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BIOLOGY
TOPIC 4: DIGESTIVE SYSTEM|GAS EXCHANGE
4A. DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

4.1 DIGESTION

1) Breakdown of complex to simple substances. (enzymatic)

2) Breakdown of larger to smaller substances.
3) Break down of non-diffusible to diffusible substances.

Digestion

Types Location

Mechanical Chemical Extracellular Intercellular

digestion Digestion digestion digestion

1.) Oral cavity: Unicellular

grinding + organisms
mastication 1.) With Outside
help of cells Inside cells
2.) Stomach: enzymes
Churning by oblique Almost Dipeptides
i.e. mostly
muscles (middle
hydrolases more than – proteins
layer)
99% (in humans
3.) Small intestine:
Emulsification

4.1.1 Digestive tracts

1) Sac-like i.e. appendix + caecum (one end only)

2) Tubular i.e. most of human digestive system (esophagus two ends mouth to anus)
3) Chambers i.e. oral cavity + pharynx (more than one ends)
4) Cubes
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DO YOU KNOW?

1. Major food absorption site:

- Small intestine
2. Major water absorption site:
- Large intestine

Major sites of digestion: Oral

cavity, stomach, small intestine

Glands: Largely endocrine = Liver +

gastric glands

Rarely exocrine = Salivary glands

Dual (exocrine + endocrine) =

stomach + Pancreas

4.1.2 Portions of development

1) Endoderm = Mucosa of gut + Associated glands

2) Mesoderm += Muscles of gut
3) Meso + Endo = Digestive system

4.1.3 Muscles Development

1) Muscles of gut = Smooth muscles

2) Muscle of sphincters = smooth muscles
3) Outer Anal sphincter = skeletal muscles
4) Muscles of tongue = skeletal muscles

4.1.4 Sphincters in human digestive system

1) Esophageal sphincter (opening of esophagus)

2) Cardiac sphincter (opening of stomach)
3) Pyloric sphincter (opening of duodenum)
4) Ileocolic Sphincter (opening of large intestine)
5) Inner oral sphincter
6) Outer anal sphincter

4.1.5 Holozoic digestion

- Complete digestion in human body

1) Ingestion - oral cavity
2) Digestion - starts from oral cavity to anus
3) Absorption / Assimilation
4) Egestion / Defecation - Anus

- CHO > (oral cavity to small intestine) ___ Amylopectin

- Proteins > (stomach to small intestine) ___ Tropomyosin
- Lipids > (starts in small intestine) ___ Pancreatic lipase

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4.1.6 Starvation process

- CHO reserves - fat reserves - protein reserves - vitamins

4.2 DESCRIBE THE ANATOMY OF DIGESTIVE SYSTEM AND

SPECIFY THEDIGESTION DO YOU KNOW?
Heart burn or Pyrosis:
Painful burning sensation in chest
4.2.1 Oral cavity: (role of saliva and enzymes)
Due to back flush of acidic chyme
1. Structures into esophagus
- Teeth Causes: Over eating, lying after
meal, smoking, alcohol/caffeine
- Floor
 Base
 Tongue
- Lips and cheeks
- palate hard (Soft, Hard)

2. Dental formula
- Incisors : Canines : Molars : Pre-Molars

2 : 1 : 2 : 3

- Total teeth = dental formula ͯ 4

3. Functions
a) Taste (vision+ smell+ hearing+ taste) (4 senses involved)
b) Grinding (mastication) mostly by molars and premolars.
c) Lubrication and digestion; most important function> by saliva secreted from salivary
glands+ buccal glands
4. Saliva
- fresh saliva has pH = 8, loses CO2 to attain a pH = 6
i. 99.5% water
ii. IgA
iii. NaHCO3 (to regulate the pH of saliva)
iv. Salivary amylase (Ptyalin) i.e. CHO digesting enzyme
v. Mucus – more viscous (composed of glycoproteins)
vi. Serous fluid – More watery(serosa of stomach)(above tongue)

5. Salivary glands (controlled by parasympathetic system):

Feature Sublingual (2) Submandibular (2) Parotid (2)

Location Below tongue Behind jaw Front of ear
Size Largest Smallest Intermediate
Secretion Mucous + Saliva Amylase + Mucous + Saliva Amylase + Saliva
(do not secrete at
floor)

4.2.2 Pharynx: (swallowing) (controlled by medulla oblongata)

4.2.3 Esophagus: (Peristalsis, antiperistalsis)

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a) Types of swallowing:
(I) Voluntary (at start)
 Ingestion
 Chewing
(II) Involuntary (at end)
 Pharyngeal
 Esophageal

b) Swallowing
1) Tongue; upward and backward movement, against mouth roof.
2) Soft palate; move upward and close nasal Opening
3) Epiglottis; flap of cartilage (become more Or less horizontal)> closes windpipe
4) Glottis; muscles contract to inhibit trachea Widening.
5) Trachea; moves upward

c) Bolus
- Mastication is softened, partly digested, slimy food mass and rolled into oval lump.

d) Peristalsis
- Starts from esophagus, Ends in rectum (most of digestive tract)
- Characteristic movements of digestive tract.
- Wave of contraction of inner and outer muscles preceded by wave of relaxation.
- Reverse peristalsis (antiperistalsis) > vomiting
- Gravity > ingestion of liquids mostly
- Peristalsis> ingestion of solids mostly
- Hunger pangs:
 By decreased blood glucose level
 Contractions
 After 12 to 24 hour

4.2.4 Stomach: (chemical and mechanical digestion)

- J-shaped elastic muscular bag

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- Tube-like structure
- Below diaphragm on left side of abdominal cavity
- Discontinuous feeding
- Partly digests food
- Exocrine + endocrine organ

Stomach walls

Musosa
- inner layer (connective tissue)
Muscularis
- numerous tubular gastric glands - middle layer(smooth muscles) Serosa
1. Mucous cells - mucous 1. outer longitudinal muscles - outermost
2. Oxyntic/ parietal cells - HCL 2. inner circular muscles (connective tissue)
3. Zymogen cells/ Cheif cells - 3. innermost oblique muscles
Pepsinogen

a) Mucus
- Thick secretion
- Covers inside of stomach
- Prevents underlying muscles from digesting
b) HCL
- In concentrated form
- Adjust stomach pH 2-3 for pepsin
- Soften food
- Kill microorganisms
c) Pepsin
- In inactive pepsinogen form
- Pepsinogen > (acid medium) pepsin> proteins> peptones polypeptides
d) Hormones in Gut

Feature Gastrin Secretin

Stimulus Protein food Acidic chyme
Site(release) Pyloric region G-cells Duodenal mucosa
Action site Stomach mucosa -
Function Pepsinogen pepsin Stomach(stop gastrin)
HCL Liver (bile secretion)
Mucous Pancreas (pancreatic juice)

4.2.5 Small intestine: (duodenum, jejunum, ileum)

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a) Liver: (Bile) (green watery fluid)

- Secretes bile stored in gall bladder
- Released through bile duct in duodenum
- Consists of bile salts and pigments (bilirubin)
- Bile pigments= breakdown of Hb in liver (formation of bilirubin)
- Bile salts= performs emulsifications
- Jaundice = Accumulation of bile pigments
- Gall stones= precipitation of cholesterol secreted by liver.
b) Pancreas
- Releases pancreatic juice (8 cups daily)
- Releases NaHCO3 (alkaline nature)

Enzyme Substrate Products

Lipase (active) Fats Fatty acids + Glycerol
Amylase (active) CHOs Maltose
Trypsinogen(inactive) Proteins Peptones + polypeptides
Trypsin(active)
Chymotripsinogen(inactive Proteins Peptones + polypeptides
)
Chymotripsin(active)

- Any protein digesting enzyme is called prolytic enzyme

- Examples:
1) Pepsin (aromatic acids)
2) Trypsin (aromatic+ aliphatic)
3) Chymotrypsin (hydrophobic)
4) Amino peptidase
5) Erypsin (dipeptides)

c) Duodenum
- 20-25 cm in length
- Secretin hormone

d) Jejunum

Enzyme Substrate Product

Amino peptidase Peptones + polypeptides Dipeptides
Erypsin Dipeptides Amino acids
Lipase Fats Fatty acids + glycerol
Maltase Maltose Glucose + Glucose
Lactase Lactose Galactose + Glucose
Galactose is not absorbed in
humans
Sucrase Sucrose Glucose + Fructose

e) Ileum
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- Major absorption site
- Longest part
- Forms chyle
- Sugars and Amino Acids > diffusion or active transport for absorption into blood
- Fatty acids and glycerol:
 Minor: Direct absorption by active/passive transport into blood.
 Major: Epithelial cells > lacteal (vessels) > lipoproteins > Blood > cells

4.2.6 Large Intestine (caecum, Colon, Rectum)

a) Caecum:
- Blind sac
- Finger like projections called appendix
- Appendicitis > due to inflammation in
Appendix
b) Rectum
- Last part of large intestine.
c) Functions
1) Water reabsorption
 High= constipation
 Low= Diarrhea, electrolyte
imbalance (Entamoeba
histolycia)
2) Vitamin K production + Small
amount of vitamin B-12
 E. coli (symbiotic bacteria)
 Facultative bacteria
 Helps in blood clotting
 Defecation reflex (inhibited by outer sphincter)
Anorexia Nervosa
 Meth agonic bacteria (discomfort gases)

4.3 DISCUSS DISORDERS RELATED TO NUTRITION (OBESITY, ANOREXIA

NERVOSA)

- Obesity
- Definition
Person has abnormal amount of fat on body. DO YOU KNOW?
- Two much food > Surplus as fat >
Overweight / obese
- Depends on hormonal balance Gastric cells: they secrete mucus
and provide protection in small and
- Accumulation of fat drops in
large intestines.
Cytoplasm
Increase in size and number Composition of feces:
Join to form large fat globule in
Center of cell >push cytoplasm in 1. Bacteria 2. Water 3. Salts 4. Plant
fibers. 5. Mucous 6. Mucein 7.
Thin layer > push nucleus to One side > formation of ring appearance.
Mucosal cells 8. Cholesterols
- Suffer form
1) High BP Sphincters in:

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Alimentary canal = 6
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2) Heart Disease
3) Diabetes mellitus
4) Stomach disorder

- Anorexia Nerves
 Loss of Appetite due to fear of becoming obese.
 Feeling in human females > age of 12 to 21 years > affects after onset of puberty
 Immature physiological girls
 Unable to cope with challenges of puberty and emerging sexuality
 Loss of famine characteristics
 Childlike state in which they feel safe
 Treatment:
(I) Psychotic therapy
(II)Fed through another route intramuscularly or intravenously.
(III) Slow recovery > 2-4 year or more

4B. GAS EXCHANGE

4.4 UNDERSTAND THE ANATOMY OF RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (NOSTRILS,

TRACHEA, AND LUNGS), FUNCTIONS OF CARTILAGE, CILIA AND GOBLET
CELLS.

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4.4.1 Anatomy

Part of Structure Functions Cartilage Smooth Elastic Mucus

respiratory muscle fibers
system
1. Nostrils+ Lined with mucus Filtration, Absent Absent Absent Present
nasal membrane of warming and
cavities ciliated epithelium moistening of
 2 in number air
(ethmoid Bone +
cartilage)
 Each subdivided in
3 passageways by
bone projections
from wall of
internal nose
 Hairs
2.Pharynx(t Muscular passage Channelize air Absent Absent Absent Present
hroat) lined with mucus into larynx
Food + air membrane
passage
3.Larynx  Complex Air from Present Present Present Present
(voice box) cartilaginous pharynx
 Upper end of Vocal organ
trachea
 Glottis: opening of Present Present Present Present
larynx lined by
mucous
 Epiglottis: covering Covers glottis
of glottis hinge like Present Present Present Present
(muscularly
controlled)
 Vocal Cords: Voice
Stretched mucous production by
membrane in two air vibration Absent absent absent Present
edges of fibrous (during
bands (1 pair) expiration)
4. Trachea C-shaped cartilage Prevent Present Present Present Absent
(wind pipe) rings trachea form (C- (trache
Ciliated inner lining collapsing shaped) alis
Tubular and ventral Ultimate air muscle)
to esophagus cleaning
Air transfer
5.Bronchi Irregularly Air transfer Present Present Present Present
(2 in distributed cartilage (plates)
number) plates
6. Diameter of mm or Air transfer Absent Present Present Present
bronchioles less
Only smooth muscles

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No cartilage
7.Terminal 1mm Air transfer Absent Present Present Present
bronchioles
8.Resirator 0.5mm Air transfer Absent Absent Present Present
y
bronchioles
9.Alveolar Large number of air Functional Absent Absent Present Absent
duct sacs unit of lungs
10. Alveoli Several microscopic Gaseous Absent Absent Present Absent
single layered exchange
structures
Rich network of
capillaries
Excellent site for
gaseous exchange
11. Lungs Closed sacs Breathing or Absent Smooth Absent Absent
connected to outside ventilation pleural
by way of trachea, layers
nostrils, mouth Right lung >
Spongy due to alveoli Left lung
Covered by double
layered thin Lungs are
membranous sacs non-
called pleura functional
Located in thoracic during
cavity embryonic
Floor of cavity – stage
diaphragm – skeletal
muscles
Protected by ribs and
intercostal muscles

4.4.2 Explain the mechanism of breathing

4.4.2.1 Breathing: (pressure – minus volume process)

- Mechanical process
- Pumping in of fresh air with O2 and pumping out of air with CO2 from lungs
- At rest, breath rate = 15-20 times/minute in humans
- Mechanism of breathing:
1) Lungs nature
2) Diaphragm
3) Ribs + intercostal muscles
- At exercise, breathing rate = 30 times / minute in human
- 2 phases

Feature Inspiration Expiration

Other name Inhalation Exhalation
Definition Taking in of air into Taking out of air from lungs
lungs
Mechanism Passive expansion of Passive contraction of lungs
lungs

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Diaphragm Contract – move down Relax – move up
Straight – less dome More dome like
like
Rib muscles Contracts Relaxes
Rib cage Move up + forward Move downward + inward
Thorax volume Increases Decreases
Lung pressure Decreases Increases
Air movement Into lungs Out of lungs
DO YOU KNOW?

4.5 KNOW HOW BLOOD CARRIES OXYGEN AND CARBON Air sac is functional unit of respiratory
system (lungs) consisting of:
DIOXIDE BETWEEN LuNGS AND BODY TISSUES.
 Respiratory bronchioles
 Alveolar duct
4.5.1 Factors affecting gaseous exchange  Alveoli

I. Diffusion i.e. Gaseous exchange occurs in air sacs only

II. Rich network of capillaries but mostly in alveoli.
III. Blood separation by thin and moist Respiratory Distress Syndrome:

4.5.2 Transport of Oxygen A. Common especially for infants with

gestational age less than 7 months.
 Hemoglobin B. Occur because enough surfactant is
(I) Respiratory pigment in humans not produced to reduce lung’s
tendency to collapse.
(II) Present in red blood capsules
C. Surfactant: (reduces surface tension)
(III) 574 amino acids – a= 141 ×2 – B=146×2 Mixtures of lipoprotein produce by
(IV) Four chains for oxygen binding secretory cells of alveolar epithelium.
(V) 1gram Hb= 1.34ml O2 binding They form layer over alveolar fluid.
(VI) 15gram Hb = 100 ml of blood = 20 ml of O2
(VII) 100% oxygenation of Hb = 100 ml blood = 20 ml
O2(sea)
(VIII) 98% oxygenation of Hb = 100ml blood = 19.6(land)
(IX) 1 atm = 760 torr = 760 mm Hg

Air Lungs Arteries Veins Body tissues

PO2(torr) 159 116 75-80 36-40 60

 Blood plasma
I. 3%

4.5.3 Factor affecting transport of oxygen

1. CO2 concentration
2. Temperature
3. pH

4.5.4 Transport of carbon dioxide

A. By hemoglobin 20%
B. By plasma proteins 5%
C. By blood plasma 70 %(HCO3 ions)

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Blood CO2 Blood
Arterial blood 50ml/100ml Arterial blood
Venous blood 54ml/100ml Venous blood

Gas % inhaled % exhaled

O2 21 16
CO2 0.04 4
H2O vapours Variable Saturated DO YOU KNOW?
N2 79 79
Affinity of Hb to bind with

Lung capacity description In liters A. CO: maximum

maximum 5L
B. CO2 : less than CO
Residual volume (exercise) 1.5L
Useable/tidal volume (exercise) 3.5L C. O2 : minimum
Residual volume (sleep) 4.5+ 0.5L

4.6 DISCUSS STRUCTURE AND ROLE OF RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS

- Combines with O2 reversible and increase O2 carrying capacity of blood

574 AA Hemoglobin 153AA Myoglobin

Protein + iron containing Hemoglobin like protein + iron – containing

Present in RBCs Present in muscle fibers (muscle

4 chains for O2 binding(polypeptide)
8 oxygen atoms= 1 Hb
4 oxygen molecules = 1 Hb
Storage + Transport functions
Affinities of O2 carrying capacity of blood by
75 times
hemoglobin)
1 chain for O2 binding (polypeptide)
2 oxygen atoms= 1 Mg
1 oxygen molecules = 1 Mg
Only storage functions mostly
Intermediate compound for O2 transfer
To aerobic metabolic process of muscle cells

High concentration in blood Low concentration in blood

Tetrameric protein(tetramers) Monomeric proteins(monomers)
Bind with O2 and CO2 Bind with only O2

4.7 DISCUSS THE RESPIRATORY DISORDERS WITH CAUSE AND SYMPTOMS

Feature Lung cancer Tuberculosis Asthma Emphysema

Definition Cancer or A respiratory A respiratory disease Breathing of
carcinoma is disease in which associated alveoli resulting
malignant tumor inside of lungs is With paroxysm of in increased
of potentially damaged different breathing, airway resistance
unlimited growth Contagious complete relief, causing
that expands disease recurrence of asthma collapsing of
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locally by invasion bronchioles
and systematically during expiration
by metastasis
Causes Lung exposed to More common in Allergic reaction to Smoking (most
unhealthy air poor people pollens, spores, cold, common)
Smoking Malnutrition humidity, pollution Smokers cough
Pollution Poor living bursting weak
10 times in conditions alveoli
smokers Mycobacterium Breathlessness
90% by smoking Tuberculosis Exhaustion
More than 10 Dead air space
compounds of increased
tobacco smoke
involved in cancer

Effects & Respiratory Fever Spasmodic contractions Burst alveoli

symptoms passages Cough of small bronchioles Release
occluded by Blood in cough Release of inflammatory absorbing
tumors chemicals(histamines) in Surface of lungs
Breathing circulatory system Poor blood
problems causing severe oxygenation
Cough contraction Least exertion
causing
DO YOU KNOW? breathlessness
Treatment Surgery Proper medical Inhalers Bronchodilators
- Aquatic mammals (cetaceans):
Radiation therapy attention Long lasting beta Corticosteroids in
stay in ocean depth for more than 2
Chemotherapy Isoniazid agonists(LABA) inhaler form
hours
Targeted therapy Rifampin
- Diving mammals: Twice volume
Immunotherapy Ethambutol
of blood than non-divers. High
Pyrazinamide
concentration of myoglobin for
extra O2 binding.
- Mammal dives to limit that
activates diving reflex:
 Breathing stop
 Rate of heart beat slows down
to 1/10th
 Consumption of O2 + energy
reduced
 Redistribution of blood:
 Most to brain and heart
 Less to skin, gut, internal
organs

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