of droplet
o Amount of pectin adsorbed plateaus @ 9.5 mg/m 2 , @ same time when droplet size stabilize (2 mg/m 2)
o Amount of protein adsorbed plateaus @ 1.4 mg/m2; “
o Amount of F.A adsorbed plateaus @ 0.1 – 0.2 mg/m2 ; “
 Emulsion Stability over time:
o Emulsions stayed stable over 24 days
o Droplet size only SLIGHTLY ↑d; GA more so than Pectin  Pectin more stable than GA
 Ferulic Acid attachment:
o FA attached to neutral sugars (SIDE CHAIN sugars, not main chain) : arabinose + galactose

Conclusion
 Big Picture: emulsification properties of SBP are owed to P + FA; since they are preferentially adsorbed to oil
droplet surface
 Gum Arabic:
o Did not ↓ droplet size as well as SBP
o Destabilized over 24 days: droplets got bigger than SBP droplets
 What’s adsorbed in SBP?
o High molecular weight components  which also has High P + FA content
Lecture 1

Terminologies:
I. Agriculture: production of food, what happens on the “farm”
II. Food Science: how to maintain food quality, Period b/w “farmfork”
-Food chemistry: How chemical composition of food affects quality, includes nutritional quality; food
safety-chemical contaminants
-Food microbiology: food-borne disease; beneficial use of micro-organisms
-Food biotechnology-GMO
-Food processing and engineering
-Sensory evaluation
III. Nutrition: Impact of food on body, human health, physiological effects of food, “beyond the fork”

Major Concepts:
I. Quality Attributes : taste, colour, nutrition qual, texture, odour, mouthfeel, shelf life, food safety
II. Physical Structure:
a. Amorphous: disordered arrangement of molecules
 polymers <------> H2O bond; poly don’t bond w. e/o
b. Crystalline: ordered arrangement of molecules
 Molecules pack well: H-bond w. e/o
c. Gels: Network = polysaccharides and protein; add H2O to nonjunction zone of continuous
polymers  it becomes expanded gel
d. Emulsions: discrete particles dispersed in continuous phase
 Discreet particles/dispersed ph.----------> O / W <--------- Continuous ph. & vice versa
 Emulsifiers: charged particles that stay on discrete particles and stabilize them
Polar endrepulsive forces [PIC]
III. Chemical Reactions:
a. Free Radical Formation : RH(fatty acids) -----> R’(akyl rad.) + H’
(Reactive oxygen species: unpaired electronreactivity
Free radical formation and oxidationrancidity in cooking oil)
 “H” abstracted from fatty acid to get free radicals
 Happens more @ double bond ; where “H” is loosely bonded & vulnerable to
abstraction
 Slow rxn, enzyme-less . slow reaction catalyzed by light and free metals.

b. Oxidation : R’ + O2 ------- > RO2’

RO2’ + RH ------- > ROOH + R’
peroxide degrades to things causing rancidity
 Main point: FRF creates free radical, free radical available for oxidation, all the rxns in
b/w produce reactive oxygen species that allows oxidation to continue
c. Hydrogenation / Reducn : deln of d.b  more saturated / stable (less vulnerable to oxidation)
 Trans isomers form = bad trans fat
d. Esterification:  e.g. “triglyceride formation”: alcohol + acid  produce H2O
ROH + R’COOH  R’COOR + H2O
 Interesterification : - ∆ position/patterns of FAs, same composition
random
more homogenous FA more heterogenous FA
[solid] directed [liquid]
  Implication: convert oil --- > marg w/o hydrogenation (safer)
e. Maillard: Heat induced browning rxn. b/w sugar/protein
 e g : condensation (eliminate 1 small mlc from 2 mlcs, usually water), breakdown/syn
of molecules, re-arrangement of molecules, fragmentation, polymerization
 Polymerization by heating sugar + prot : areas of d.b = means more colour / absorb
visible light
 Roasting/baking that browns: rxn btw amino acids (protein) n sugars (usually + heat)
w/o ezymesflavors
f. Enzymatic Rxns: “Enzymatic Browning Rxn”
  e.g: Scored Apple: Polyphenol Oxidase use O2 in air + substrates in apple to produce
brown
 Compartmentalization: faster brown b/w knife broke up structure & mixed up enzymes
+ substrates
 Polyphenol oxidase: green tea vs black tea.
 Browning reaction depends on mixing of substrate and enzyme

Sensory Evaluation
I. Perception: Flavour (taste, odor, mouthfeel)
Texture
Appearance
a. Hedonic Scale: like extremely & dislike “
II. Evaluation Tests:
** Set-up: red light masks food colour, odourless envt, tasters isolated in booths
a. Affective: “like/dislike”, acceptance = untrained consumers
b. Descriptive: describe F/T/A = TRAINED + good sensory acuity
 Word assoc. w/ sensory are standardized
 Intensity “
 Quantity Scales: 1 ---- 9  more extreme “hard, bitter”
 QDA Quantitative Descriptive Analysis:
 Spider plot of profiles of certain foods
 Can compare products by superimposing plots
 Origin: ↓est (min )intensity; End : ↑est max intensity, connect the dots  visual profile

c. Discrimination: is there a difference b/w 2 flavours? = TRAINED + good sensory acuity

 Triangle Test : in class vanilla test : indicate which one is diff from the others
 3-dig-codes: eliminate effect of number orders
  Spit-out: satiation affects eval.
III.

Food Processing
I. Blanching: Briefly expose fruit/veg to steam, then all of a sudden put it in cold water
 Stops enzymatic browning
 e.g. : “stop-cook asparagus”
II. Pasteurization: low-temp [Thermal] Kills pathogens, but NOT spoilage organisms
 Must still refrigerate
III. Commercial Sterilization [Thermal] Kills pathogens + spoilage organisms [but NOT all thermophiles]
 Some bac survive in xtremely ↑ temp, there no matter how much cooking
 Killed enuf bac that won’t spoil under normal circum.
IV. Non-thermal pasteurization/sterilization: pulsed elec field, ↑ pressure processing, ultrafiltration
 Advantage: no heat = doesn’t alter sensory : taste/smell
V. Canning : putting food in can, and THEN commericial sterilization
Opp.  Thermophiles can still grow after long time; bad = swollen can
Steps
VI. Aseptic Processing: [Modern] heating to Pasteurize/Sterilize, and THEN packaging
VII. HTST / UHT Processing: pasteurize/sterilize @ ↑ temp + short time
 Advantage: milk no need for refrigeration b/c been commercially sterilized
 E.g. : those small containers of cream
VIII. Sous Vide: food cooked “under vacuum”, chilled to preserve quality
IX. Hurdle Technology: A series of steps; put barriers to survival of microbes; reducing microbial growth until
there is none.
 Heating -> chilling -> Aw -> pH -> Redox Potential -> Perservatives
 All steps necessary: any one alone can ruin qual of food; depending food, a combo of some steps
are used
X. MAP Modified Atmosphere Packaging: removes air from package & replace w/ protective gas mix
XI. Extrusion: put original food into vat, heat it under ↑ pressure until puffy shape forms
 Corn puffs
XII. Microencapsulation: case fish oils to keep its oil/flavour contained  can be put into yogurt w.o fish taste
XIII. Fermentation: cabbage  kimchee / sauerkraut
XIV. Natural Food preservatives: plant derived anti-oxidants / anti-microbial
XV. Unconventional ways of heating food: microwave, radio frequency, ohmic, infrared
XVI. Genetic Modification: to make sure canola are herb-resistant; economic reasons
XVII.

Lecture 2: Water
Moisture/water content:
Amount of water in food = % water in food/total weight of food (cucumber 96%, egg 75%, bread 38%, raisin
15%...)
Structure
 Food Qual. Influenced by : H2O State: nature of ice crystal structure formed in food
Aw: how much H2O cause chm rxns.
 Ice: crystal lattice (hexagonal), tidy formation w/ lots of space
Water: mixtures of some shape, disordered w/ ↓ space [Water density > ice]
Difference structures (water n ice) & availability of water in food system (activity)implications for food
quality

Freezing
  d(water) 1g/ml; d(ice) 0.92g/ml, same 1g water to ice  increase 8.7% vol.
Ice-cream
 Ice Formation: nucleation --- > crystal growth surrounding it texture diff
 ↑ rate of cooling: ↑nuclei #, ↓ size of crystals when melted &
 ↓ rate of cooling: ↓ nuclei #, ↑ size frozen
 Freeze Concentration: Due to freezing pt. depression: ↑’d solute = ↓’d freezing pt. , all frozen foods have
unfrozen areas in which the solutes occupy, solutes concentrated in unfrozen area
 Therefore, chm rxns still occur in frozen foods  can’t freeze forever
 ** slow cooling : all solutes [ ]’d in very small space due to large ice crystals
 Cellular structure dmg: when freezing, extracellular H2O freeze 1 st & draw H2O out of cells
 ↓rate of cooling: large crystals can only form outside cell --- > H2O moves out & cells shrink!
 ↑rate of cooling: small crystals form simultaneously in/out of cell --- > less H2O moves outs & less
cell shrinkage.
 ** Thawing : Drip-loss : extracellular H2O will run off when unfrozen & can’t go back inside cell
(qual dmg)
 Refreezing food = bad: @ ea. thaw, new microbes grow
 Opposing forces of Freezing: Low Temp >>> Freeze conc.

↓ chm rxns. Unfrozen areas allows some

(microbes) chm rxns. ↑rxn rates
 Proper Freezing: a. small pcs: “quick freezing”
b. blanch before freeze : denature enzymes responsible for browning
 Freezer Burn: sublimation : @ surface ice  vapour
food is dry
Types of Water
Water associated w food constituents:
Bound water Bulk water
-Hydrogen bonded to polar components of -Physically entrapped in food structure
food -Behaves like a solvent
-Does not behave like a solvent -Available for freezing and chemical reactions
-Unavailable for freezing and chemical rxn -Supports the growth of microorganisms
-Cant support the growth of microorganisms

Bound water: bound tightly to polar parts of

food  not free for chm rxns
 Constitutional: bound to interior of mlc
(inside the fold of protein)
 Vicinal: bound to outer surface of mlc,
strongly interacts w hydrophilic site by w-
ions & w-dipole associations
 Monolayer = constitutional + vicinal
 Multilayer: forms several layers around
hydrophilic groups

Bulk water trapped in food structure 

support chm rxns
 Capillary: slow microbial growth, supports chem rxn
 Free: support both microbial growth and chem rxn, impacts on quality
Water Activity
 Def: measure of how much H2O can do chm rxns & support microbes Better predictor of shelf life than
moisture content
 Aw = p(food)/p(water) = ERH (eq relative humidity) / 100
 Optimal Aw ~ 0.68 ; Aw > 7  microbial growth
 P(food) partial pressure in eq w food @ T temp and 1 atm
 P(water) saturation partial pressure of water at same cond.
 Vapor Pressure: ↑er in pure H2O b/c more free molecules to move & equilibrate w/ atmosphere

 Moisture Sorption Isotherms:

Moisture content (%) = [water(g)x100]/total weight (ex: 0.2g/(0.2g w + 1g dry) =17%
I --- > II --- > III
 bound ---- > bulk
- If start w/ completely dry food then + H2O… bound water
forms 1st, then bulk forms)
(makes sense since “bound” @ ↓est Aw)
If start with high moist cont then dry: remove bulk 1st then
bound w.

 Determine an M.S.I (moisture sorption isotherm)

 Initial: start w/ certain moisture content
 Process: put food in chamber
-- ∆ relative humidity of chamber (aw)  ∆ moisture content  PLOT
 Results: determine optimal moisture content for this food to stay in good texture & stop microbial
growth
 Action: good packaging keeps additional moisture from seeping in  maintain textur

Preservation
 Ultimate Goal: ↓ Aw = health implications
 Ways: dehydration, ↓ PH < 4.2 (↓ microbial growth) , good packaging
 Humectants: have”OH”; bind H2O so food particles don’t have to
 e.g. : salt, sugar, glycerol, propylene glycol
 ↓Water Migration: water moves from ↑ Aw ------- > ↓ Aw
 Sol’n : equalize Aw in foods by adding humectant to prevent H2O migration/
** moisture content =/= necessarily Aw || smtg can have less water but ↑er Aw

Drinking Water
 Definitions: a) dist. H2O : < 10 ppm minerals; achieved thru evap & condensation
b) ozonisation: O3 O2
O [↑ reactive = kill microorganisms & organics causing bad flavours]
 Bottled H2O
 Bacteria? : yes, but not pathogens
a) Spring / Mineral : underground H2O clean @ source
 Treatment: Orig form can’t be modified
 CAN add + CO2 / F / Ozone
 Lable : ingredients, dissolved minerals (Ca/ K … ), O3 or F added, source (france)
b) Municipal Tap:
  Treatment: demineralized , ozone, + fluoride
 HAS nutrition facts table , fluoride content
 Lable: Treatment process: rev osmosis, ozonisation
 Demineralization: H2O pass thru filters of ↓ing size as you go down step-wise (micro, ultra, nano…)
 Last step: rev. osmosis : force H2O to ↑ [ ]  left w/ pure H2O
 Bad Taste?  add certain minerals that ↑ flavour

Lecture 3 : Carbohydrates I

Sugar Beet Pectin Article

 Emulsions: P + FA both the hydrophobic portion of
emulsifiers
 Compared to SDS (best emulsifier), P+FA in SBP
disrupted surface tension just as well as G.A
 Surface Tension: cohesive forces at the surface; polar end
disrupts H2O interactions
 Hydrophobicity: * Ferulic Acid: has aromatic ring
* Protein: many h-phobic residues (↑ %)
 Mechanism: P+FA stabilize oil droplet by orienting selves to drop while “sugar” wraps around

I. MONOSACCHARIDES & DISSACHARIDES

Aldose (polyhydroxy ald.) & Ketose (polyhydroxy ketones)
Aldose + 2 Cu2+ Cu2O + 2 H2O
[blue] [red]
1. Ketones: in the middle  e.g. : fructose

2. Aldehyde: in the end  e.g.: glucose, dextrose (reducing suagrs)

 Reducing Sugar: “reducing agent” : rxn w/ cupric tartrate to reduce it (gain e - ) [blue  red]
 fructose (ketone) is also ↓ing sugar [converted to glu in alkaline cond’ns]

 Hemiacetal: aldehyde rxn w/ “OH” alcohol on same mlc

 Furanose : --- > C4

 Pyranose: ---- > C5

Starches, cellulose, plant gums, dietary fibre… can be hydrolyzed to aldose
and ketose // Natural sugars exist as D conformation.
Tautomerization
 Def: rapid interconversion b/w a (OH under) conformation a- fur
b (OH top) b – fur
 Monosaccharides dissolved in H2O : 5 structures exist in equilibrium a – pyr
 ring chain taut. : CHO in sugar rx w OH on same mlccyclic b – pyr
 keto-enol taut: move of H/proton w a switch of single bond and CHAIN
adjacent double bond: Glucose - C1‐C2 enol – fructose
 Anomeric “C”: the asymmetric “C” (w/ 2 “O” attached) @ which
ring structure formed
  Mutarotation: when gluc diss in water, during when the formations equilibrate, diff structures will be
responsible for the diff of the plane of light passed thru  stops when eq. reached
 Abundance?: formation w/ ↑est abundance is the most stable, least steric hindered.

Disaccharides
 Reducing Sugar: maltose, lactose, cellobiose all a—a / b—b, have free “C”
 Free anomeric “C” can open, become aldehyde, have reducing powers
 Invert Sugar:
 Sucrose: a—b ; both anameric “C” participate in link (no ↓ing power)
 Sucrose can HYDROLYSE -------> 1:1 glu + fruc [the invert sugar]
 now is a reducing sugar b/c the monosaccharaides are free to
reduce Cu2+
Crystallization
Crystalline: regular arrangement ; Amorphous: no regular arrangement (of mlc)
 Easiest if: pure (heterogenous) ; disaccharides (no tautomers interconverting; less mvmt)
 Process to make glass candy (stop crystallization):
 Sucrose Heated (H2O evap) + glucose syrup added <----- interfering agent
 Just another component added to “interfere” w/ crystallization
Caramelization
1. H2O removal + polymerization
 Step-by-step heat sugar; 2 types 2. Degredation (flavour compounds)

I. Polymerization
STEP 1: remove H2O; get Isosachrosan: 2 ether links C12H22O11 – H2O  C12H20O10
STEP 2: dimerization: – 3 addnal H2O; get caramelAn (w-sol., heterogeneous) 2C12H22O11 – 4H2O  C24H36O18
STEP 3: trimerization: – 4 addnal H2O; get caramelEn 3C12H22O11 – 8H2O  C36H50O25
STEP 4: addnal heat: get humin / caramelin

II. Degredation : produce flavour compounds

- e.g. : diacetyl: butterscotch; maltol: bread; hydroxyacetylfuran: sweet aroma

II. SWEET PRODUCTS

Crushed & Removed Cane Juice
 Ca (OH)2 : added; makes juice basic
Sucrose Glu
 In acid, sucrose hydrolyse to invert sugar
Fruc
I. Sugar Cane  Heat: denature protein  scum
 Processing  Filter : removes scum / debris
Purer Cane Juice
1. “purification/ Blackstrap  “Partial Vaccum” : juice under ↑ pressure
stabilization” molasses  Remove H2O w/o heating (save mol. Structure)
- impurities  Step-wise: @ ea step [ ] juice into crystal raw sugar; trying to
removed
squeeze the sugar out of juice as much as possible
2. “Concentration / Raw Brown Sugar (crystals)
crystallization to  ADD H2O
sucrose”  Ca (OH)2 : added to get CaCO3 precipitate

3. “decolourization /
purification”

II. Sugar Beet

 All same except beet: sliced/extracted w/ warm water, not rollers
Honey
I. Nectar Honey: flower’s sweet stuff (contains sucrose)
 Bees: enzyme in bees invert sucrose & spit out “processed” glu + fruc
 Aw: dry honey by flat wings; ↓er Aw < 7%
 Composition: H2O (18%) < glu (30%)~ fruc(39%) + other minors
 Classified : by the pant source of nectar

II. Honeydew Honey: secretions from insects sucking plants

 Looks: darker & expensive
 Authenticity:  check for Caramel markers [DFA: Difructose anhydride]
 do gas chromatography ; if end up getting DFA  fake!
III. Maple Syrup
 Sap mostly sucrose, also contains carbohydrates, org acids, ash, protein, lignin-like mat.
 Process: Tree
7 o @ day
 Tapped @ < freezing @ night

Sap: 97% H2O, 3% solid (mostly sucrose)

 H2O evap  carmelization rxn
 Add flavour
 Brown colour

Final Sap: 66% solid

Collection of sap @ 7*C during day & <freezing at night, final sap 66% solids

III. PERCEPTION OF SWEETNESS:

 Artificial Sweeteners: “↑-intensity sweeteners”

 Added in “mg” amts
 Much sweeter per unit of weight (can add less for eq. amt of sweetness --- > ↓ calories)
 Do not elevate blood glu levels/tooth decay (noncariogenic) , 2cal/g instead of 4, complete abs in
small intestine (Fermentation in the colon by microflora)
 Sorbitol: Natural, produce by catalytic hydrogenation of d-glu, 50% sweetness of sucrose
 Xylitol : hydrogenation of pentose/xylose, sweetness = sucrose.
 Isolmalt: sucrose converted by ezymalic transglycosylation, hydrogenation across c2 of fruct. Equimolar
mixture of GPM n GPS, same prop as polyols
 Invert Sugars:
 Invert (glu + fruc) vs. Sucrose  same sweetness
 Economically: cheaper to use invert (HFCS): 1 glu:1 fruc, than sucrose
 Sweet Receptors:
 AH, B, X Theory: Both sugar & receptor have some complimentary sites
 AH: + ; H-donor;  e.g.: OH, COOH, things w/ +ve charge
 B: - ; H-receiver  e.g.: OH, SO2, things w/ -ve charge
 X: hydrophobic interactions
 2001: T1R2-T1R3 heterodimer: 1 active site found corr. to theory
*Other sites found that don’t have a glucophore (proteins)
 Examples: 1. Aspartame: produce methanol: not prob @ ↓ [ ]
2. Sucralose: added “Cl”
- blocks “sucrase” from breaking down this molecule
↓CALORIES  - Therefore, unabsorbed in body but sweetness still perceived
Lecture 4: Carbohydrates - Pt 2
1. New Sweeteners
 Aspartame
o Breakdown: aspartic acid + phenyl alanine + MeOH [methanol ]
 Disease: PKU = can’t properly metab. phenylalanine  doesn’t leave brain & cause development
probs
 Neotame [ARTIFICIAL sweetener]
o Breakdown: de-esterified neotame + MeOH
 No problem: due to additional `large hydrophobic group`, its steric hindrance prevents digestive
enzymes from cleaving peptide bond  phenylalanine not produced
 Note: only diff in structure b/w Neo&Aspar is H-phobic grp
 Compared w/ Sucrose: exact same sensory profile (good), except more liqorice taste
 Methanol: we have natural esterase that cleave out MeOH, but they’re in such small amts [mg]
that our liver can deal
 In APM > NTM b/c neotame is sweeter; use less for same effect = less MeOH produced
 Stevia [NATURAL intense sweetener]
o Steviol glycosides are the sweet parts of plant (20-30% of leaf) : 3 common ones isolated & made into
powder
 Stevioside
 Rebaudioside A
 Rebaudioside C (Dulcoside B)
o Glycoside: sugar + non carb moiety
 Noncarb: 3C H-phobic ring
 Sugar: R groups: R1: glucose, R2: disaccharide, trisaccharide, 2 glu+ 1 rhamnose
o Canada: approved in natural health products but not as food additive b/c approval takes time & $

2. Corn
 Types: (1) grain/field [shape: dent/flint] : used to animal feed, cornstarch/oil (2) popcorn (3) sweetcorn
 Kernal Physiology:
o Endosperm: cells has starch granules Oil & Starch give corn
o Bran: seedcoat (inner) + pericarp (outer)  coats & source of fibre calories to grow until it
can photosyn.
o Germ / Embryo: (1) corn oil source (2) the “seed” that grows into new plant
 Popcorn Process:
1. Pressure: thick pericarp acts like pressure vessel and limited space in densely packed endosperm cause ↑
in P.
2. Heat: Popcorn’s ↑ H2O content is superheated
3. Pressure ↓: pericarp ruptures
4. Expansion: water converted to steam, steam cause starch granules to expand

3. Cornstarch & other starches

 Roles: (1) Thickening agent (viscosity of plum sauce) (2) Gelling agent (gel structure of pudding)
 Chemistry:
o Made of: (1) Amylose (straight chain : 1-4 linkage)
(2) Amylopectin (branched chain, 1-4 & 1-6)
 Linear chains of amylopectin are helicies
o Composition: Corn is made up of VERY small portion of amylose(~30%); waxy corn has NO amylose
 Granules: shape & size distinct for ea. plant
o Crystalline region: lots of starch-starch int. ; helical chains intertwine – double helix
o Amorphous “ : lots of space; not much s-s assoc.
o Center: biosyn @ central area w/ enzymatic machinery
 Gel formation:
1. Temp ↑: H2O gets into crystalline region of starch
2. Gelatinization Temp: granule swells, amylose comes out of granule  lose crystallinity
 3. Viscosity: soln viscose b/c ea. granule swollen
4. Gel: when cooled & if [starch] is ↑, soln forms gel b/c there’s lots of contact b/w junc n zones
(recrystallize a bit)
 Retrogradation:
o Process: after storage for a long time, addnal bonds form b/w starch molecules (excessive
recrystallization); addnal bonds cause decreased space b/w starch molecules  syneresis: H2O is squeezed
out
o Wheat Flour: after baking, mainly amylose retrogrades (staling: less H 2O, more s-s interacn, rigid texture)
 Emulsifiers [b/c has polar+ non-p regions]: e.g.: sodium stearoyl 2-lactylate acts as an “interfering
agent” by inserting self into helix of amylose  ↓ their ability to form H-bonds w. e/o; prevents
recrystallization
 Sticky Rice:
o Sticky Rice: contains ONLY AMYLOPECTIN, starch granules in rice gelatinize when cooked & some
amylopectin COMES OUT into H2O; these amylopectin redeposit on surface and cause rice grains to stick
to e/o.
o Normal rice: contains amylopectin AND amylose, only amylose comes out when cooked  linear chain
doesn’t cause granules to stick

 Modified Starches:
o Def: chem/physically altered to overcome probs w/ natural starch
1. Cross Linking: joins 2 starch chains w/ phosphate bond to make a “distarch phosphate ester”
 Now less fragile and vulnerable to stirring
2. Hydroxypropylation [e.g. in plum sauce]: bulky “hydroxypropyl” side group use steric hindrance
to ↓s-s interacns
 Prevents unwanted gel formation (s-s int.)
3. Pre-gelatinization [e.g. in instant pudding]: starch is gelatinized & quickly dried  altho H2O is
out, swollen granule with “open spots” still there  @ room temp, H2O can be added to fill
granule voids
 gels w/o heat
o Stability Capabilities:
1. Hydroxypropylation = ↑ Freeze-thaw stability:
 Bulky side grps prevent s-s int. from reforming when H 2O-s are lost by freezing & thawing
2. Cross-linking = ↑ stability to shearing
 Starches are stronger & won’t rupture won’t stirred
o Corn-Starch Hydrolyzates:
 Def: corn starch hydrolyzed by acids & enzymes form many prods
 Process:
  Liquifaction: starch slurry converted by a-amylase ---- > maltodextrin (small pc of starch
still ↑ mol weight)
 Saccharification: maltodextrin converted by (1) glucoamylase (2) pullulanase (3) b-
amylase ----- > di/monosaccharids
 Purification: -----> maltose (glu-glu), glu, & mixed syrups [func ns: thickening, flavour]
 Isomerization & Refining: syrups converted by glucose isomerase ----> fructose syrups
 DE [Dextrose Equivalents]= ↓ing Power (hydrolysate / pure dextrose)
 E.g.: b/c maltodextrin is a linear chain w/ only 1 free C1, its reducing pwr is much less
than a bunch of single dextrose molecules with multiple free C1
 DP [Degree of Polymerization] & DE
 Inverse relationship; the longer the chain, the less reducing power
 Uses:
 Fructose Syrups: cheap alternative to sucrose (1glu:1fruc), in soda
 Dex/Glu “ : sweetners
 Maltodextrin: (1) Gelling: since its ↓ mol. Weight can ctrl degree of gellings (firm/soft)
(2) Bulking: When sugar is taken out of a prod to make it ↓-cal, it leaves a big void b/c
sugar takes up space; must substitute more maltodextrins in ADD n to artificial sweeteners
to make up volume
 DE & Funcn:
 ↑DE (maltodextrin) : promote browning rxn (rxn of ↓ing sugar &prot) + sweetness
(smaller molcules more readily broken down into free glu)
 ↓DE (starch): promotes bulking & viscosity (since ↑mol. Weight) + gelling (since ↑er int.)
 HFCS:
 Fruc is metabolized in the liver, promotes FA syn  ↑ fatty liver & serum triglycerides
 Pepsi Throwback: maybe taste better b/c sucrose vs. glu+fruc bind to diff taste receptors
 Fibersol-2 [fibre = by modifying maltodextrins]:
 Transglycosylation: Maltodextrins from cornstarch made undigestible from hydrolizing a-
1,4 links (digestible) ----> b- 1,2-, 1,3- (undigestible) & 1,4-
 Now H2O-soluble: easily added to foods
 Health: since indigestible: bowel, ↓ fat-liver & serum TG (unlike HFCS), keeps blood glu
lvls ↓

4. Polyols (sugar alcohols)

 Main perk: incomplete absorption in small intestine; microflora fermentation in colon
 Benefits: (1) diabetes: doesn’t ↑ blood glu lvls (2) noncariogenic: no tooth rot (3) ↓-cal: 2 cal/g (vs. 4 cal/g)
 Types:
o Sorbitol :
 Structure: aldehyde of D-glu hydrogenated
 Sweet: ½ of sucrose
 Laxative effect: sorbitol found in fruits  e.g.: prunes = natural laxative
o Xylitol
 Structure: aldehyde of xylose (5C chain) hydrogenated
 Sweet: just like sucrose

5. Isomalt
 Process:
1. Transglycosylation of 1,2-glu-fruc ---> 1,6-glu-fruc : Sucrose ---- > Isomaltulose
2. Hydrogenation: across C2 of fruc
3. Equimolar Mixture: (1) “OH” above ring 1,6-sorbitol (2) below ring 1,6 – mannitol
 Benefits / Perks / Properties:
o SAME AS POLYOLS
 Use: in combo w/ artificial sweetener for synergistic sweetening effect; sweet: ½ sucrose
 E.g: Werther’s Original: when sweetened w/ Isomalt & Ace-sulfame K only ↓ cal by 25% (more for diabetics than
weight loss); too much = laxative effect
6. Inulin
 Structure: oligosaccharide w/ “initiating glu” then 17-30 “repeating fruct”  G-FFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFFF
 Source: Chicory root
 Use: as a PREBIOTIC (promote microflora), in combo w/ Probiotic (the microflora itself)

7. Pectic Substances (Pectins)

 Structure: polysaccharide main chain: Galacturonic Acid & Rhamnose (neutral) + side chains
1. ↑Methyl-Pectin: main sugar has C1 is methylated
2. ↓Methyl-Pectin: “ C1 unmethylated; pronoted (OH) or -ve charged (O --)
 Source: extrac from plant cell wall of apples & citrus peels (called “pectin” once extracted)
n

 Use: gelling agent in Jams

o Jam Making:
 Content: Use [1] HM pectin & [2] acid (PH ~ 2/3) so that lots of free H+ around, all C1 protonated
(OH) & [3] Sugar: to stabilize junction zones when gel forms = binds H 2O so that pectin doesn’t
have to , ↑ pec-pec interacns for crystallization
 Process: Boiled fruit sugar acid pectin, PECTIN LEACHES INTO WATER, water vap’d, pectin in fruit
& added form 3-D gel structure
o Low sugar “fruit spreads”
 USE LMP w/ Ca+ ; gels by Ca+ forms salt-bridge b/w –ve charge O- of pectins  PH > 3 b/c floating
protons will prevent salt-bridge forma n
 b/c HMP NEEDS sugar to stabilize

8. Carrageenan [seaweed]
 Structure: galactose w/ C2,3,6 SULFATED
 Chocolate Milk: carrageenan interact w/ casein
o Benefit: allows cocoa powder to stay in suspension as a weak gel [thixotropic gel] w/o gelling completely
(still drinkable by mechanical shearing of glass tilting)
9. Other Gums
 Guar & locust bean, agar, gum Arabic, gum tragacanth, alginate, xanthan, cellulose

10. 0 Cal Salad Dressing

 NO oil but b/c flavouring compounds are fat soluble, oil in normal salads actually contribute to flavour
 this dressing has BARELY ANY FLAVOUR

Lecture 5: Lipids
1. Composition & Nomenclature



2. Phys & Chem properties



3. Commericial food oils & fats



4. Partial Hydrogenation



5. Interesterification

Lecture 6: Lipids II Interesterify fat w/
saturated FA; now TG has
1. Interesterification some sat.fat. = ↑ stability
 Def: chemical / enzymatic reactions to (1) alter properties of fat & (2) used as an alternative to hydrogenation
 Types
1. Directed
a. Hydrolysis: ↑ temp mix all FA, melts it to liquid
b. Re-esterify: some TG will be very ↑ in sat.fat
c. ↑ Temp: saturated fat (stack better), solidify first & removed from mix
d. Result: keep cycling until fully separated out 2 homogenous components of sat vs unsat.
2. Random
 During hydrolysis @ ↑ temp, re-esterification: fatty acid positions will randomize naturally.
 Purposes
o Alter Fat Properties
 E.G: LARD  was B-form: homogenous since most Pal-acid in sn-2 position.
- esterified to B’ form: more hetero since only 24% of Pal-acid in sn-2; others placed randomly
o Alternative to Hydrogenation
 Processors want to make fat more solid for some foods; interesterify w/ TG containing sat.FA to
get more solidity & more stability than unsaturated.
 Enzymatic Interesterification = use enzymes to hydrolyze/esterify instead of chem process

2. Lipid Rancidity
 Definition: chemical deterioration of fat; unsat. fat esp vulnerable due to double bonds (oxidation)
 Rate of oxidation:
1. ↑er degree of unsaturation = ↑er rxn rate
 e.g.: Flaxeed = 18:3, must be kept in black bag (photo oxidation); vaccum (keep O 2 ↓); @
↓temp
 e.g: 18:1 (n-9) = best, rate = 100 but still relatively stable but healthier than 18:0
2. Fctrs affecting rate: lvl of O2 , presence of pro (metals Cu, Fe) vs. anti-oxidants, Temp, Aw (good)H2O acts
as barrier to rxns , (bad) H2O avail as solvents for oxidants
 Processes :
 Autooxidation = O2 rxn w/ FA vis FREE RADICAL CHAIN RXN [slow catalyzed by metals]
a. Initiation: ‘H’ abstracted from FA to form free radicals
b. China Propagation: R’ rxn w/ O2 in the envt to prod. peroxyl radical (RO2’); RO2’ rxn w/ FA to get
ROOH (Hydroperoxide) + R’ (cycles to produce more and more ROOH)
 ROOH itself doesn`t countribute to
bad quality; but unstable enough to
propagate more rxns

c. Chain Branching Rxns: ROOH becomes peroxyl (RO2’) & hydroxyl & aldehydes/ketones/alcohols
 contribute to rancid tastes/smells

d. Termination: all free radicals dimerize & become non-free-radicals.

** note: since dimers are ↑er in mol.weight, it makes oil viscose& potentially become gel
 How reactive is a single free rad?
= 1 free rad makes 100 ROOH each.
 2. Autooxidation in Oleic Acid
a. Initiation: “H” abstracted from either C8/C11; ea. abstraction form 2 resonance hybrids = 4
resulting molecules

b. Chain Propagation: 4 resonance hybrids = 4 ROOHR (hydroperoxides) made

c. Chain Branching: ROOHR decompose into alkoxy + hydroxyl free radicals
i) “Scission Rxn” cut alkoxy @ 2 possible spots to form rancidity producing aldehydes + R’
ii) R’ free radical from scission rxn w/ “H” to make low.mol.weight alkanes + alkenes
o E.g: Flavour Reversion of Soybeans: enzymes in a-linolenic acid oils that prod
ROOH, which break down into Aldehydes & alkene/alkanes

3. Photosensitized Oxidation[slow catalyzed by light]

a. Def: Unique Initiation: instead of H-abstraction to make R’, light excites sensitizer --> sensitizer
(chlorophyll, hemo/myoglobin, riboflavin, metals) excites an O 2 to make a singlet oxygen
 milk: has riboflavin sensitizer that can be excited by light (milk kept in opaque bags)

4. Hydrolytic Rancidity: TG ---hydrolyzed----> Free FA = rancidity

 Rancidity Evalutation:
o Peroxide Value:
 React the ROOH in fat w/ 2KI; amt of I 2 produced indicate amt O2 incorporated into fat (O2/ kg fat)
o TBARS:
 If Malondialdehyde (rancid aldehyde) present, when TBA react with it  yellow colour produced
o Anisidine Value:
 If Aldehydes (indiciate oxidation) present, when P-anisidine react w/ it  yellow “
o Viscosity:
 During termination of oxidation, if too much dimers produced fat turns viscose
-------------------//----------------------------
o Case Study: Beef patties treated w/ 3 diff antioxidants
(1) Spiderplot: grapeseed = best antioxidant; ↓ bad tastes the most (most inner plot away from ctrl)
(2) TBARS : grapeseed = best; yellowness most seen in ctrl, least in grapeseed
 Antioxidants :
o Def: Delay initiation phase(↑ shelf life)
o Vitamin E:
 Action: “sacrificially” react w/ free radicals so that FA won’t have to; the free radical that it itself
becomes will be converted to nonreactive quinone => no oxidative stress
 o Synethetic Antioxidants:
 Added to cereal box liner ; react w/ O2 so that cereal won’t have to

o Quenchers:
 Brings singlet O2’ back to ground state to prevent ROOH formation during Chain Propagation
 E.g.: B-carotene, ascorbyl palmitate, lycopene
o Metal Chelators:
 EDTA/Citric Acid chelate metals so that they can’t catalyse oxidation
 Water Activity:
(1) ↑ oxidation = monolayer water which act as barrier to rxns removed
(2) ↑ oxidation = bulk water act as solven for O 2 + metals
(3) ↓ oxidation = lots of H2O dilutes out O2 + metals

3. Emulsions & Emulsifiers

 HLB (H-philic/phobic balance)
o If emulsifier has bigger H-phobic portion = w/O emulsion formed & vice versa
 Types:
1. Phospholipids:
 Lipophilic/phobic emulsifier depends on length of the R’-groups
 E.g.: Soy lecithin (extracted from soybean oil) , eggs (altho prone to contam)
2. Monoglycerides: 1 FA on TG is the lipophilic portion
3. Sodium Stearoyl Lactylate: long 33C lipophilic portion [bread anti-staler]
4. Sorbitan Esters: long 16C lipophilic portion [stabilize B’ in oils]
 Gums/Starches:
o Act on aqueous parts to stabilize emulsion
  (o/w) Thicken continuous aq phase: more difficult for oil droplets to move around & coalesce
 (w/o) Thicken Water Droplets : heavier droplets can’t move around in oil
 Emulsifiers in Foods:
1. French Dressing Stabilizers [w/o]
 Emulsifiers: Mustard Flour, Paprika
 Gelling Agent (thicken H2O droplets) : Xanthan Gum , Propylene Glycol Alginate
2. Mayonnaise [o/w]
 Composition: More OIL > H2O; large amount of oil coated w/ very thin layer of H 2O
 Processing: Oil +’d slowly & Oil Beaten: to make sure the oil droplets form & break oil into very
small droplets
 Light Mayo: ↑’d H2O, ↓’d Oil  must add gum&starch to stabilize emulsion
3. Margarine [w/o like butter]
 Regular:
 Sat Fat: (Mod Palm & Kernel) makes margarine solid
 Emulsifier: (Whey; soy lecithin; monoglycerides)
 Chelator: (Citric Acid) takes away catalyst of oxidation
 Vitamines: for good health; Vit E maybe as antioxidant
 Light:
 Change: ↑’d H2O, ↓’d Oil , ADD Gelatin
 RSF [Red. Saturated Fat]:
 Change: ↑’d H2O, ↓’d Oil even more, ADD Starch (stabilize by thicker water droplets)
 Structure:
 Water droplets: gelatin content makes it a gel; mimic oil’s viscosity
 Fat Crystals: Sat Fat crystals keeps water drops separated & makes margarine solid
 Emulsifiers

4. Fat Replacers
 Trend: replace oil w/ (1) more H2O (2) Gelling Agent: Stabilize emulsion ; mimics viscosity of oil
 Types
1. Olestra
 Fat unabsorbed by body: sucrose esterified w/ FA that cannot be hydrolyzed
 Side effects: When unabsorbed, takes lipid-soluble vitamins with them into GI (↓ essential Vit
absorption A,D,E,K hard to get from diet)
2. Microparticulated Proteins:
 Protein powder (from milk, egg) w/ small particle size that mimics the creaminess of fat
 Cals: ↓er since protein 4 g (vs 9 g)
 Use: in icecream, can’t be cooked since proteins denature @ ↑ temps
3. Structured Lipids:
 B/c short/med chain FA not stored in body, interesterify some short/med chain FA into TG so that
foods can be made healthier

Lecture 7: Proteins I
1. Amino Acids
 Chirality: all chiral carbon; EXCEPT glycine
 Conformation: a-L-amino acids
 Classification:
o Hydrophobic: Gly, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile
o Hydrophilic: Ser, Thru, Tyr
o Sulfur: Cys, Met
o Acidic: Asp, Asn, Glu, Gln
o Basic: Arg, Lys, His
o Aromatic: His, Phe, Tyr, Trp
o Imino Acid: Proline [ cyclical / unusual properties]
2. Maillard Reactions = Non-enzymatic browning reactions
 Def: Rxn b/w protein + carbohydrates  produce (un/)desirable brown/ flavour compounds
 Steps:
1. Glu & AA Rxn
 Primary amine adds self across aldehyde
 Dehydration produce glucosylamine (ring and chain in equilibrium)
2. Amadori Rearrangement
 Compounds in glucosylamine rearrange to produce ketoseamine
3. Enolization (C1-C2)  cyclodehydration
 Enolization: ketoseamine rearrange so that d.b added across C1-2
 3-Deoxyosone: formed when unstable amine spins off
 Dehydration: “easily driven since mixture constantly heated”
 Cyclization: 2nd dehydration produces 5-member ring furan
4. Enolization (C2-C3)  cyclodehydration / fission
 Enolization: ketoseamine rearrange so that d.b added across C2-3
 1-Deoxyosone: formed when unstable amine spins off
1. Cyclodehydration: produces furan/pyran [maltol = desirable]
2. Fission: product fragments into 2 reductones (have 2 carbonyls side by side)
 Additional Pathways
1. Glycosylamine Fragmentation
 Glucosylamine fragments into 2 compounds that form a ring thru condensation pyrazine [beef]
2. Strecker Aldehyde
 Reductone + amino acid = strecker aldehyde [flavouring compound]
3. Melanoidins
 Heating prot + carb =compound w/ lots of d.b  coloured since absorb visible light spectrum
 Reactivity
o General:
 Small>Large: Free a.a. > peptides > proteins
 Lysine (e & a amino grps) > Glutamic Acid
o Paired Reactivity Test:
 Lys: most reactive b/c it’s a free a.a
 Glu-Lys: a-blocked, e exposed
 Glu___|-Lys: e-blocked, a-exposed [Reactivity: free lys > e > a]
 Water Activity:
o ↑ water = ↑ rxn rate: ↑ solvent for rxns
o Eventually ↓ rxn rate: dilution effect & dehydration rxns slowed down

3. Protein Classification
 Based on Solubility:
o Albumins: water-soluble
o Globulins: neutral-salt soluble
o Glutelins: soluble in DILUTE acid/ base; insoluble in neutral
o Prolamins: soluble in ethanol; insoluble in water
o Scleroproteins: INSOLUBLE in water, salt, or ethanol; fibrous
o Histones: Basic [high lys, arg]
o Protamines: VERY Basic [high arg]
 Conjugated Proteins
o Phosphoproteins: P-Ser/Thr of proteins
o Chromoproteins: coloured group added in proteins [e.g.: hemoglobin]

4. Protein Structure & denaturation

 Structure:
  B-sheet: antiparallel>parallel sheet strength since H-bonds are closer together
 Denaturation: can happen by heating OR mechanical agitation

5. Derived Proteins
1. Hydrolyzed Vegetable Protein
o Def: acid hydrolyzed wheat gluten / soy proteins for flavour enhancement
 E.g.: MSG = converted from glutamic acid; has own taste receptor
o Other Flavour Enhancers:
 Nucleotides: (1) IMP = bonito fish isolate (2)GMP: shiitake mushroom isolate  both enhance beef
2. Collagen  Gelatin
o Collagen: from meat (mostly pig) connective tissue/ bone
o Structure: triple-helix that hydroxylated proline & lysine post-translational; also glycine high
 High in pro, hydroxpro, lys, gly & hydrophilic [glu, asp, arg]
 Proline: creates bends that contribute to coil in 3-helix
o Collagen  Gelatin Conversion:
 Peptide links broken to shorten chain length
 Strand-linking H-bonds broken
 Gel formation: water goes into pockets b/w junction zones
 Foam formation: air “ “ “ [whipping incorporates air & denatures]
6. Wheat Proteins
 Whole-wheat bread: has (1) calcium proprionate = anti-mold (2) sodium stearoyl-2-lacylate = anti-staling emuls
 Gluten:
o Def: complex of gliadin & glutenin held together by H-bond & Disulfide Bond
o Amino Acid Composition:
 Cysteine-SH = disulfide bonds polymerize gluten
 H-phobic = interacts w/ lipids to lubricate & ↑ elasticity
 H-philic = H-bond
o Bread-Making:
 Space in b/w bonds hold air bubbles created by yeast
 Heat (baking) = denatures protein : fixes the structure containing the air bubbles

7. Soybean Proteins and Products

 Soybean: uniquely high in oil; globulin proteins (B-conglycinin & Glycinin)
 Soy Condensed:
o Concentrate: the insoluble part of alcohol/acidic wash
o Isolate: the soluble part of alkali wash [purity: isolate > concentrate]
 Soybean Products
1. Soymilk
 Grounded slurry with the insoluble removed = soymilk the remaining fluid
 HEATING: inactivates lipoxygenase: prevents a-linolenic acid  pentenes (off-flavours)
2. Soy sauce
 Process
i. Oil removed & Wheat added
ii. Bacteria cultures added twice to ferment  incubate
 Composition:
 High Glutamic Acid: a little from wheat; forms MSG
 Very little of original protein left = not good source of prot
3. Tofu
 Processing
 Soymilk  curd formation  H2O squeezed out washed/pckged
 Curd Formation:
o Ca+-sulfate forms bridges b/w negatively charged glutamic acid
o Pockets trap H2O = gel structure of curd
 4. Textured Vegetable Protein
 Def: mechanical & thermal & gelling to make fake meat
 Process: Extrusion Device w/ screw & die to make fibrous product that looks like meat

Lecture 8: Proteins II
1. Milk Protein
 Milk:
o Ruminant digestive system: synthesize nutrients from cellulose for humans
o Composition: mainly water
 Milk Protein:
o Structure: a, b, k form SUBMICELLES (h-phobic core, h-philic outside)
o Milk Protein Separation:
 Acidification: casein aggregates, whey filtrates
 Salting Out Whey: lactoglobulin aggregates, lactoalbumin filtrates
 Coagulation of Casein:
1. Acidification
 Removes –ve charges (repulsive forces)  promotes H-bonding / H-phobic int.
2. Rennin:
 Contains chymosin = Cleaves H-philic hairy surface: destabilize  curds
1. Casein
o Alpha/beta-casein
 Phosphoproteins: have ser/glu w/ negative phosphate attached that bind Calcium; form long Ca-P
bridges
o Kappa-casein
 N-term = H-phobic: insert into H-phobic submicelle core
 C-term = H-philic but can’t form Ca-P bridges
 Structure: hairy; on surface of submicelle; when completely covered w/ K-casein, micelle growth
stops since no ability to form Ca-P bridges

2. Whey
o Composition:
 Higher in methionine (essential a.a., difficult to obtain)
o Method of Isolation [since whey is mostly water, must isolate w/o denaturation: no heat]
1. Reverse Osmosis
 Force water out of pores, prot too large to go thru  concentrated
2. Spray Drying
 As why is sprayed out, hot air comes up to instantly dry particles
 Milk Products
1. Fluid Milk
 Homogenization:
 Energy used to break up fat into small droplets
 Protein submicelles stabilize emulsion
 Milk Cleaning
1. Pasteurization: 72 C: pathogens killed; spoilage organisms still exist
2. UHT: 136/8 C: sterile (but cooked flavour)
3. Filter: bacteria doesn’t pass; law still requires pasturized  45 day shelf life
2. Yogurt
  Culture: incubated w/ bacteria for 3 hrs
 Process: when bacteria chews up lactose, lactic acid produce acidic envt that coagulates casein,
forming the protein gel that is yogurt
3. Cheese
 Composition: Casein coagulated; whey removed
 Ripening: microflora
 Breakdown: of lactose, casein, triacylglycerols  putrescine, cadaverine odours of cheese
 Types
 Cottage Cheese: unripened
 Mozzarella: unripened; rennet used; curd is kneaded ofr stringy structure
 Cheddar: Hard = low moisture = high calcium since more [ ]’d; annatto makes yellow
 Swiss: during ripening CO2-producing cultures makes holes

2. Egg Protein
 Egg White:
o Ovalbumin:
 Denatured: readily by heat OR mechanically
o Angel Food Cake:
 Tartaric acid: lowers pH to denature egg white protein & set foam
 Siffening: beating eggs gently denatures egg white while incorporating air to make foam, which
sets upon baking
 Egg Yolk:
o O/W emulsion: density: LDL < HDL (lipids) < livetin (water) [makes sense since yolk high in cholesterol]
 Egg Uses:
o Emulsifying Agents: phospholipids in mayo
o Coagulation: bind meatball
o Foaming: angel food cake
o Fat Replacer = Simpless:
 Microparticulated milk& egg proteins that mimic fat’s creaminess
 Advantage: Only 1.3 cal/g
 Caveat: only used in icecream since would denature w/ heat
 Egg substitutes:
o Mostly egg whites since yolk = cholesterol; vegetable gums as gelling agent to match viscosity of yolk

3. Sweet Proteins
 Types:
1. Monellin
2. Thaumatins: has 5 lysine residues; when their e-amine groups blocked has reduced sweetness
 Sweet Receptor Experiment:
 One antibody reacts w/ both proteins
 @ parts that contain Lys near Tyr  found active site responsible for sweetness

4. Meat
 Def: parts of warm blooded animals; usually skeletal muscle w/ fat
 Skeletal Muscle
1. Structure: Filaments  myofibril  muscle fiber  bundle of muscle fiber  (whole) muscle
 myomesin + desmin hold myofibrils together
2. Connective Tissue:
 Endomysium (around a muscle fiber)
 Perimysium (bundle of “ )
 Epimysium (around whole muscle)
 Tendon (all merge to connect to bone)
3. Myofibril:
 Boundary: z-line
 1. Alpha-actinin & connectin helps organize myofibril
4. Contractions:
1. ATP present: S1 head can relax
2. Ca “ : actin inhibition is off & cross bridge can form
3. ATP hydrolyzed : can power-stroke
 ** Stuck in rigor mortis: unless ATP present
***Can’t cross-bridge: unless Ca present
5. Sources of ATP
 Glycolysis; Oxidative Phosphorylation (more); Creatine; 2ADP  ATP & AMP

 Post-Mortem Changes
1. Process: incubate to enhance flavour & tenderness
 If @ high temp, use UV light = kill bacteria so can put @ high temp
2. ATP:
 No O2; rxns eventually stop
 Glycolysis continues for some time since doesn’t need O 2; accumulate lactate = acidity kills
enzymes
 ATP degrades = IMP = beef flavour enhancer
3. Rigor Mortis:
 S1 head stuck since no ATP
 Resolution:
1. Protein degradation enzymes : (lysosome = cathepsins) & (sarcoplasm = calpains)
2. Add meat tenderizer: (papain)
3. Degrades: connectin & alpha-actinin; myomesin & desmin
4. Cooking:
 @ lower temp: denatures prot
 @ higher temp: collagen  gelatin (↓ toughness)
 Meat Colour Changes
1. Inside of ground meat, no O2  purple (myoglobin) Fe++
2. When oxygenated, produce desirable  red (oxymyoglobin) Fe++
3. Too much O2 for too long is oxidation  brown (metmyoglobin) Fe ++ +
 Meat Curing
1. NO: produce pink colour & extend shelf-life
2. Heat: denatures myoglobin
3. Erythrobate: prevents oxidation
 Comminuted meat products:
1. O/W emulsion: fat globule surrounded by protein gel
2. Stabilization: fat globules stabilized by myosin
3. Health concerns: nitrite + amino acids  carcinogenic nitrosamines
 However, even celery has nitrates that are converted to nitrites
5.__Fish
 Feature: collagen shrinks @ lower temperatures  more tender/flaky
 Proteins: antifreeze glycoproteins where sugar bind water so that it doesn’t freeze
 Fishy Odour: TMAO  TMA = odour ; TMAO also maintains osmotic pressure
 Surimi: Japanese minced fish to make fake crab meat w/ extrusion
o Composition: water taken out, only myosin+actin+actomyosin+collagen
 Has starch, egg white binder, flavour enhancers

Lecture 9: Plants
1. Cereals
 Rice
1. Bt-Rice = pest-resistant
2. Golden Rice
  Purpose: increased b-carotene content (Vit A difficult to obtain)
 Why: Unlike rice leaves, kernels missing steps in metab pathway
 Cartenoid biosynthesis
 Pyruvate  geranylgeranyl-diphosphate (GGPP)  can further convert to Vit E
 Transgenes:
a) add PSY [corn]
b) add CRTI = PDS, ZDS, CRTISO (redundant) [bacteria desaturases]
Result: all-trans lycopene (red)
 All-trans lycopene ------b-lycopene cyclase----- >(1) B-carotene
 Bioavailability
 B-carotene = provitamin A : every 12 ug b-car consumed = 1 ug retinol absorbed
 75% child’s req; ~38% adult req
3. White rice
 Less nutritious
 Hull removal = longer shelf life since pests eat bran/hull
 Treated w/ Mg Silicate + 50% glu solution = longer shelf life
 Solution: Parboiled Rice
 Steam allows hull nutrients to transfer to white rice, which are then removed
 Quality: b-vitamin content higher than white rice
 Corn
o High-lysine corn
 GENETICALLY MODIFIED: “feedback-insensitive enzyme” allows accumulate lysine w/o shutting
down metabolic pathway
 Rye
o Dense & Chewy
 Weak gluten matrix (small amt gluten) = not stretchy
 High % of pentosans for gel formation = dense
 Oats
o Cooking time: determined by amount of physical rolling & cutting
o Hypocholesterolemic:
 Beta-glucans = a dietary fiber that carries cholesterol to the GI
 Barley
o Also has Beta-glucans
o Naturally occurring high-lysine varieties exist (low yield)
 Food Chemicals
o Protein: gluten, but ↓ in lysine
o Lipids: oil in germ/embryo & carotenoids & tocopherols =highest in oats
o Carbs: starchs, pentosans (rye), beta-glucan (oat&barley)
2. Legumes
 General
 Grow in pods & source of protein & fiber
 Toxicity
1. Proteinase inhibitors
 Interfere w/ digestion
2. Alpha-amylase inhibitors
 “ ;  therefore beans have low glycemic index
3. Lectins
 Precipitate sugars
 Dmg epithelial tissues
 Reason?
 Beans protecting selves from being consumed; OK FOR HUMANS since toxicity destroyed w/ heat

 Fermentable Oligosaccharides
  Raffinose, Stachryose, Verbacose: indigestible & fermented by colon microbes  CH4 + CO2

3. Formation of Gluten-Free products

 Celiac Disease = gluten intolerance; must avoid it
 Solution: Replace Gluten-Starch Matrix
1. Gluten-Free Grains/Seeds
 E.g.: pseudocereals high in starch & prot : amaranth, buckwheat, quinos
 Note: Oat MAY contain gluten from cross-contamination
2. Milk & Egg Proteins:
 a,b-casein can form Ca-P bridges that simulate gluten matrix
 Caveat: most ppl allergic
3. Enzyme modification
 Transglutaminase: increase cross linking of lys-glu to simulate matrix
4. Use Gums
 Hydroxylpropyl methyl cellulose & xanthan gum : polysaccharide matrix that holds starch granules
4. Fruits
 Enzymatic Browning
o Phenolic Compounds -----polyphenol oxidase + O2----- > quinones  melanin (brown, ↑ d.b)
o Water Activity: as Aw ↑, more solvent avail for rxns
1. That’s why fruits have ↓er shelf-life than dry cereals/legumes
 Ripening
o Fruit Types
1. Climateric
 Dramatic respiration (ripens) = ↑ in O2 consumption
 E.g.: Chlorophyllase in banana responsible for degreening
o Inhibit ripening by cycloheximide treatment (inhibit chloro syn)
2. Non-climateric
 Steady ripening prior to harvest
o Delay Ripening
1. KMnO4 treatment = binds ethylene gas in fruit bag to prevent ripening
2. ∆ atmosphere = ↓ O2, ↑CO2 inhibits respiration by pushing rxn twds substrates

5. Vegetables
 Brassica
 Main Rxn: Glucosinolate ----thioglucosidase---- > isothiocynanate (sulfur compound = strong odours)
 Broccoli
 Glucoraphanin -----> Sulforphane [ANTICARCINOGENIC]
 Glucobrassicin -----> Indole-3-methyl isothiocynate ----> indol-3-carbinol [ANTICARINOGENIC]
 Red Cabbage
 Anthocyanins: responsible for red colour; must be kept @ acidic pH otherwise turns blue
 Solanaceae
 Potato
 Tuber: consumed
 Yukon: yellow NATURALLY interbred for carotenoid pigments: lutein & violaxanthin
 Effect of Light: promotes chlorophyll & alpha-solanine that turns green & toxic
 Anti-bruise gen-mod: silenced polyphenol oxidase; now go find plants naturally low in this
 Tomato
 Wild type: cherry
 Nutrient: lycopene [ANTICARINOGENIC]
 Flavr Savr Gen-Mod: Traditionally = to prevent spoilage, they were picked green & treated w/
ethylene gas to stimulate ripening but results in less flavourful tomatos
 Solution: silence polygalacturonase by anti-sense technology  pectin can’t degrade = no
softening of fruit
 Peppers
  Ripening
 Decline in green & yellow colour: Chlorophyll + Lutein
 Increase in orange & yellow : B-car + Violaxanthin
 New synthesis of red: zeaxanthin
 Hot Peppers
 Capsaicin: “hotness”; bind to vanilloid receptors and stops pain
 Allium
 Enzyme allinase produce sulfur compounds responsible for aromas
 Thiopropanal-S-Oxide: Onion = responsible for tears
 Allicin: Garlic = aroma
6. Coffee & Tea
 Coffee: berries roasted for browning & carmelization
 Tea: Camellia sinensis
o Black Tea vs Green
 Leaves rolled to release polyphenol oxidase eventually heat inactivated (earlier for green tea)
o Composition
 Tannins: Phenolic hydroxyl H-bond w/ proline rich proteins on tongue & pull them together for
astringency

Lecture 10: Vit & Min & Food Additives

7. Vitamin A
 Information: fat soluble (storable)
o Preformed Vit A: animal sources auto in retinol form
o Provitamin A: plant source (b-carotene) that must be converted retinol form
 Conversion inefficient, must consume a lot for good status
 Technologies
o Capsules
 CIDA makes capsules that lasts 6 months; since Vit A can be stored in body
o Fortification
 E.g.: cooking oil fortified w/ Vit A
o Increased Cultivation
 E.g.: Bangladesh Homestead Gardening Programme encourage growing Vit-A rich foods
o Ultra Rice
 Rice composite: simulated kernel w/ same all-around properties as rice; added @ 1:100 ratio
 Composition:
 Vit A: Retinyl Palmitate
 Antioxidants: Vit E & ascorbic acid to ensure stability
 Saturated Fat: moisture barrier to withstand wash & not dissolve
 Gelling Agent: Na-alginate & calcium chloride for Ultra Rice structure
o Na-alginate: Mannuronic acid & Guluronic acid
 Egg-box model: Guluronic acid forms negative charged box that attracts
positive charged Ca
 Processing: 2 separate mixes puts everything together into dough, which is washed and dried w/
calcium chloride to set the sodium alginate gel for the firmness of ultra-rice.

8. Iron*
 Deficiency
o Effect: body can’t make hemoglobin to deliver O2 to make ATP  anemia (small pale erythrocytes)
o Result: lack of energy & arrested cognitive development in young
 Resolution: Sprinkles
o Ferrous Fumarate that is microencapsulated to prevent reactivity
o Advantage: (1) Syrups = limited shelf-life + bad tastes; (2) Pills = infants can’t swallow
 o Microencapsulation:
 Ferrous Fumarate mixed w/ hydrogenated soybean oil (saturated fat) w/ high melting point
 Cold air solidifies the fat
 High melting pt cover ensures iron stays encapsulated until digested & won’t react
 Ultra-Rice w/ Iron
o Vit A & Iron premix prepared separately (decrease reactivity)
o Fumarate makes rice brown  titanium oxide added to whiten
9. Iodine
 Deficiency:
o Requirement: to syn thyroid hormones
o Result: goitre (inflamed thyroid) + cretinism (retardation)
 Super Salt = Fe + I
o Caveat: Potassium Iodide (KI) added since elemental I2 sublimes & Fe catalyzes I2 sublimation
o Microencapsulation
 Iodide
 ( ( ( KI ) Maltodextrin – porous ) soy stearin )
 Iron chelator ↓ Fe reactivity whitens, but porous
 ( ( (Ferrous Fumarate + Na Hexametaphosphate) soy stearin + titanium O 2) soy stearin)
 Triple Fortified Salt = Fe + I + Vit A

10.Food additives
 Function
1. Nutritive Value: vit &min; microencapsulate omega-3 [oxidation cause adverse flavours]
2. Sensory Value
3. Shelf-life
 Types
1. Flavour enhancers: add @ high [ ] = MSG, nucleotides IMP & GMP
2. Artificial Sweetners: Sucralose, aspartame, acesulfame-K
3. Flavour & Aroma compounds: essential oils microencapsulated since volatile (has Strecker aldehydes)
4. Acids: pH to control microbial activity
5. Antimicrobials:
 Acids in bread
 Sulfites: inhibites polyphenol oxidase to stop enzymatic browning
 Ethylene oxide: gas sterilant when heat can’t be used
6. Emulsifiers : sorbitan esters has long H-phobic chain
7. Fat substitutes:
 Carbohydrates: thickens when take out fat & add water
 Synthetic Fats: Olestra = surcrose esters
 Microparticulated protein: Simplesse = egg & milk protein
8. Gelling / Thickening: gums, gelatin, starches
9. Humectants: polyol sugars that reduce water activity by H-bonding to water
 Salt Reduction Strategies
1. Reduce particle size
2. 1:1 substitution w/KCl = bitter so can’t COMPLETELY sub
3. Vinegar : fermented from carbs; avail in powder form
4. MSG: non Na+ glutamates avail also
5. Natural flavour enhancers: Bonito fish (IMP & GMP) & garlic & onion