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BIOLOGY
TOPIC 13 ECOSYSTEM|EVOLUTION

ECOSYSTEM:
Content Covered
Biological succession
Impacts of Human activity on ecosystem
Energy flow in ecosystem

Learning Outcomes:
a) Define succession and describe various stages of xerosere.
b) Describe the significance of human activity on ecosystem such as Population, Deforestation,
Ozone Depletion, Greenhouse Effect, Acid rain, Eutrophication and Pesticides.
c) Describe Nitrogen cycle (ammonification, nitrification, assimilation, depletion).
d) Define and explain Energy Flow, Trophic Levels (producers, consumers, decomposers),
Productivity, Food chain, Food web.

EVOLUTION:
Content Covered
Darwin’s theory
Lamarck’s theory
Evidences of evolution

13A. ECOSYSTEM

A. DEFINE SUCCESSION AND DESCRIBE VARIOUS STAGES OF XEROSERE.

Succession
Succession is sequence of events in community structure of ecosystem over period of time.
PIONEERS: Succession begins by a few hardly invaders
CLIMAX COMMUNITY: Diverse and stable community at the end
Types:
PRIMARY SUCCESSION:
Succession starting from bare rock san or clear glacial pool where there is no trace of
previous life.
SECONDARY SUCCESSION:
Development of new ecosystem after an existing ecosystem is disturbed by forced fire or
an abandoned farm field.
Primary Succession Types:
Hydrosere:
Primary succession starting in pool is called hydrosere. Such plants are called
hydrophytes.
Xerosere:
Primary succession starting on dry soil or habitat is called xerosere. Such plants are called
xerophytes. Such plants withstand prolonged periods of water shortage. Succulent
plants like cacti have water stored in large parenchyma cells.
XEROSERE
DESCRIPTION
STAGE

Crustose lichen Crust is external protective surface

stage
Crustose means crusts on substratum

Special types lichen gets impregnated in lichen form.

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Live in extreme conditions

Surface is wet due to rain and dew drops

Quiescent or dormant

Normally desiccated(dried) during dry season so absorb water

Foliage lichen Licjens are just like crumbled leaves attached at one point
stage
Provides shades to crustose lichen and reduce their growth

Area become rough with more and more fissure, depressions

Soil is more porous with litter of lichens

EXAMPLES: (a) DERMATOCARPON (b) PERMELLIA

Moss stage Compete with lichen for water

Penetrate much deeper into soil than lichens

Add more humus to soil

EXAMPLES: (a) POLYTRICHUM (b) TORTULA

Herbaceous stage Small seedlings of herbaceous plants establish

More availability of moisture, humus and soil for anchorage

Shrub stage Shrubby plants started growing

Herbaceous plants die due to shadows and add humus to soil

Climax stage Woody plants develop due to improved soil

Remains same throughout except change is surrounding happen

B. DESCRIBE THE SIGNIFICANCE OF HUMAN ACTIVITY ON ECOSYSTEM Such ss Population,

Deforestation, Ozone Depletion, Greenhouse Effect, Acid Rain, Eutrophication And Pesticides

Population
Demography:
Demography is the study of human populations and things that affect them.
Population of Pakistan:
The population of Pakistan was 32.5 million at time of independence in 1947. It has now increased to
150 -160 million people in year2000. In view of limited resources available and necessity of our
learning how we will manage our resources is a question.
Population Explosion:
About 20 years ago the human population was increasing at the rate of 2% a year and was doubling
every 35 years thus increasing demands for food, space and other resources.
There are various factors affecting population growth, such as,
Increase in life expectancy due to better living conditions
Education
better food
medicine
Reasons for world population explosion:
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Disease prevention medicine, public, personal and food hygiene.
Improved nutrition by efficient agriculture.
Housing and improved living standards
Child care, maternity, parent- craft and welfare services.
Consequences of Population Increase:
Overcrowding, less living space more people more crime, violence and social diseases.
Starvation through lack of sufficient food.
Populations will outstrip food supply.
Destruction of the countryside, plants, and animals and wildlife.

Deforestation
Clearance of vast areas of forest for procuring lumber, planting crops or grazing cattle is called
deforestation leading to desertification.
AFFORESTATION REFORESTATION

Establishment of new forests Replanting in forests where

where no forests existed forests existed previously.
previously.

Primary Succession Secondary Succession

Forests are environmental buffers because they break speed of wind, rain and floods.
Forest has great importance in the environment of human. It is important because it provide.
Timber – construction wood for houses
Fire wood
Medicine (herbal medicine, wax, honey) and many other products
About half of rain which falls in tropical forests comes from transpiration of trees.
Biodiversity refers to total number of different species with in an ecosystem and resulting
completely of interaction among them.
Ozone Depletion
Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen gas.

Self replenishing gas

In this molecule three atoms of oxygen are bounded together.

It is a layer of atmosphere extending from 10-50 kilometers above earth, which filters most of
ultraviolet radiations and protects us from it. This is called ozone layer.

In pure form ozone is bluish explosive and highly poisonous gas.

A single molecule can destroy 1 million ozone molecules.

Causes:
The main cause of ozone depletion is increase of chlorofluorocarbon (CFCs) which contains
chlorine, fluorine and carbon. These are chemicals that are largely used in cooling systems
(refrigerators air conditioners) and extinguishers etc. The CFCs is percolating up through atmosphere
and reducing O3 to O2 i.e. destroying the ozone layer.

Harmful effects:
The layer of ozone is becoming thinner and the holes are appearing on it due to pollution therefore more
ultra violet rays are reaching on earth.

The level of ozone in the ozone layer above Antarctica has fallen drastically and has led to a hole. The
ozone layer has also been found to decrease over arctic regions.

If this depletion of ozone continues then more ultraviolet rays will affect all life on earth by increase in
temperature, cancers and cataracts in human. It can also affect crops, plants, trees and even marine
plankton and it will destroy weather pattern.

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Green House Effect
Greenhouse has many glass windows through which light rays from sun penetrate inside and absorbed
by plants and soil and then reradiate as longer wave infra red radiation. The glass does not allow these
rays to escape outside and so heat remains within green house.

Role of Carbon Dioxide:

The role of carbon dioxide is same as that of glass sheet of green house. Carbon dioxide absorbs the
energy of sun but do not allow it to escape outside as result of which the temperature of atmosphere
increases. This increase in while temperature and it is known as green house effect.

Global Warming – Cause of Greenhouse Effect:

The causes of green house effect are increasing rate of the people migrating towards the big cities,
deforestation and industrialization. All these factors are increasing the temperature on earth. This
increase in temperature is called global warming. It is estimated that if global warming continues then
the ice caps and glaciers will melt and will bring floods.

Effects:
Rising of the Sea Levels and Floods

Melting of Glaciers

Heat Waves and Severe Precipitation

Killer Storms

Drought

Species becoming Extinct

Acid Rain
Acid rain occurs when these gases react in the atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to
form various acidic compounds. The result is a mild solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid.

Causes:
The burning of fossil fuels and discharges from industries are emitting sulphur dioxide and nitrogen
dioxide in the air. Both these gases when enter the atmosphere combine there with water vapours and
forms acid.

Water vapours
Nitrogen dioxide Nitric acid + Nitrous acid

Water vapours
Sulphur dioxide Sulphurous acid + Sulphuric acid

Effects:
Acid rain destroys life. Many fish species and other aquatic animals are dying and are unable to
reproduce under these conditions.

It causes destruction of farms, lakes and forests.

It kills very important decomposer and microorganisms.

It can destroy the huge buildings such as Taj Mahal. It is being destroyed due to “ stone cancer” caused
by acid rain.

Acid rains can washouts essential nutrients from such as calcium and potassium.

Plants get poisoned and deprived of nutrients become weak and vulnerable to infection and insects
attack.

Eutrophication
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It is a process in which fresh water bodies enriched with nutrients which increases its productivity and
organic debris.

Process of eutrophication:

It is a gradual process in which large amount of plant life develops and eventually decays. But this
natural process is highly speeded up by human activities. Human excreta, phosphates from washing
powder and nitrates and phosphates from fertilizers are adding large quantities of mineral and organic
nutrients. Due to large amount of minerals algal production rate is increased and turn the water green
called algal bloom. As die dead alga are decomposed by aerobic bacteria they decrease the
concentration of oxygen in the water. This depletion of oxygen causes the death of aquatic animals. In
this way the water develops unpleasant color and smell.

Death Process

Nutrients load up i.e. phosphates, nitrogen, calcium

Algal blooms

No light

Oxygen deficiency due to lack of photosynthesis

Organism dead i.e. unpleasant smell and odour

Decomposition by aerobic bacteria

Life that only left behinds = Anaerobic bacteria

Agro Chemical Products

Fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides are agro chemical products. Nowadays these chemicals are
widely used to increase the quality and quantity of crops.
Insecticide kills INSECTS
Fungicide kills PARASITIC FUNGI
Herbicide kills WEED PLANTS
Insecticides:

Insecticides are the chemicals used to kill those insects which cause the harm to crops.

Pesticides:

On the other hand, pesticide is a chemical which destroys agricultural pests or competitors. Pesticides
are harmful substances as they remain in our food in small quantity. Peeling apples and potatoes
removes most of surface pesticides but alter pesticides are not sure to be removed. The use and
quantity of pesticides must be approved by ministry of agriculture.

Fertilizers:

These are the chemical substances used to add additional nutrient in soil to increase fertility. These
fertilizers increase the productivity of crops. Many of these chemical elements leave ecosystem by
being bleached from hand and drained into rivers which can cause high level of pollution. Man moves
chemical elements and minerals into ecosystem from concentrated natural deposits for use as
inorganic fertilizers.

C. DESCRIBE NITROGEN CYCLE (AMMONIFICATION, NITRIFICATION, ASSIMILATION, DEPLETION)

Nitrogen Cycle
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Biogeochemical cycle

Chief Reservoir of Nitrogen = Atmosphere 78%

Most living things cannot use atmospheric N 2 or its compounds ; they are dependent on N 2 in soil, so
shortage of N2 is soil is limiting factor in plant growth

Process by which limited amount of nitrogen is circulated and re-circulated throughout the world of
living organisms is called nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen is a key component of the bodies of living organisms. Nitrogen atoms are found in all
proteins and DNA

When fertilizers containing nitrogen and phosphorous are carried in runoff to lakes and rivers, they can
result in blooms of algae—this is called eutrophication.

Three principle stages:

AMMONIFICATION

Before ammonification, nitrogen fixation takes place

Done in 3 ways

ATMOSPHERIC NITROGEN FIXATION

N2(g) Nitrogen oxides Nitous/Nitric Acid

BIOLOGICAL NITROGEN FIXATION

N2(g) Nitrates

INDUSTRIAL NITROGEN FIXATION

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

Most of nitrogen in soil is result of decomposition of organic materials

This nitrogen is in complex form i.e. protein, nucleotides, amino and nucleic acids

Decomposed into simple compounds by soil dwelling bacteria and fungi

Complex nitrogenous compounds NH3+ NH4+

NITRIFICATION

Several bacteria are able to oxidize ammonia or ammonium ions called nitrification

It involves two steps

Oxidation to nitrites

NH4+ NO2‾

Oxidation to nitrates

NO2‾ NO3‾

ASSIMILATION

Ammonium can be directly taken by plants

Nitrate is the form in which most of nitrogen is moved from soil to roots

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This process requires energy

Within plants

Nitrates NH4+ ionsCarbon containing compounds Amino acids

DENITRIFICATION

Nitrates in soil are lost due to soil erosion, fire, and water percolating down through the soil.

Nitrates are also lost as result of activities of certain soil bacteria because in absence of oxygen they
break nitrates, releasing nitrogen back to atmosphere and using oxygen for their own respirtation

D. DEFINE AND EXPLAIN ENERGY FLOW, TROPHIC LEVELS (PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS,

DECOMPOSERS), PRODUCTIVITY, FOOD CHAIN, FOOD WEB.

Trophic Levels
Ecosystem is made of main three components:
PRODUCERS

Green photosynthetic plants

Light capturing

Autotrophic organisms i.e. they prepare their food (organic compounds) themselves from simpler
inorganic substances

CONSUMERS

They are all animals i.e. herbivores, carnivores, omnivores

HERBIVORES

The animals feeding on producers (green plants)

They are primary consumers

CARNIVORES

The animals feeding on herbivores (animals) are primary carnivores

The animals feeding on primary carnivores are called secondary carnivores and so no

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They are starting from secondary consumer to onward

OMNIVORES

Such animals which can feed on both plants and animals are called omnivore e.g. humans

Heterotrophic organisms i.e. obtain energy directky or indirectly from producers as ready-made organic
food

DECOMPOSERS

They are mainly fungi and bacteria

Obtain energy from dead and decaying plants and animals and release chemical elements as ions i.e.
nitrates, ammonia, phosphate, potassium, calcium
Food Chain
The process of eating and being eaten up in an ecosystem

GRASS CATERPILLAR BLUE BIRD EAGLE

(Primary (Secondary
(Producer) (Herbivore)
Carnivore) Carnivore)

Primary Secondary Tertiary

Consumer Consumer Consumer

Food Web
The combination of many food chains

They are not as simple as described i.e. complex

They always begin with green plants

Variety of food chains in the food web is done to maintain

the stability of an ecosystem

Productivity
Productivity is the rate at which energy is added to the
bodies of a group of organisms (such as primary producers)
in the form of biomass.

Gross primary productivity is the overall rate of energy

capture.

Net primary productivity is lower, adjusted for energy

used by organisms in respiration/metabolism. It is called plant biomass.

Energy Flow
Total energy trapped by producers in ecosystem = 1%

99& of solar energy is used in evaporation, heating and lost to outer space

Energy as bioproduct of respiration = 80 to 90%

Short food chains are more efficient than long food chains

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10% of energy of one trophic level is transferred to next trophic level

SUN PRODUCERS CONSUMERS DECOMPOSER

100%
10% energy 1% energy
energy

13B. EVOLUTION

COMPARE THE THEORY OF DARWIN AND LAMARCK.

Origin of life
Prokaryotes Evolution = 3.5 Billion year ago
Eukaryotes Evolution = 1.5 Billion year ago

HYPOTHESIS I – VENT HYPOTHESIS

Hot water springs underground
Archeabacteria supports this vent hypothesis – tolerate up to 120 °C

HYPOTHESIS III – MEMBRANE INVAGINATION HYPOTHESIS

HYPOTHESIS II – ENDOSYMBIONT HYPOTHESIS

Proposed by Lynn Margulis

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Jean Baptiste Lamarck’s Theory

Published in 1809 (the year Darwin born)
Main points of the theory
Use and misuse of organs
Parts of body which are used extensively to cope with environment become larger and
stronger while others that are not used deteriorate.

Inheritance of acquired characteristics

Modifications that organism acquires during its lifetime can be passed along to its
offspring e.g. long neck of giraffe
Charles Darwin’s Theory
1831 – Start journey from UK on Voyage of Beagle
Observe and collected thousand of specimens of floura and faua
Mainly observed floras and faunas of Galapagos Islands where he collected 13 types of finches
1836 – End of journey
1844 – Essay ‘Origin of Species” published
1858 – Wallace send papers
1859 – Book of Darwin
CONCLUSION
New species would arise from ancestral from by gradual accumulation of adaptations to
different environments, separated from original habitat by geographical barriers. Over many
generations, the two populations could become dissimilar enough to be designated as
separate species.
MAIN POINTS OF THEORY
Descent with Modification
Life history is like tree with multiple branching and re-branching from
common truck all the way to the tips of living twigs, symbolic of the
current diversity of organisms.

Natural Selection and Adaptation

Overproduction > Struggle for existence > Survival of Fittest (Natural
Selection) >Evolution
NEO-DARWINISM
1940
Supporting Darwin theory with other branches of science
Paleontology
Taxonomy
Biogeography
Population genetics

LAMARCKISM DARWINISM

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This theory states that there is an internal vital This theory does not believe in the internal vital
force in all organisms. force.

It considers that new needs or desires produce It contends that needs and/ or desires do not
new structures and change habits of the form part of Darwin’s natural selection
organism. theory.

According to this theory if an organ is An organ can develop further or degenerate

constantly used it would be better only due to continuous variations.
developed whereas disuse of organ results
in its degeneration.

It does not consider struggle for existence. Struggle for existence is very important in this
theory.

All the acquired characters are inherited to the Only useful variations are transferred to the
next generation. next generation.

Lamarckism does not believe in survival of the Darwin’s natural selection theory is based on
fittest. survival of the fittest.

DISCUSS EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION FROM PALEONTOLOGY, COMPARATIVE ANATOMY,

MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY.

Biogeography
Geographical distribution of species
Firstly suggested Darwin regarding evolution
EXAMPLES: Contemporary armadillos are modified descendants of earlier species that occupied
America and neighboring areas and the fossil record conforms that such ancestors existed
Paleontology
Study of fossils
Forms of Fossils
Imprints
Cast/Mold
Body parts preservation in sedimentary rocks, gums, resins, ice
Fossils Ascending Sequence

Vertebrates Sequence

Comparative Anatomy
Compares and contrasts anatomy of different species
HOMOLOGY: Similarity in characteristics resulting from common ancestry

HOMOLOGOUS ORGANS ANALOGOUS ORGANS VESTIGIAL ORGANS

Oldest, homologous and

Same structures Different structures
rudimentary structures

Functional in ancestors
Different functions Same functions
but now non-functional

Diveregent Evolution Convergent Evolution -

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Examples:

Skeleton of whales and

snakes have vestiges of
Examples: Examples:
pelvis and leg bones of
Forelimbs of bat, frog, fish Wings of bat, birds and walking ancestors
and humans insects
Vermiform appendix in
carnivores

Ear muscles in man

Comparative Embryology
Compares and contrasts embryos of different species at different stages
Gives recap of the past explaining simplicity of organisms
EXAMPLES:
The embryo of fishes, frogs, snakes, birds, humans and all other vertebrae are more apparent than
different. As Gill pouches on the side of their throats.
Fishes = GiIl pouches into gills
Terrestrial vertebra = Gill pouches into other structures
Human = Gill pouches into Eustachian tube that connects middle ear with throat

Molecular Biology
Study of structure and function of the macromolecules essential to life.
DNA, proteins,genes and gene products
EXAMPLES:
Common genetic code = All life is related = unity of life = Diversity of life
Proteins in common between human and bacteria
CYTOCHROME C, A RESPIRATORY PROTEIN (in all aerobic species)

EXPLAIN HARDY-WEINBERG THEOREM AND FACTORS AFFECTING GENE / ALLELE

FREQUENCY

Hardy-Weinberg Theorem
Discovered in 1908 by Hardy and Weinberg independently
STATEMENT
“The frequencies of alleles and genotypes in a population gene pool remain constant over the
generations unless acted upon by agents other than sexual reproduction.”
No effect of gene shuffling on this theorem by
Meiosis
Random fertilization
HARDY WEINBERG’S EQUATION
p² + 2pq + q² = 1
p = frequency of dominant allele (A)
q = frequency of recessive allele (a)
In other words
p is equal to all of the alleles in individuals who are homozygous dominant (AA) and half of the
alleles in people who are heterozygous (Aa) for this trait in a population. In mathematical
terms, this is
p = AA + ½Aa
Likewise, q equals all of the alleles in individuals who are homozygous recessive (aa) and the
other half of the alleles in people who are heterozygous (Aa).
q = aa + ½Aa

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Because there are only two alleles in this case, the frequency of one plus the frequency of the
other must equal 100%, which is to say
p+q=1
Since this is logically true, then the following must also be correct:
p=1–q or q=1–p
Here
(p + q)² = 1 or p² + 2pq + q² = 1
p² = predicted frequency of homozygous dominant (AA)
2pq = predicted frequency of heterozygous (Aa)
q² = predicted frequency of homozygous recessive (aa)

Genotype Frequency:

Allele Frequency:

Genotype and Allele relation:

Factors affecting gene/allele frequency

FACTOR DESCRIPTION

Mutation Spontaneous change in any part of DNA

Ultimate source of all changes

Individual mutations occur very rarely i.e. they do not effect allele frequency
much

Migration Movement of organism from one place to another in search of food,

shelter etc

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Very potent agent of change

Emigration and immigration cause much disturbance in gene pool

Genetic Drift Change in frequency of alleles at a locus that occurs by chance

Occur more strongly in small population i.e. limiting such genes in that
population which is fail to reproduce

Such genes are lost from small populations

Non-Random Individuals with certain genotypes sometimes mate with one another
Mating more commonly than would be expected on random basis.

Inbreeding is common form

Do not alter allele frequency but lessens the proportion of heterozygote

individuals

Selection Some individuals leave behind more progeny than others, ansd the rate at which
they do so is affected by their inherited characteristics. This is called selection.

ARTIFICIAL SELECTION NATURAL SELECTION

Breeders select for desired Environment select for the

traits traits

Little resemblance to wild Amplify or diminish inheritable

ancestors traits

Achieved in short period of Achieved in vast span of time

time

E.g. Mule E.g. Antibiotic resistance in

bacteria

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