UNIT I PN DIODE AND ITS APPLICATIONS

Introduction
The outermost electrons of an atom i.e. those in the shell furthermost from the nucleus
are called valence electrons and have the highest energy or least binding energy. It is these
electrons which are most affected when a number of atoms are brought very close together as
during the formation of a solid. The states of lower-energy electrons orbiting in shells nearer to
the nucleus are little, if at all, affected by this atomic proximity.
The band of energy occupied by the valence electrons is called the valence band and is,
obviously, the highest occupied band. It may be completely filled or partially filled with
electrons but never empty.
The next higher permitted energy band is called the conduction band and may either be empty or
partially filled with electrons. In fact, it may be defined as the lowest unfilled energy band. In
conduction band, electrons can move freely and hence are known as conduction electrons. The
gap between these two bands is known as the forbidden energy gap.

It may be noted that the covalent force of the crystal lattice have their source in the valence band.
If a valence electron happens to absorb enough energy, it jumps across the forbidden energy gap
and enters the conduction band (Fig. ). An electron in the conduction band can jump to an
adjacent conduction band more readily than it can jump back to the valence band from where it
had come earlier. However, if a conduction electron happens to radiate too much energy, it will
suddenly reappear in the valence band once again.
1. conduction electrons are found in and freely flow in the conduction band ;
2. holes exist in and flow in the valence band ;
3. conduction electrons move almost twice as fast as the holes.

Fig. (a) shows the energy band diagram of an unexcited silicon atom (Z = 14) with its electronic
distribution. When silicon crystal is given thermal or light energy from outside [Fig.(b)], some
electrons gain sufficient energy to jump the gap from the valence band into the conduction band
thereby becoming free electrons [Fig. (c)]. For every electron which jumps to conduction band, a
hole is created in the valence band. In this way, an electron-hole pair is created.

Insulators, Conductors and Semiconductors

The electrons lying in the lower energy bands, which are normally filled, play no part in the
conduction process.
Insulators. Stated simply, insulators are those materials in which valence electrons are bound
very tightly to their parents atoms, thus requiring very large electric field to remove them from
the attraction of their nuclei.
In terms of energy bands, it means that insulators (a) have a full valence band,
1. have an empty conduction band,
2. have a large energy gap (of several eV) between them and
3. at ordinary temperatures, the probability of electrons from full valence band gaining sufficient
energy so as to surmount energy gap and thus become available for conduction in the conduction
band, is slight.

This is shown in Fig. (a). For conduction to take place, electrons must be given sufficient energy
to jump from the valence band to the conduction band. Increase in temperature enables some
electrons to go to the conduction band which fact accounts for the negative resistance-
temperature coefficient of insulators.
Examples are : Paper , Rubber

(ii) Conductors. Put in a simple way, conducting materials are those in which plenty of free
electrons are available for electric conduction.
Examples are : Copper and Aluminium.
In terms of energy bands, it means that electrical conductors are those which have overlapping
valence and conduction bands as shown in Fig.(b).
In fact, there is no physical distinction between the two bands. Another point worth noting is that
in the absence of forbidden energy gap in good conductors, there is no structure to establish
holes. The total current in such conductors is simply a flow of electrons.

(iii) Semiconductors. A semiconductor material is one whose electrical properties lie in between
those of insulators and good conductors.
Examples are : germanium and silicon.
In terms of energy bands, semiconductors can be defined as those materials which have almost
an empty conduction band and almost filled valence band with a very narrow energy gap (of the
order of 1 eV) separating the two.
At 0ºK, there are no electrons in the conduction band and the valence band is completely filled.
However, with increase in temperature, width of the forbidden energy bands is decreased so that
some of the electrons are liberated into the conduction band. In other words, conductivity of
semiconductors increases with temperature. Moreover, such departing electrons leave behind
positive holes in the valence band (Fig. C). Hence, semiconductor current is the sum of electron
and hole currents flowing in opposite directions.

Types of Semiconductors

1. Intrinsic semiconductor
2. Extrinsic Semiconductor
(i) N-type semiconductors and (ii) P-type semiconductors.

An intrinsic semiconductor is one which is made of the semiconductor material in its

extremely pure form. Intrinsic semiconductor may be defined as one in which the number of
conduction electrons is equal to the number of holes.
Examples of such semiconductors are : pure germanium and silicon

Extrinsic Semiconductor are those intrinsic semiconductors to which some suitable impurity or
doping agent or dopant has been added in extremely small amounts.
The usual doping agents are :
1. pentavalent atoms having five valence electrons (arsenic, antimony, phosphorus) or
2. trivalent atoms having three valence electrons (gallium, indium, aluminium, boron).
Pentavalent doping atom is known as donor atom because it donates or contributes one electron
to the conduction band of pure germanium. The trivalent atom, on the other hand, is called
acceptor atom because it accepts one electron from the germanium atom.
N-type Extrinsic Semiconductor. This type of semiconductor is obtained when a pentavalent
material like antimonty (Sb) is added to pure germanium crystal.

N-type semiconductors, electrons are the majority carriers while holes constitute the minority
carriers.
P-type Extrinsic Semiconductor. This type of semiconductor is obtained when traces of a
trivalent like boron (B) are added to a pure germanium crystal.

In this case, the three valence electrons of boron atom form covalent bonds with four
surrounding germanium atoms but one bond is left incomplete and gives rise to a hole.
P-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers while electrons constitute the minority
carriers.

PN junction diode

A single piece of a semiconductor material half of which is doped by P-type impurity and the
other half
by N-type impurity. The plane dividing the two zones is called junction.
It is found that following three phenomena take place :

1. A thin depletion layer or region (also called space-charge region or transition region) is
established on both sides of the junction and is so called because it is depleted of free charge
carriers. Its thickness is about 10 m.
2. A barrier potential or junction potential is developed across the junction.
3. The presence of depletion layer gives rise to junction and diffusion capacitances .

Formation of Depletion Layer

After formation of PN junction , holes are still in the P-region and electrons in the N-region.
However, there is greater concentration of holes in P-region than in N-region (where they exist
as minority carriers).
Similarly, concentration of electrons is greater in N-region than in P-region (where they exist as
minority carriers). This concentration differences establishes density gradient across the junction
resulting in carrier diffusion. Holes diffuse from P to N-region and electrons from N-to P-region
and terminate their existence by recombination [Fig. (a)]. This recombination of free and mobile
electrons and holes produces the narrow region at the junction called depletion layer. It is so
named because this region is devoid of (or depleted of) free and mobile charge carriers like
electrons and holes—there being present only positive ions which are not free to move.
 • When a p-type semiconductor material is suitably joined to n-type semiconductor the
contact surface is called a p-n junction. The p-n junction is also called as semiconductor
diode .
• The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –ve acceptor ions and +vely
charged holes. The right side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and
free electrons
• Suppose the two pieces are suitably treated to form pn junction, then there is a tendency
for the free electrons from n-type to diffuse over to the p-side and holes from p-type to
the n-side . This process is called diffusion.
• The left side material is a p-type semiconductor having –ve acceptor ions and +vely
charged holes. The right side material is n-type semiconductor having +ve donor ions and
free electrons.
• As the free electrons move across the junction from n-type to p-type, +ve donor ions are
uncovered. Hence a +ve charge is built on the n-side of the junction. At the same time,
the free electrons cross the junction and uncover the –ve acceptor ions by filling in the
holes. Therefore a net –ve charge is established on p-side of the junction.
• When a sufficient number of donor and acceptor ions is uncovered further diffusion is
prevented.
• Thus a barrier is set up against further movement of charge carriers. This is called
potential barrier or junction barrier Vo. The potential barrier is of the order of 0.1 to
0.3V.
Note: outside this barrier on each side of the junction, the material is still neutral. Only inside
the barrier, there is a +ve charge on n-side and –ve charge on p-side. This region is called
depletion layer.

Symbol of PN Junction Diode

The procedure of forming pn the dynamic equilibrium of drift and diffusion movements for
carriers in the silicon.
In detail, there are 4 steps:
1. Diffusion
a) Both the majority carriers diffuse across the boundary between p-type and
n-type semiconductor.
b) The direction of diffusion current is from p side to n side.

2. Space charge region

 Majority carriers recombining with minority carriers results in the disappearance
of majority carriers.
 Bound charges, which will no longer be neutralized by majority carriers are
uncovered.
 There is a region close to the junction that is depleted of majority carriers and
contains uncovered bound charges.
  This region is called carrier-depletion region or space charge region.

3. Drift

 Electric field is established across the space charge region.

 Direction of electronic field is from n side to p side.
 It helps minority carriers drift through the junction. The direction of drift current
is from n side to p side.
 It acts as a barrier for majority carriers to diffusion.

4. Equilibrium
 Two opposite currents across the junction is equal in magnitude.
 No net current flows across the pn junction.
 Equilibrium conduction is maintained by the barrier voltage.

VI characteristics
There are two operating regions and three possible "biasing" conditions for the standard
Junction Diode and these are:
1. Zero Bias - No external voltage potential is applied to the PN-junction.
2. Forward Bias - The voltage potential is connected positive, (+ve) to the P-type material and
negative, (-ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Decreasing the
PN-junction width.
3. Reverse Bias - The voltage potential is connected negative, (-ve) to the P-type material and
positive, (+ve) to the N-type material across the diode which has the effect of Increasing the
PN-junction width.

Zero Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Zero Bias condition, no external potential energy is applied to
the PN junction. However if the diodes terminals are shorted together, a few holes (majority
carriers) in the P-type material with enough energy to overcome the potential barrier will move
across the junction against this barrier potential. This is known as the "Forward Current" and is
referenced as IF Likewise, holes generated in the N-type material (minority carriers), move
across the junction in the opposite direction. This is known as the "Reverse Current" and is
referenced as IR. This transfer of electrons and holes back and forth across the PN junction is
known as diffusion, as shown below.

Z
ero Biased Junction Diode
The potential barrier that now exists discourages the diffusion of any more majority carriers
across the junction. However, the potential barrier helps minority carriers (few free electrons in
the P-region and few holes in the N-region) to drift across the junction. Then an "Equilibrium" or
balance will be established when the majority carriers are equal and both moving in opposite
directions, so that the net result is zero current flowing in the circuit. When this occurs the
junction is said to be in a state of "Dynamic Equilibrium".

Forward Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Forward Bias condition, a negative voltage is applied to the
N-type material and a positive voltage is applied to the P-
type material. If this external voltage becomes greater
than the value of the potential barrier, approx. 0.7 volts for
silicon and 0.3 volts for germanium, the potential barriers
opposition will be overcome and current will start to
flow.
This is because the negative voltage pushes or repels
electrons towards the junction giving them the energy to cross over and combine with the holes
being pushed in the opposite direction towards the junction by the
positive voltage. This results in a characteristics curve of zero
current flowing up to this voltage point, called the "knee" on the static
curves and then a high current flow through the diode with little
increase in the external voltage. The application of a forward biasing voltage on the junction
diode results in the depletion layer becoming very thin and narrow which represents a low
impedance path through the junction thereby allowing high currents to flow. The point at which
this sudden increase in current takes place is represented on the static I-V characteristics curve
above as the "knee" point.
Forward Biased Junction Diode showing a Reduction in the Depletion Layer
This condition represents the low resistance path through the PN junction allowing very large
currents to flow through the diode with only a small increase in bias
voltage.

The actual potential difference across the junction or diode is

kept constant by the action of the depletion layer at
approximately 0.3v for germanium and approximately 0.7v
for silicon junction diodes. Since the diode can conduct
"infinite" current above this knee point as it effectively
becomes a short circuit, therefore resistors are used in series
with the diode to limit its current flow. Exceeding its
maximum forward current specification causes the
device to dissipate more power in the form of heat than it was
designed for resulting in a very quick failure of the device.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode

When a diode is connected in a Reverse Bias condition,
a positive voltage is applied to the N-type material and a
negative voltage is applied to the P-type material. The
positive voltage applied to the N-type material attracts
electrons towards the positive electrode and away from
the junction, while the holes in the P-type end are also
attracted away from the junction towards the negative
electrode. The net result is that the depletion layer grows wider due to a
lack of electrons and holes and presents a high impedance path,
almost an insulator. The result is that a high potential barrier is
created thus preventing current from flowing through the semiconductor
material.

Reverse Biased Junction Diode showing an Increase in the

Depletion Layer
This condition represents a high resistance value to
the PN junction and practically zero current flows
through the junction diode with an increase in bias
voltage. However, a very small leakage current
does flow through the junction which can be
measured in microamperes, (μA). One final
point, if the reverse bias voltage Vr applied to
the diode is increased to a sufficiently high
enough value, it will cause the PN junction to
overheat and fail due to the avalanche effect
around the junction. This may cause the diode to become shorted and will result in the flow of
maximum circuit current, and this shown as a step downward slope in the reverse static
characteristics curve below.

Rd, temperature effects

Temperature Effects:
Temperature plays an important role in determining the characteristic of diodes. As
temperature increases, the turn-on voltage, vON, decreases. Alternatively, a decrease in
temperature results in an increase in vON. This is illustrated in fig. , where VON varies linearly
with temperature which is evidenced by the evenly spaced curves for increasing temperature in
25 °C increments.
The temperature relationship is described by equation
VON(TNew ) – VON(Troom) = kT(TNew – T room)

where, Troom= room temperature, or 25°C.

TNew= new temperature of diode in °C.
VON(Troom ) = diode voltage at room temperature.
VON (TNew) = diode voltage at new temperature.
kT = temperature coefficient in V/°C.
Although kT varies with changing operating
parameters, standard engineering practice permits
approximation as a constant.
Values of kT for the various types of diodes at room
temperature are given as follows:
kT= -2.5 mV/°C for germanium diodes
kT = -2.0 mV/°C for silicon diodes.
The reverse saturation current, IR also depends on temperature. At
room temperature, it increases approximately 16% per °C for silicon
and 10% per °C for germanium diodes. In other words, IO approximately doubles for every 5 °C
increase in temperature for silicon, and for every 7 °C for germanium.

The expression for the reverse saturation current as a function of temperature can be
approximated as

where Ki= 0.15/°C ( for silicon) and T1 and T2 are two arbitrary temperatures.

Static resistance and dynamic resistance.

DC or Static Resistance
The application of a dc voltage to a circuit containing a semiconductor diode will result in an
operating point on the characteristic curve that will not change with time.
 The resistance of the diode at the operating point can be found simply
by finding the Corresponding levels of VD and
ID as shown in Fig. and applying the following Equation:
Rd= Vd/Id --------Eq -1
The dc resistance levels at the knee and below will be greater than the
resistance levels obtained for the vertical rise section of the
characteristics. The resistance levels in the reverse-bias region will
naturally be quite high.

AC or Dynamic Resistance
It is obvious from Eq. 1 that the dc resistance of a diode is independent of the shape of the
characteristic in the region surrounding the point of interest.

If a sinusoidal rather than

dc input is applied, the situation will change
completely. The varying input will move the
instantaneous
operating point up and down a region of the
characteristics and thus defines a specific change in
current and voltage as shown in Fig.
With no applied varying signal, the point of
operation would be the Q-point appearing on Fig.
determined by the applied dc levels.
The designation Q-point is derived from the word quiescent, which means ―still or unvarying.‖
A straight line drawn tangent to the curve through the Q-point as shown in Fig. will define a
particular change in voltage and current that can be used to determine the ac or dynamic
resistance for this region of the diode characteristics.

DRIFT AND DIFFUSION CURRENTS

Directed motion of charge carriers in semiconductors occurs through two mechanisms :
(i) charge drift under the influence of applied electric field and
(ii) diffusion of charge from a region of high charge density to one of low charge density.
DRIFT When no electric field is applied to the semiconductor which is above 0º K, the
conduction electrons (as well as holes) move within the crystal with random motion and
repeatedly collide with each other and the fixed ions. Due to randomness of their motion, the net
average velocity of these charge carriers in any given direction is zero. Hence, no current exists
in the crystal under this condition of no field.
Now, consider the case when an electric field is applied to the crystal. Under the influence of this
field, the charge carriers attain a directed motion which is superimposed on their random thermal
motion. This results in a net average velocity called drift velocity in the direction of the applied
electric field. Of course, electrons and holes move in opposite directions but because of their
opposite charges, both produce current in the same direction. In extrinsic semiconductors, this
current is essentially a majority carrier flow.
The drift velocity is proportional to electric field strength E, the constant of proportionality being
called mobility μ. The exact relation between the two is v= μE.

Let us find the value of drift current in a semiconductor.

(i) current density due to electron drift is Je = eμe nE where μe is electron mobility, n is electron
density and E is the electric field strength.
(ii) current density due to hole drift is Jh = e μh pE where p is hole density.
Total current density due to electron and hole drift is
J = Je + Jh = eμe nE + eμh pE = e (nμe + pμh) E
= eμh (p + bn)E where b = μe/μh
Diffusion
It is gradual flow of charge from a region of high density to a region of low density. It is a
forcefree process based on non-uniform distribution of charge carriers in a semiconductor
crystal. It leads to an electric current without the benefit of an applied field. This flow or
diffusion of carriers is proportional to the carrier density gradient, the constant of proportionality
being called diffusion constant or diffusion coefficient D which has a unit of m2/s.
Current density due to hole diffusion is Jh = eDh dp/dx.
Similarly, current density due to electron diffusion is Je = eDe dn/dx.
where De, Dh = electron and hole diffusion constants respectively
dn/dx = density gradient of electrons
dp/dx = density gradient of holes.
It is obvious that diffusion depends on charge in homogeneity or on the presence of a space
gradient of charge density. It can occur in regions free of electric field. On the other hand, drift
current is a function of both electric field and charge density.
The electric field due to this potential difference sets up drift current in opposition to diffusion
current.
Final equilibrium is achieved when the potential difference developed becomes sufficiently large
so as to create a drift current equal and opposite to the diffusion current thus resulting in zero net
flow of current.
Combined Drift and Diffusion Currents
In semiconductors, drift and diffusion processes may be present simultaneously. The expressions
for total electron and hole densities become.
Je = eμenE + eDe dn/dx A/m2 and Jh = eμh pE -eDhdp/dx A/m2
Switching

 Load line
 Diode characteristic
 Q is the intersect point
 Visualization

For graphical analysis, a dc load line is

drawn on the diode forward biased
curve. This is a straight line that
illustrates all dc conditions that could
exist within the circuit. Because the
load line is always straight. It cn be
constructed by plotting any two
corresponding current and voltage
points and then drawing a straight line
through them.

To determine two points on the load line, an equation relating

voltage , current and resistance is first derived for the circuit as E= (I F
R1)+VF
Any two convenient levels of IF can be substituted in the above
equation to calculate Vf.

Diode Equivalent Circuits

An equivalent circuit is a combination of elements properly chosen to best represent the actual
terminal characteristics of a device, system, or such in a particular operating region. In other
words, once the equivalent circuit is defined, the device symbol can be removed from a
schematic and the equivalent circuit inserted in its place without severely affecting the actual
behavior of the system. The result is often a network that can be solved using traditional circuit
analysis techniques.
Piecewise-Linear Equivalent Circuit
One technique for obtaining an equivalent circuit for a diode
is to approximate the characteristics
of the device by straight-line segments, as shown in Fig.
The resulting equivalent circuit is naturally called the
piecewise-linear equivalent circuit.
It should be obvious from Fig that the straight-line
segments do not result in an exact duplication of the actual
characteristics, especially in the knee region. However, the resulting segments are sufficiently
close to the actual
curve to establish an equivalent circuit that will provide an excellent first approximation to the
actual behavior of the device. The ideal diode is included to establish that there is only one
direction of conduction through the device, and a reverse-bias condition will result in the open
circuit state for the device.

Since a silicon semiconductor diode does not reach the

conduction state until VD reaches 0.7 V with a forward bias
(as shown in Fig.), a battery VT opposing the conduction
direction must appear in the equivalent circuit as shown in
Fig.. The battery simply specifies that the voltage across the
device must be greater than the threshold battery voltage
before conduction through the device in the direction
dictated by the ideal diode can be established. When
conduction is established the resistance of the diode will be
the specified value of rav.
Simplified Equivalent Circuit
For most applications, the resistance rav is sufficiently small
to be ignored in comparison to the
other elements of the network. The removal of rav from the equivalent circuit is the same as
implying that the characteristics of the diode. Under dc conditions has a drop of 0.7 V across it in
the conduction state at any level of diode current.
Ideal Equivalent Circuit

Now that rav has been removed from the equivalent circuit let us take it a step further and
establish that a 0.7-V level can often be ignored in comparison to the applied voltage level. In
this case the equivalent circuit will be reduced to that of an ideal diode as shown in Fig. with its
characteristics.

TRANSITION AND DIFFUSION CAPACITANCE

Electronic devices are inherently sensitive to very high frequencies. Most shunt capacitive
effects that can be ignored at lower frequencies because the reactance XC=1/2πfC is very large
(open-circuit equivalent). This, however, cannot be ignored at very high frequencies. XC will
become sufficiently small due to the high value of f to introduce a low-reactance ―shorting‖
path.
In the p-n semiconductor diode, there are two capacitive effects to be
considered. In the reversebias region we have the transition- or
depletion-region capacitance (CT), while in the forwardbias
region we have the diffusion (CD) or storage capacitance.Recall that the
basic equation for the capacitance of a parallel-plate capacitor is defined by C=€A/d, where € is
the permittivity of the dielectric (insulator) between the plates of area A separated by a distance
d. In the reversebias region there is a depletion region (free of carriers) that behaves essentially
like an insulator between the layers of opposite charge. Since the depletion width (d) will
increase with increased reverse-bias potential, the resulting transition capacitance will decrease.
The fact that the capacitance is dependent on the applied reverse-bias potential has application in
a number of
electronic systems. Although the effect described above will also be present in the forward-bias
region, it is overshadowed by a capacitance effect directly dependent on the rate at which charge
is injected into the regions just outside the depletion region. The capacitive effects described
above are represented by a capacitor in parallel with the ideal diode, as shown in Fig. 1.38. For
low- or mid-frequency applications (except in the power area), however, the capacitor is
normally not included in the diode symbol.

Zener Region:There is a point where the application of too negative a voltage will result in a
sharp change in the characteristics, as shown in Fig. The current increases at a very rapid rate in
a direction opposite to that of the positive voltage region. The reverse-bias potential that results
in this dramatic change in characteristics is called the Zener potential and is given the symbol
VZ. As the voltage across the diode increases in the reverse-bias region, the velocity of the
minority carriers responsible for the reverse saturation current Io will also increase.
Eventually, their velocity and associated kinetic energy will be sufficient to release additional
carriers through collisions with otherwise stable atomic structures. That is, an ionization process
will result whereby valence electrons absorb sufficient energy to leave the parent atom. These
additional carriers can then aid the ionization process to the point where a high avalanche current
is established and the avalanche breakdown region determined. The avalanche region (VZ) can
be brought closer to the vertical axis by increasing the doping levels in the p- and n-type
materials. However, as VZ decreases to very low levels, such as _5 V, another mechanism, called
Zener breakdown, will contribute to the sharp change in the characteristic. It occurs because
there is a strong electric field in the region of the junction that can disrupt the bonding forces
within the atom and ―generate‖ carriers. Although the Zener breakdown mechanism is a
significant contributor only at lower levels of VZ, this sharp change in
the characteristic at any level is called the Zener region and diodes
employing this unique portion of the characteristic of a p-n junction
are called Zener diodes.
The maximum reverse-bias potential that can be applied before
entering the Zener region is called the peak inverse voltage (referred
to simply as the PIV rating) or the peak reverse voltage (denoted
by PRV rating). If an application requires a PIV rating greater than
that of a single unit, a number of diodes of the same characteristics can
be connected in series. Diodes are also connected in parallel to increase
the current-carrying capacity.

RECTIFIER:
Any electrical device which offers a low resistance to the current in one direction but a high
resistance to the current in the opposite direction is called rectifier. Such a device is capable
of converting a sinusoidal input waveform, whose average value is zero, into a unidirectional
waveform, with a non-zero average component.
A rectifier is a device which converts a.c. voltage (bi-directional) to pulsating d.c. voltage
(Uni-directional).
Characteristics of a Rectifier Circuit:
1. Load currents: They are two types of output current. They are average or d.c. current
and RMS currents.
i) Average or DC current:
The average current of a periodic function is defined as the area of one cycle of the curve
divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S. current:

The effective (or) R.M.S. current squared of a periodic function of time is given by the
area of one cycle of the curve which represents the square of the function divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as

2. Load Voltages:
There are two types of output voltages. They are average or D.C. voltage and R.M.S.
voltage.
i) Average or DC Voltage:
The average voltage of a periodic function is defined as the areas of one cycle of the
curve divided by the base.
It is expressed mathematically as
(or)

ii) Effective (or) R.M.S Voltage:

The effective (or) R.M.S voltage squared of a periodic function of time is given by the
area of one cycle of the curve which represents the square of the function divided by the base.

(or)

3. Ripple Factor (γ ): It is defined as ration of R.M.S. value of a.c. component to the d.c.
component in the output is known as “Ripple Factor”.

4. Efficiency (η ): It is the ratio of d.c output power to the a.c. input power. It signifies,
how efficiently the rectifier circuit converts a.c. power into d.c. power.
It is given by

5. Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode
can withstand without destroying the junction.
6. Regulation: The variation of the d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is
called regulation. The percentage regulation is defined as

For an ideal power supply, % Regulation is zero.

Using one or more diodes in the circuit, following rectifier circuits can be designed.
1. Half - Wave Rectifier
2. Full – Wave Rectifier
3. Bridge Rectifier
Half-Wave Rectifier:
A Half – wave rectifier is one which converts a.c. voltage into a pulsating voltage using
only one half cycle of the applied a.c. voltage.

The half-wave rectifier circuit shown in above figure consists of a resistive load, a rectifying
element i.e., p-n junction diode and the source of a.c. voltage, all connected is series.
The a.c. voltage is applied to the rectifier circuit using step-down transformer.
The input to the rectifier circuit,
V =Vm sin ωt
Where Vm is the peak value of secondary a.c. voltage.
Operation:
For the positive half-cycle of input a.c. voltage, the diode D is forward biased and hence it
conducts. Now a current flows in the circuit and there is a voltage drop across RL.
For the negative half-cycle of input, the diode D is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct.
Now no current flows in the circuit i.e., i=0 and Vo=0. Thus for the negative half cycle no power
is delivered to the load.
Analysis:
In the analysis of a HWR, the following parameters are to be analyzed.
i) DC output current ii) DC Output voltage iii) R.M.S. Current iv) R.M.S. voltage
v) Rectifier Efficiency (η) vi) Ripple factor (γ) vii) Regulation viii) Peak Factor (P)
viii) Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF):
The d.c. power to be delivered to the load in a rectifier circuit decides the rating of the
transformer used in the circuit. So, transformer utilization factor is defined as
TUF = Pdc/Pacrated
The factor which indicates how much is the utilization of the transformer in the circuit is
called Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF).
The a.c. power rating of transformer = Vrms Irms
The secondary voltage is purely sinusoidal hence its rms value is ½ times maximum
while the current is half sinusoidal hence its rms value is ½ of the maximum.

The d.c. power delivered to the load

The value of TUF is low which shows that in half-wave circuit, the transformer is not
fully utilized.
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV):
It is defined as the maximum reverse voltage that a diode can withstand without destroying the
junction. The peak inverse voltage across a diode is the peak of the negative halfcycle.
For half-wave rectifier, PIV is Vm.
x) Form factor (F):
The Form Factor F is defined as
F = rms value / average value
F = (Im/ 2)/(Im/π)
= (0.5Im/0.318Im)
F=1.57
xi) Peak Factor (P):
The peak factor P is defined as
P = Peak Value / rms value
= Vm / (Vm/2)
P=2
Disadvantages of Half-Wave Rectifier:
1. The ripple factor is high.
2. The efficiency is low.
3. The Transformer Utilization factor is low.

Full – Wave Rectifier:

A full-wave rectifier converts an ac voltage into a pulsating dc voltage using both half cycles of
the applied ac voltage. In order to rectify both the half cycles of ac input, two diodes are used in
this circuit. The diodes feed a common load RL with the help of a center-tap transformer.
A center-tap transformer is the one which produces two sinusoidal waveforms of same
magnitude and frequency but out of phase with respect to the ground in the secondary winding
of the transformer.

Operation:
During positive half of the input signal, anode of diode D1 becomes positive and at the same
time the anode of diode D2 becomes negative. Hence D1 conducts and D2 does not conduct. The
load current flows through D1 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.

During the negative half cycle of the input, the anode of D1 becomes negative and the anode of
D2 becomes positive. Hence, D1 does not conduct and D2 conducts. The load current flows
through D2 and the voltage drop across RL will be equal to the input voltage.
It is noted that the load current flows in the both the half cycles of ac voltage and in the
same direction through the load resistance.
Analysis:
Let a sinusoidal voltage Vi be applied to the input of a rectifier.
It is given by Vi=Vm sinωt
The current I1 though D1 and load resistor RL is given
i1=Im sinωt for 0≤ ωt ≤ π
i1= 0 for π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

Similarly, the current i2 through diode D2 and load resistor RL is given by

i2= 0 for 0≤ ωt ≤ π
i2=Im sinωt for π ≤ ωt ≤ 2π

Therefore, the total current flowing through RL is the sum of the two currents i1 and i2.
i.e., iL=i1+i2.
1. Average Value:

2. R.M.S load Current Ir.m.s

=0.707 Im
3. DC output voltage Vdc

4.Ripple Factor

5. Regulation:
The variation of d.c. output voltage as a function of d.c. load current is called regulation.

6.Rectification Efficiency:
7. TRANSFORMER UTILIZATION FACTOR (TUF)

8. PIV = 2 Vm
9. Advantages
1) Ripple factor = 0.482 (against 1.21 for HWR)
2) Rectification efficiency is 0.812 (against 0.405 for HWR)
3) Better TUF (secondary) is 0.574 (0.287 for HWR)
4) No core saturation problem
Disadvantages:
1) Requires center tapped transformer.
Bridge rectifier
A bridge rectifier makes use of four diodes in a bridge arrangement to achieve full-wave
rectification. This is a widely used configuration, both with individual diodes wired as shown
and with single component bridges where the diode bridge is wired internally.

The four diodes labelled D1 to D4 are arranged in "series pairs" with only two diodes conducting
current during each half cycle. During the positive half cycle of the supply, diodes D1 and D2
conduct in series while diodes D3 and D4 are reverse biased and the current flows through the
load as shown below.
The Positive Half-cycle
During the negative half cycle of the supply, diodes D3 and D4 conduct in series, but diodes D1
and D2 switch of as they are now reverse biased. The current flowing through the load is the
same direction as before.
The Negative Half-cycle
As the current flowing through the load is unidirectional, so the voltage developed across the
load is also unidirectional the same as for the previous two diode full-wave rectifier, therefore
the average DC voltage across the load is 0.637Vmax and the ripple frequency is now twice the
supply frequency (e.g. 100Hz for a 50Hz supply)..
4. Compare HWR,FWR,Bridge rectifier.

Filters
The main function of a filter circuit (Fig.) is to minimize the ripple content in the rectifier output.
As seen, output of various rectifier circuits is pulsating. It has a dc value and some ac
components called ripples. This type of output is not useful for driving sophisticated electronic
circuits/ devices. In fact, these circuits require a very steady dc output that approaches the
smoothness of a battery’s output.

A circuit that converts a pulsating output from a rectifier into a very steady dc level is known as
filter because it filters out or smoothens out the pulsations in the output.
We will consider the following popular filter circuits :
1. Shunt capacitor filter, 2. series inductor filter, 3. L-C filter (or L-type), 4. R-C filter, 5. R-L-C
filter.
Shunt Capacitor Filter
In this circuit, a suitable single capacitor C is connected across the rectifier and in parallel with
the load RL to achieve filtering action. This type of filter is known as capacitor input filter. This
filter circuit depends for its operation on the property of a capacitor to charge up (i.e. store
energy) during conducting half-cycle and to discharge (i.e. deliver energy) during the non-
conducting half-cycle. In simple words, a capacitor opposes any change in voltage. When
connected across a pulsating d.c. voltage, it tends to smoothen out or filter out the voltage
pulsations (or ripples). The filtering action of the simple capacitor filter when used in a half-
wave rectifier can be understood with the help of Fig.
(a) Circuit Analysis
When positive half-cycle of the ac input is applied, the diode is forward-biased and hence is
turned ON.
This allows C to quickly charge up to peak value of input voltage Vip [point b in Fig. (b)]
because charging time constant is almost zero. It is so because there is no resistance in the
charging path except diode forward resistance which is negligible. Hence, capacitor follows the
charging voltage as shown. After being fully charged, the capacitor holds the charge till input ac
supply to the rectifier goes negative. During the negative half-cycle, the capacitor attempts to
discharge. However, it cannot discharge through diode which, being now reversebiased, is OFF.
Hence, it discharges through RL from point b to c in Fig (c) and its voltage decreases somewhat.
The discharging time constant (= CRL) is usually 100 times more than the charging time. Hence,
C does not have sufficient time to discharge appreciably.

It is seen that even during negative half-cycle of the input

supply, the capacitor maintains a
sufficiently large voltage across RL.
During the next positive half-cycle,
when rectifier voltage exceeds the
capacitor voltage represented
by point c in Fig. (c), C is again charged
quickly to Vip as represented by point d.
Once more, input voltage goes negative,
opening the diode and forcing C to
discharge through RL during the interval
de. In this way, RL sees a nearly
constant dc voltage across it at all

times.
The filtering action of this simple capacitor filter on a full-wave rectifier is shown in Fig. . It is
seen that as compared to a HW rectifier.

(i) dc load voltage increases slightly towards Vip,

(ii) ripple voltage has been reduced by half.
The decreased ripple is because of shorter discharge time before the capacitor is reenergised by
another pulse of
current.
(b) Load Current
The load current has the same wave-shape as vL because load is purely resistive.
(d). During periods a′b′and c′d′etc., current is supplied by the diode and during periods b′c
′and d′e′etc. by the
capacitor.
(c) Diode Current
Diode current flows during short intervals of time like ab and cd etc. in Fig. (c) which is
reproduced in Fig. .

During these intervals, diode output voltage is greater than the

capacitor voltage which is also the load voltage. Hence,
diode current is a surging current i.e. it takes the
form of short-duration pulses as shown in
Fig.. A small resistor is always connected in series with the
diode to limit this surge current. It is known as surge limiting
resistor.
The sole function of the diode is to recharge C and the
sole function of C is to supply load current
by discharge.

Effect of Increasing Filter Capacitance

A capacitor has the basic property of opposing changes
in voltage. Hence, a bigger capacitor would tend to reduce the ripple magnitude. It has been
found
that increasing the capacitor size.
1. increases Vdc towards the limiting value Vip ;
2. reduces the magnitude of ripple voltage ;
3. reduces the time of flow of current pulse through the diode ;
4. increases the peak current in the diode.

Series Inductor Filter

The filter consists of a choke in series with the load resistor RL as shown in Fig. . The operation
of such a filter depends on the fundamental property of an inductor to oppose any sudden
changes in the current flowing through it. Since this inductor presents high impedance to the ac
components in the filter output, it reduces their amplitude with respect to the dc component
thereby producing only a small ripple as shown in Fig. (b).

For finding the ripple factor, we will calculate the dc as well as ac drop over RL. If we neglect
choke resistance (RC), then the entire dc component of filter output is available across RL and its
value is Vdc = 2 Vip /π.
It is seen that ripple decreases as RL decreases or load current increases (just the opposite of
what happens in the case of shunt capacitor filter).
The Choke Input or L-C Filter
It is a combination of two filters considered in fig. and provides a lower ripple than is possible
with either L or C
alone. As is known, in an inductor filter, ripple increases with RL but decreases
in a capacitor filter. The combination of L and C (i.e. L−section)
filter makes the ripple
independent of RL. Fig. a shows
the filter and (b) the
voltage variations.
Ripple Factor
If choke resistance RC is neglected, then dc voltage
available across RL = 2 Vip
/π. The ac drop over RL is the same as across C. Since XC « RL, the parallel
combination of RL and XC has impedance =XC. The second harmonic voltage ( 4 Vip /3π) cos
2ωt can be assumed to drop over the LC series combination because RL is effectively not there.
Maximum value of ac drop over C is

The R-C Filter

Such a filter is shown in Fig. . Suppose that it is connected to a fullwave rectifier having a
filtered output voltage of Vip. The dc component voltage which drops over RL is

Again, we would consider only the second harmonic voltage (4 Vip

/3π)
cos 2t. As before, it will be assumed that XC « RL so that RL ||
XC XC. In
 that case, ac voltage would be assumed to drop
across R-C
combination

The C-L-C or Pi
Filter
As shown in Fig. it

consists of one inductor and

two capacitors connected across its each end. The three components are arranged in the shape of
the Greek letter π. It is also called capacitor input π -filter. The input capacitor C1 is selected to
offer very low reactance to the ripple frequency. Hence, major part of filtering is done by C1.
Most of the remaining ripple is removed by the combined action of L and C2. The charging and
discharging action of C1 is exactly the same. The output voltage waveform is also like that
shown in Fig. .

This circuit gives much better filtering than LC

filter circuit.
However, C1 is still directly connected across the
supply
and would need high pulses of current if load
current is large.
Since these high peak current pulses are likely to
damage the
rectifier diode, this filter is used with low-current equipment. Though this filter-gives somewhat
higher output voltage, its voltage regulation is inferior to that of the LC filter.
The ripple factor of this filter is given by

Zener diode
It is a reverse-biased heavily-doped silicon (or germanium) P-N junction diode which is
operated in the breakdown region where current is limited by both external resistance and power
dissipation of the diode. Silicon is perferred to Ge because of its higher temperature and current
capability.
As seen from fig, when a diode breaks down, both Zener and avalanche effects are present
although usually one or the other predominates depending on the value of reverse voltage. At
reverse voltages less than 6 V, Zener effect predominates whereas above 6 V, avalanche effect is
predominant. Strictly speaking, the first one should be called Zener diode and the second one as
avalanche diode but the general practice is to call both types as Zener diodes.
Zener breakdown occurs due to breaking of covalent bonds by the strong electric field set up in
the depletion region by the reverse voltage. It produces an extremely large number of electrons
and holes which constitute the reverse saturation current (now called Zener current, Iz) whose
value is limited only by the external resistance in the circuit. It is independent of the applied
voltage. Avalanche breakdown occurs at higher reverse voltages when thermally-generated
electrons acquire sufficient energy to produce more carriers by collision.

VI characteristics
A typical characteristic is shown by Fig. in the negative
quadrant. The forward characteristic is simply that
of an ordinary forward-biased junction diode.

The important points on the reverse characteristic are :

Vz = Zener breakdown voltage
Iz min = minimum current to sustain breakdown
Iz max = maximum Zener current limited by maximum power dissipation.
Since its reverse characteristic is not exactly vertical, the diode possesses some resistance called
Zener dynamic impedance*. However, we will neglect it assuming that the characteristic is truly
vertical. In other words, we will assume an ideal Zener diode for which voltage does not change
once it goes into breakdown. It means that Vz remains constant even when Iz increases
considerably.
The schematic symbol of a Zener diode and its equivalent circuit are shown in Fig. (a). The
complete equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. (b) and the approximate one in
Fig. (c) where it looks like a battery of Vz volts.
The schematic symbol of Fig. (a) is similar to that of a normal diode except
that the line representing the cathode is bent at both ends. With a little
mental effort, the cathode symbol can be imagined to look like the letter Z
for Zener.
(b) Zener Voltages
Zener diodes are available having Zener voltages of 2.4 V to 200 V. This
voltage is temperature dependent. Their power dissipation is given by the
product VzIz... maximum ratings vary from 150 mW to 50 W.
(c) Zener Biasing
For proper working of a Zener diode in any circuit, it is essential that it must
1. be reverse-biased;
2. have voltage across it greater than Vz;
* Its value is given by Zz = Vz/Iz. It is negiligible as compared to large external
resistance connected in the circuit.
3. be in a circuit where current is less than Iz max;
(d) Diode Identification
Physically, a Zener diode looks like any other diode and is recognized by its IN number such as
IN 750 (10 W power) or IN 4000 (high power). Fig 54.2(d) shows a picture of a zener diode with
Vz = 4.7V.
(e) Uses
Zener diodes find numerous applications in transistor circuitry.
Some of their common uses are :
1. as voltage regulators;
2. as a fixed reference voltage in a network for biasing
and comparison purposes and for calibrating voltmeters;
3. as peak clippers or voltage limiters;
4. for metre protection against damage from accidental application of excessive voltage;
5. for reshaping a waveform.

Regulators (series and shunt)

An unregulated power supply consists of a transformer (step down), a rectifier and a filter. These
power supplies are not good for some applications where constant voltage is required
irrespective of external disturbances.
The main disturbances are:
1. As the load current varies, the output voltage also varies because of its poor regulation.
2. The dc output voltage varies directly with ac input supply. The input voltage may vary over a
wide range thus dc voltage also changes.
3. The dc output voltage varies with the temperature if semiconductor devices are used.

An electronic voltage regulator is essentially a controller used along with unregulated power
supply to stabilize the output dc voltage against three major disturbances
a. Load current (IL)
b. Supply voltage (Vi)
c. Temperature (T)
Zener Diode Shunt Regulator
Zener Diodes can be used to produce a stabilised voltage output with low ripple under varying
load current conditions. By passing a small current through the diode from a voltage source, via a
suitable current limiting resistor (RS), the zener diode will conduct sufficient current to maintain
a voltage drop of Vout. We remember from the previous tutorials that the DC output voltage
from the half or full-wave rectifiers contains ripple superimposed onto the DC voltage and that
as the load value changes so to does the average output voltage. By connecting a simple zener
stabiliser circuit as shown below across the output of the rectifier, a more stable output voltage
can be produced.
The resistor, RS is connected in series with the zener diode
to limit the current flow through the diode with the
voltage source, VS being connected across the
combination. The stabilised output voltage Vout is
taken from across the zener diode. The zener diode
is connected with its cathode terminal
connected to the positive rail of the DC
supply so it is reverse biased and will be
operating in its breakdown condition.
Resistor RS is selected so to limit the maximum
current flowing in the circuit. With no load connected to the circuit, the load current will be zero,
( IL = 0 ), and all the circuit current passes through the zener diode which inturn dissipates its
maximum power. Also a small value of the series resistor RS will result in a greater diode
current when the load resistance RL is connected and large as this will increase the power
dissipation requirement of the diode so care must be taken when selecting the appropriate value
of series resistance so that the zeners maximum power rating is not exceeded under this no-load
or high-impedance condition. The load is connected in parallel with the zener diode, so the
voltage across RL is always the same as the zener voltage, ( VR = VZ ). There is a minimum
zener current for which the stabilization of the voltage is effective and the zener current must
stay above this value operating under load within its breakdown region at all times. The upper
limit of current is of course dependant upon the power rating of the device. The supply voltage
VS must be greater than VZ. One small problem with zener diode stabiliser circuits is that the
diode can sometimes generate electrical noise on top of the DC supply as it tries to stabilise the
voltage. Normally this is not a problem for most applications but the addition of a large value
decoupling capacitor across the zeners output may be required to give additional smoothing.
Transistor Series Voltage Regulator
The circuit is shown in Fig. It is also called emitter-follower
regulator because the voltage at the emitter follows the base
voltage. In this set-up, the transistor behaves like a variable
resistor whose resistance is determined by the base current. It
is called pass transistor because total current to be regulated
passes through it.

Keeping in mind the polarities of different voltages, they are

related by the equation derived from KVL
VL + VBE Vz = 0
VBE = Vz VL
(fixed)
When current demand is increased by decreasing RL, VL tends to decrease. As seen from the
above equation, it will increase VBE because Vz is fixed. This will increase forward bias of the
transistor thereby increasing its level of conduction. This, is turn, will lead to decrease in the
collectoremitter resistance of the transistor which will slightly increase the input current in order
to compensate for decrease in RL so that VL = (IL RR) will remain at a constant value.
Incidentally, R is used for limiting current passing through the Zener diode.
LED
Light Emitting Diode :
As the name indicates, it is a forward-biased P-N junction which emits visible light when
energised. As discussed earlier , charge carrier recombination takes place when electrons from
the N-side cross the junction and recombine with the holes on the P-side.

Now, electrons are in the higher conduction band on the N-side whereas holes are in the lower
valence band on the P-side. During recombination, some of the energy difference is given up in
the form of heat and light (i.e. photons). For Si and Ge junctions, greater percentage of this
energy is given up in the form of heat so that the amount emitted as light is insignificant. But in
the case of other semiconductor materials like gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide
(GaP) and gallium- arsenide-phosphide (GaAsP), a greater percentage of energy released during
recombination is given out in the form of light. If the semiconductor material is translucent, light
is emitted and the junction becomes a light source i.e. a light-emitting diode (LED) as shown
schematically in Fig.. The colour of the emitted light depends on the type of material used as
follows.
1. GaAs — infrared radiation (invisible).
2. GaP — red or green light.
3. GaAsP — red or yellow (amber) light.
LEDs that emit blue light are also available but red is the most common. LEDs emit no light
when reverse-biased.
In fact, operating LEDs in reverse direction will quickly destroy them.
(b) Construction
Broadly speaking, the LED structures can be divided into two categories :
1. Surface-emitting LEDs : These LEDs emit light in a direction perpendicular to the PN
junction plane.
2. Edge-emitting LEDs : These LEDs emit light in a direction parallel to the PN junction plane.

Fig. shows the construction of a surface-emitting

LED. As seen from this figure, an N-type layer is grown on a
substrate and a P-type layer is deposited on it by diffusion. Since
carrier recombination takes place in the P-layer, it is kept upper
most. The metal anode connections are made at the outer edges of the
P -layer so as to allow more central surface area for the light to
escape. LEDs are manufactured with domed lenses in order to
lessen the reabsorption problem.
A metal (gold) film is applied to the bottom of the substrate for reflecting as much light as
possible to the surface of the device and also to provide cathode connection. LEDs are always
encased in order to protect their delicate wires.
Being made of semiconductor material, it is rugged and has a life of more than 10,000 hours.
(c) Working
The forward voltage across an LED is considerably greater than for a silicon PN junction diode.
Typically the maximum forward voltage for LED is between 1.2 V and 3.2 V depending on the
device. Reverse breakdown voltage for an LED is of the order of 3 V to 10 V.
Fig. (a) shows a simple circuit to illustrate the
working of an LED. The LED emits light in
response to a sufficient forward current. The amount of
power output translated into light is directly proportional
to the forward current as shown in Fig. (b). It
is evident from this figure that greater the
forward current, the greater the light output.

(d) Applications
1. LEDs are used in burglar-alarm systems;
2. for solid-state video displays which are rapidly replacing cathode-ray tubes (CRT);
3. in image sensing circuits used for ‘picturephone’;
4. in the field of optical fibre communication systems where high-radiance GaAs diodes are
matched into the silica-fibre optical cable;
5. in data links and remote controllers;
6. in arrays of different types for displaying alphanumeric (letters and numbers) or supplying
input power to lasers or for entering information into optical computer memories;
7. for numeric displays in hand-held or pocket calculators.
A seven-segment display consists of seven rectangular LEDs which can form the digits 0 to 9.
 The seven LED segments
are labelled ‘a’ to ‘g’. Each of this segments is controlled through one of the display LEDs.
Seven-segment displays come in two types, common-cathode and common-anode type. In the
common-cathode type, all the cathodes of the diodes are tied together as shown in Fig. (b). This
makes it possible to light any segment by
forward-biasing that particular LED. For example, to light number 5, segments a, f, g, c and d
must be forward-biased. Since the cathodes are tied to ground, only 5 volt is to be applied to the
anode of these segments to light them.
LCD characteristics and applications.
Liquid Crystals Displays
(a) General
A liquid crystal is a material (usually, an organic compound) which flows like a liquid at room
temperature but whose molecular structure has some properties normally associated with solids
(examples of such compounds are : cholesteryl nonanoate and p-azoxyanisole).
As is well-known,the molecules in ordinary liquids have random orientation but in a liquid
crystal they are oriented in a definite crystal pattern. Normally, a thin layer of liquid crystal is
transparent to incident light but when an electric field is applied across it, its molecular
arrangement is disturbed causing changes in its optical properties.
When light falls on an activated layer of a liquid crystal, it is either absorbed or else is scattered
by the disoriented molecules.
(b) Construction
As shown in Fig.a. a liquid crystal ‘cell’ consists of a thin layer (about 10 μm) of a liquid crystal
sandwiched between two glass sheets with transparent electrodes deposited on their inside faces.
With both glass sheets transparent, the cell is known as transmittive type cell. When one glass is
transparent and the other has a reflective coating, the cell is called reflective type. The LCD does
not produce any illumination of its own. It, in fact, depends entirely on illumination falling on it
from an external source for its visual effect.
(c) Working
The two types of display available are known as (i) field-effect display and (ii) dynamic
scattering display.
When field-effect display is energized, the energized areas of the LCD absorb the incident light
and, hence give localized black display. When dynamic scattering display is energized, the
molecules of energized area of the display become turbulent and scatter light in all directions.
Consequently, the activated areas take on a frosted glass appearance resulting in a silver display.
Of course, the un-energized areas remain translucent.
As shown in Fig.(b), a digit on an LCD has a segment appearance. For example, if number 5 is
required, the terminals 8, 2, 3, 6 and 5 would be energized so that only these regions would be
activated while the other areas would remain clear.
(d) Advantages
An LCD has the distinct advantage of extremely low power requirement (about 10-15 μW per 7-
segment display as compared to a few mW for a LED). It is due to the fact that it does not itself
generate any illumination but depends on external illumination for its visual effect (colour
depending on the incident light). They have a life-time of about 50,000 hours.
(e) Uses
1. Field-effect LCDs are normally used in
watches and portable instruments where
source of energy is a prime consideration.
2. Thousands of tiny LCDs are used to
form the picture elements (pixels) of the
screen in one type of B & W pocket TV
receiver.
3. Recent desk top LCD monitors.
4. Note book computer display
5. Cellular phone display, to display data on personal digital assistant (PDAs) such as Palm Vx
etc.