Aesthetics

Aesthetics, or esthetics (/ɛsˈθɛtɪks, iːs-, æs-/), is a branch of philosophy that deals with the nature of beauty
and taste, as well as the philosophy of art (its own area of philosophy that comes out of aesthetics). It
examines subjective and sensori-emotional values, or sometimes called judgments of sentiment and taste.[1]

Aesthetics covers both natural and artificial sources of aesthetic experience and judgment. It considers what
happens in our minds when we engage with aesthetic objects or environments such as in viewing visual art,
listening to music, reading poetry, experiencing a play, exploring nature, and so on. The philosophy of art
specifically studies how artists imagine, create, and perform works of art, as well as how people use, enjoy,
and criticize their art. It deals with how one feels about art in general, why they like some works of art and
not others, and how art can affect our moods or even our beliefs.[2] Both aesthetics generally and philosophy
of art especially ask questions like "what is art?", "what is a work of art?", and "what makes good art?".

Scholars in the field have defined aesthetics as "critical reflection on art, culture and nature".[3][4] In modern
English, the term "aesthetic" can also refer to a set of principles underlying the works of a particular art
movement or theory (one speaks, for example, of a Renaissance aesthetic).[5]

Contents
Etymology
Aesthetics and the philosophy of art
Aesthetic judgment, universals and ethics
Aesthetic judgment
Factors involved in aesthetic judgment
Aesthetic universals
Aesthetic ethics
New Criticism and "The Intentional Fallacy"
Derivative forms of aesthetics
Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis
Recent aesthetics
Aesthetics and science
Truth in beauty and mathematics
Computational approaches
Evolutionary aesthetics
Applied aesthetics
Criticism
See also
References
Further reading
Indian aesthetics
External links
Etymology
The word aesthetic is derived from the Greek αἰσθητικός (aisthetikos, meaning "esthetic, sensitive, sentient,
pertaining to sense perception"), which in turn was derived from αἰσθάνομαι (aisthanomai, meaning "I
perceive, feel, sense" and related to αἴσθησις (aisthēsis, "sensation").[6] Aesthetics in this central sense has
been said to start with the series of articles on “The Pleasures of the Imagination” which the journalist
Joseph Addison wrote in the early issues of the magazine The Spectator in 1712.[7] The term "aesthetics"
was appropriated and coined with new meaning by the German philosopher Alexander Baumgarten in his
dissertation Meditationes philosophicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibus ("Philosophical considerations
of some matters pertaining the poem") in 1735;[8] Baumgarten chose "aesthetics" because he wished to
emphasize the experience of art as a means of knowing. Aesthetics, a not very tidy intellectual discipline, is
a heterogeneous collection of problems that concern the arts primarily but also relate to nature.[9] even
though his later definition in the fragment Aesthetica (1750) is more often referred to as the first definition
of modern aesthetics.[10]

Aesthetics and the philosophy of art

Aesthetics is for the artist as Ornithology is for the birds.

— Barnett Newman[11][12]

Some separate aesthetics and philosophy of art, claiming that the former is the study of beauty and taste
while the latter is the study of art proper, in the form of materialized works of artists. However, most
commonly Aesthetics encompasses both questions around beauty as well as questions about art. It examines
topics such as aesthetic objects, aesthetic experience, and aesthetic judgments.[13] For some, aesthetics is
considered a synonym for the philosophy of art since Hegel, while others insist that there is a significant
distinction between these closely related fields. In practice, aesthetic judgement refers to the sensory
contemplation or appreciation of an object (not necessarily an art object), while artistic judgement refers to
the recognition, appreciation or criticism of art or an art work.

Philosophical aesthetics not only has to speak about art and to produce judgments about art works, but also
has to give a definition of what art is. Art is an autonomous entity for philosophy, because art deals with the
senses (i.e. the etymology of aesthetics) and art is as such free of any moral or political purpose. Hence,
there are two different conceptions of art in aesthetics: art as knowledge or art as action, but aesthetics is
neither epistemology nor ethics.[14]

Aestheticians compare historical developments with theoretical approaches to the arts of many periods.
They study the varieties of art in relation to their physical, social, and culture environments. Aestheticians
also use psychology to understand how people see, hear, imagine, think, learn, and act in relation to the
materials and problems of art. Aesthetic psychology studies the creative process and the aesthetic
experience.[15]

Aesthetic judgment, universals and ethics

Aesthetic judgment
Aesthetics examines our affective domain response to an object or phenomenon. Judgments of aesthetic
value rely on our ability to discriminate at a sensory level. However, aesthetic judgments usually go
beyond sensory discrimination.

For David Hume, delicacy of taste is not merely "the ability to detect all the ingredients in a composition",
but also our sensitivity "to pains as well as pleasures, which escape the rest of mankind."[16] Thus, the
sensory discrimination is linked to capacity for pleasure.

For Immanuel Kant (Critique of Judgment, 1790), "enjoyment" is the result when pleasure arises from
sensation, but judging something to be "beautiful" has a third requirement: sensation must give rise to
pleasure by engaging our capacities of reflective contemplation. Judgments of beauty are sensory, emotional
and intellectual all at once. Kant (1790) observed of a man "If he says that canary wine is agreeable he is
quite content if someone else corrects his terms and reminds him to say instead: It is agreeable to me,"
because "Everyone has his own (sense of) taste". The case of "beauty" is different from mere
"agreeableness" because, "If he proclaims something to be beautiful, then he requires the same liking from
others; he then judges not just for himself but for everyone, and speaks of beauty as if it were a property of
things."

Viewer interpretations of beauty may on occasion be observed to possess two concepts of value: aesthetics
and taste. Aesthetics is the philosophical notion of beauty. Taste is a result of an education process and
awareness of elite cultural values learned through exposure to mass culture. Bourdieu examined how the
elite in society define the aesthetic values like taste and how varying levels of exposure to these values can
result in variations by class, cultural background, and education.[17] According to Kant, beauty is subjective
and universal; thus certain things are beautiful to everyone.[18] In the opinion of Władysław Tatarkiewicz,
there are six conditions for the presentation of art: beauty, form, representation, reproduction of reality,
artistic expression and innovation. However, one may not be able to pin down these qualities in a work of
art.[19]

The question whether there are facts about aesthetic judgments belongs to the branch of metaphilosophy
known as meta-aesthetics.[20]

Factors involved in aesthetic judgment

Judgments of aesthetical values seem often to involve many other

kinds of issues as well. Responses such as disgust show that sensory
detection is linked in instinctual ways to facial expressions, and even
behaviours like the gag reflex. Yet disgust can often be a learned or
cultural issue too; as Darwin pointed out, seeing a stripe of soup in a
man's beard is disgusting even though neither soup nor beards are
themselves disgusting. Aesthetic judgments may be linked to Rainbows often have aesthetic
emotions or, like emotions, partially embodied in our physical appeal.
reactions. For example, the awe inspired by a sublime landscape
might physically manifest with an increased heart-rate or pupil
dilation; physiological reaction may express or even cause the initial awe.

As seen, emotions are conformed to 'cultural' reactions, therefore aesthetics is always characterized by
'regional responses', as Francis Grose was the first to affirm in his ‘Rules for Drawing Caricaturas: With an
Essay on Comic Painting’ (1788), published in W. Hogarth, The Analysis of Beauty, Bagster, London s.d.
(1791? [1753]), pp. 1–24. Francis Grose can therefore be claimed to be the first critical 'aesthetic regionalist'
in proclaiming the anti-universality of aesthetics in contrast to the perilous and always resurgent dictatorship
of beauty.[21] 'Aesthetic Regionalism' can thus be seen as a political statement and stance which vies against
any universal notion of beauty to safeguard the counter-tradition of aesthetics related to what has been
considered and dubbed un-beautiful just because one's culture does not contemplate it, e.g. E. Burke's
sublime, what is usually defined as 'primitive' art, or un-harmonious, non-cathartic art, camp art, which
'beauty' posits and creates, dichotomously, as its opposite, without even the need of formal statements, but
which will be 'perceived' as ugly.[22]

Likewise, aesthetic judgments may be culturally conditioned to some extent. Victorians in Britain often saw
African sculpture as ugly, but just a few decades later, Edwardian audiences saw the same sculptures as
being beautiful. Evaluations of beauty may well be linked to desirability, perhaps even to sexual desirability.
Thus, judgments of aesthetic value can become linked to judgments of economic, political, or moral
value.[23] In a current context, one might judge a Lamborghini to be beautiful partly because it is desirable
as a status symbol, or we might judge it to be repulsive partly because it signifies for us over-consumption
and offends our political or moral values.[24]

The Context of its presentation also affects the perception of artwork; artworks presented in a classical
museum context are liked more and rated more interesting than when presented in a sterile laboratory
context. While specific results depend heavily on the style of the presented artwork, overall, the effect of
context proved to be more important for the perception of artwork then the effect of genuineness (whether
the artwork was being presented as original or as a facsimile/copy).[25]

Aesthetic judgments can often be very fine-grained and internally contradictory. Likewise aesthetic
judgments seem often to be at least partly intellectual and interpretative. It is what a thing means or
symbolizes for us that is often what we are judging. Modern aestheticians have asserted that will and desire
were almost dormant in aesthetic experience, yet preference and choice have seemed important aesthetics to
some 20th-century thinkers. The point is already made by Hume, but see Mary Mothersill, "Beauty and the
Critic's Judgment", in The Blackwell Guide to Aesthetics, 2004. Thus aesthetic judgments might be seen to
be based on the senses, emotions, intellectual opinions, will, desires, culture, preferences, values,
subconscious behaviour, conscious decision, training, instinct, sociological institutions, or some complex
combination of these, depending on exactly which theory one employs.

A third major topic in the study of aesthetic judgments is how they are unified across art forms. For
instance, the source of a painting's beauty has a different character to that of beautiful music, suggesting
their aesthetics differ in kind.[26] The distinct inability of language to express aesthetic judgment and the
role of Social construction further cloud this issue.

Aesthetic universals

The philosopher Denis Dutton identified six universal signatures in human aesthetics:[27]

1. Expertise or virtuosity. Humans cultivate, recognize, and admire technical artistic skills.
2. Nonutilitarian pleasure. People enjoy art for art's sake, and do not demand that it keep them
warm or put food on the table.
3. Style. Artistic objects and performances satisfy rules of composition that place them in a
recognizable style.
4. Criticism. People make a point of judging, appreciating, and interpreting works of art.
5. Imitation. With a few important exceptions like abstract painting, works of art simulate
experiences of the world.
6. Special focus. Art is set aside from ordinary life and made a dramatic focus of experience.

Artists such as Thomas Hirschhorn have indicated that there are too many exceptions to Dutton's categories.
For example, Hirschhorn's installations deliberately eschew technical virtuosity. People can appreciate a
Renaissance Madonna for aesthetic reasons, but such objects often had (and sometimes still have) specific
devotional functions. "Rules of composition" that might be read into Duchamp's Fountain or John Cage's
4′33″ do not locate the works in a recognizable style (or certainly not a style recognizable at the time of the
works' realization). Moreover, some of Dutton's categories seem too broad: a physicist might entertain
hypothetical worlds in his/her imagination in the course of formulating a theory. Another problem is that
Dutton's categories seek to universalize traditional European notions of aesthetics and art forgetting that, as
André Malraux and others have pointed out, there have been large numbers of cultures in which such ideas
(including the idea "art" itself) were non-existent.[28]

Aesthetic ethics

Aesthetic ethics refers to the idea that human conduct and behaviour ought to be governed by that which is
beautiful and attractive. John Dewey[29] has pointed out that the unity of aesthetics and ethics is in fact
reflected in our understanding of behaviour being "fair"—the word having a double meaning of attractive
and morally acceptable. More recently, James Page[30][31] has suggested that aesthetic ethics might be taken
to form a philosophical rationale for peace education.

New Criticism and "The Intentional Fallacy"

During the first half of the twentieth century, a significant shift to general aesthetic theory took place which
attempted to apply aesthetic theory between various forms of art, including the literary arts and the visual
arts, to each other. This resulted in the rise of the New Criticism school and debate concerning the
intentional fallacy. At issue was the question of whether the aesthetic intentions of the artist in creating the
work of art, whatever its specific form, should be associated with the criticism and evaluation of the final
product of the work of art, or, if the work of art should be evaluated on its own merits independent of the
intentions of the artist.

In 1946, William K. Wimsatt and Monroe Beardsley published a classic and controversial New Critical
essay entitled "The Intentional Fallacy", in which they argued strongly against the relevance of an author's
intention, or "intended meaning" in the analysis of a literary work. For Wimsatt and Beardsley, the words on
the page were all that mattered; importation of meanings from outside the text was considered irrelevant,
and potentially distracting.

In another essay, "The Affective Fallacy," which served as a kind of sister essay to "The Intentional Fallacy"
Wimsatt and Beardsley also discounted the reader's personal/emotional reaction to a literary work as a valid
means of analyzing a text. This fallacy would later be repudiated by theorists from the reader-response
school of literary theory. One of the leading theorists from this school, Stanley Fish, was himself trained by
New Critics. Fish criticizes Wimsatt and Beardsley in his essay "Literature in the Reader" (1970).[32]

As summarized by Berys Gaut and Livingston in their essay "The Creation of Art": "Structuralist and post-
structuralists theorists and critics were sharply critical of many aspects of New Criticism, beginning with the
emphasis on aesthetic appreciation and the so-called autonomy of art, but they reiterated the attack on
biographical criticisms' assumption that the artist's activities and experience were a privileged critical
topic."[33] These authors contend that: "Anti-intentionalists, such as formalists, hold that the intentions
involved in the making of art are irrelevant or peripheral to correctly interpreting art. So details of the act of
creating a work, though possibly of interest in themselves, have no bearing on the correct interpretation of
the work."[34]

Gaut and Livingston define the intentionalists as distinct from formalists stating that: "Intentionalists, unlike
formalists, hold that reference to intentions is essential in fixing the correct interpretation of works." They
quote Richard Wollheim as stating that, "The task of criticism is the reconstruction of the creative process,
where the creative process must in turn be thought of as something not stopping short of, but terminating on,
the work of art itself."[34]

Derivative forms of aesthetics

A large number of derivative forms of aesthetics have developed as contemporary and transitory forms of
inquiry associated with the field of aesthetics which include the post-modern, psychoanalytic, scientific, and
mathematical among others.

Post-modern aesthetics and psychoanalysis

Early-twentieth-century artists, poets and composers challenged existing notions of beauty, broadening the
scope of art and aesthetics. In 1941, Eli Siegel, American philosopher and poet, founded Aesthetic Realism,
the philosophy that reality itself is aesthetic, and that "The world, art, and self explain each other: each is the
aesthetic oneness of opposites."[35][36]

Various attempts have been made to define Post-Modern Aesthetics. The challenge to the assumption that
beauty was central to art and aesthetics, thought to be original, is actually continuous with older aesthetic
theory; Aristotle was the first in the Western tradition to classify "beauty" into types as in his theory of
drama, and Kant made a distinction between beauty and the sublime. What was new was a refusal to credit
the higher status of certain types, where the taxonomy implied a preference for tragedy and the sublime to
comedy and the Rococo.

Croce suggested that "expression" is central in the way that beauty was once thought to be central. George
Dickie suggested that the sociological institutions of the art world were the glue binding art and sensibility
into unities.[37] Marshall McLuhan suggested that art always functions as a "counter-environment" designed
to make visible what is usually invisible about a society.[38] Theodor Adorno felt that aesthetics could not
proceed without confronting the role of the culture industry in the commodification of art and aesthetic
experience. Hal Foster attempted to portray the reaction against beauty and Modernist art in The Anti-
Aesthetic: Essays on Postmodern Culture. Arthur Danto has described this reaction as "kalliphobia" (after
the Greek word for beauty, κάλλος kallos).[39] André Malraux explains that the notion of beauty was
connected to a particular conception of art that arose with the Renaissance and was still dominant in the
eighteenth century (but was supplanted later). The discipline of aesthetics, which originated in the
eighteenth century, mistook this transient state of affairs for a revelation of the permanent nature of art.[40]
Brian Massumi suggests to reconsider beauty following the aesthetical thought in the philosophy of Deleuze
and Guattari.[41] Walter Benjamin echoed Malraux in believing aesthetics was a comparatively recent
invention, a view proven wrong in the late 1970s, when Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake analyzed links
between beauty, information processing, and information theory. Denis Dutton in "The Art Instinct" also
proposed that an aesthetic sense was a vital evolutionary factor.

Jean-François Lyotard re-invokes the Kantian distinction between taste and the sublime. Sublime painting,
unlike kitsch realism, "... will enable us to see only by making it impossible to see; it will please only by
causing pain."[42][43]

Sigmund Freud inaugurated aesthetical thinking in Psychoanalysis mainly via the "Uncanny" as aesthetical
affect.[44] Following Freud and Merleau-Ponty,[45] Jacques Lacan theorized aesthetics in terms of
sublimation and the Thing.[46]

The relation of Marxist aesthetics to post-modern aesthetics is still a contentious area of debate.
Recent aesthetics

Guy Sircello has pioneered efforts in analytic philosophy to develop a rigorous theory of aesthetics, focusing
on the concepts of beauty,[47] love[48] and sublimity.[49] In contrast to romantic theorists, Sircello argued for
the objectivity of beauty and formulated a theory of love on that basis.

British philosopher and theorist of conceptual art aesthetics, Peter Osborne, makes the point that "'post-
conceptual art' aesthetic does not concern a particular type of contemporary art so much as the historical-
ontological condition for the production of contemporary art in general ...".[50] Osborne noted that
contemporary art is 'post-conceptual' (http://www.fondazioneratti.org/mat/mostre/Contemporary%20art%20i
s%20post-conceptual%20art%20/Leggi%20il%20testo%20della%20conferenza%20di%20Peter%20Osborn
e%20in%20PDF.pdf) in a public lecture delivered in 2010.

Gary Tedman has put forward a theory of a subjectless aesthetics derived from Karl Marx's concept of
alienation, and Louis Althusser's antihumanism, using elements of Freud's group psychology, defining a
concept of the 'aesthetic level of practice'.[51]

Gregory Loewen has suggested that the subject is key in the interaction with the aesthetic object. The work
of art serves as a vehicle for the projection of the individual's identity into the world of objects, as well as
being the irruptive source of much of what is uncanny in modern life. As well, art is used to memorialize
individuated biographies in a manner that allows persons to imagine that they are part of something greater
than themselves.[52]

Aesthetics and science

The field of experimental aesthetics was founded by Gustav Theodor

Fechner in the 19th century. Experimental aesthetics in these times
had been characterized by a subject-based, inductive approach. The
analysis of individual experience and behaviour based on
experimental methods is a central part of experimental aesthetics. In
particular, the perception of works of art,[53] music, or modern items
such as websites[54] or other IT products[55] is studied. Experimental
aesthetics is strongly oriented towards the natural sciences. Modern
approaches mostly come from the fields of cognitive psychology or
The Mandelbrot set with continuously
neuroscience (neuroaesthetics[56]). coloured environment

In the 1970s, Abraham Moles and Frieder Nake were among the first
to analyze links between aesthetics, information processing, and
information theory.[57][58]

In the 1990s, Jürgen Schmidhuber described an algorithmic theory of beauty which takes the subjectivity of
the observer into account and postulates: among several observations classified as comparable by a given
subjective observer, the aesthetically most pleasing one is the one with the shortest description, given the
observer's previous knowledge and his particular method for encoding the data.[59][60] This is closely related
to the principles of algorithmic information theory and minimum description length. One of his examples:
mathematicians enjoy simple proofs with a short description in their formal language. Another very concrete
example describes an aesthetically pleasing human face whose proportions can be described by very few
bits of information,[61][62] drawing inspiration from less detailed 15th century proportion studies by
Leonardo da Vinci and Albrecht Dürer. Schmidhuber's theory explicitly distinguishes between what's
beautiful and what's interesting, stating that interestingness corresponds to the first derivative of subjectively
perceived beauty. Here the premise is that any observer continually tries to improve the predictability and
compressibility of the observations by discovering regularities such as repetitions and symmetries and
fractal self-similarity. Whenever the observer's learning process (which may be a predictive artificial neural
network; see also Neuroesthetics) leads to improved data compression such that the observation sequence
can be described by fewer bits than before, the temporary interestingness of the data corresponds to the
number of saved bits. This compression progress is proportional to the observer's internal reward, also called
curiosity reward. A reinforcement learning algorithm is used to maximize future expected reward by
learning to execute action sequences that cause additional interesting input data with yet unknown but
learnable predictability or regularity. The principles can be implemented on artificial agents which then
exhibit a form of artificial curiosity.[63][64][65][66]

Truth in beauty and mathematics

Mathematical considerations, such as symmetry and complexity, are used for analysis in theoretical
aesthetics. This is different from the aesthetic considerations of applied aesthetics used in the study of
mathematical beauty. Aesthetic considerations such as symmetry and simplicity are used in areas of
philosophy, such as ethics and theoretical physics and cosmology to define truth, outside of empirical
considerations. Beauty and Truth have been argued to be nearly synonymous,[67] as reflected in the
statement "Beauty is truth, truth beauty" in the poem Ode on a Grecian Urn by John Keats, or by the Hindu
motto "Satyam Shivam Sundaram" (Satya (Truth) is Shiva (God), and Shiva is Sundaram (Beautiful)). The
fact that judgments of beauty and judgments of truth both are influenced by processing fluency, which is the
ease with which information can be processed, has been presented as an explanation for why beauty is
sometimes equated with truth.[68] Indeed, recent research found that people use beauty as an indication for
truth in mathematical pattern tasks.[69] However, scientists including the mathematician David Orrell[70] and
physicist Marcelo Gleiser[71] have argued that the emphasis on aesthetic criteria such as symmetry is equally
capable of leading scientists astray.

Computational approaches

Computational approaches to aesthetics emerged amid efforts to use computer science methods "to predict,
convey, and evoke emotional response to a piece of art.[72] It this field, aesthetics is not considered to be
dependent on taste but is a matter of cognition, and, consequently, learning.[73] In 1928, the mathematician
George David Birkhoff created an aesthetic measure M = O/C as the ratio of order to complexity.[74]

Since about 2005, computer scientists have attempted to develop automated methods to infer aesthetic
quality of images.[75][76][77][78] Typically, these approaches follow a machine learning approach, where
large numbers of manually rated photographs are used to "teach" a computer about what visual properties
are of relevance to aesthetic quality. A study by Y. Li and C.J. Hu employed Birkhoff's measurement in their
statistical learning approach where order and complexity of an image determined aesthetic value.[79] The
image complexity was computed using information theory while the order was determined using fractal
compression.[79] There is also the case of the Acquine engine, developed at Penn State University, that rates
natural photographs uploaded by users.[80]

There have also been relatively successful attempts with regard to chess and music.[81] Computational
approaches have also been attempted in film making as demonstrated by a software model developed by
Chitra Dorai and a group of researchers at the IBM T.J. Watson Research Center.[82] The tool predicted
aesthetics based on the values of narrative elements.[82] A relation between Max Bense's mathematical
formulation of aesthetics in terms of "redundancy" and "complexity" and theories of musical anticipation
was offered using the notion of Information Rate.[83]

Evolutionary aesthetics
Evolutionary aesthetics refers to evolutionary psychology theories in which the basic aesthetic preferences
of Homo sapiens are argued to have evolved in order to enhance survival and reproductive success.[84] One
example being that humans are argued to find beautiful and prefer landscapes which were good habitats in
the ancestral environment. Another example is that body symmetry and proportion are important aspects of
physical attractiveness which may be due to this indicating good health during body growth. Evolutionary
explanations for aesthetical preferences are important parts of evolutionary musicology, Darwinian literary
studies, and the study of the evolution of emotion.

Applied aesthetics

As well as being applied to art, aesthetics can also be applied to cultural objects, such as crosses or tools.
For example, aesthetic coupling between art-objects and medical topics was made by speakers working for
the US Information Agency[85] Art slides were linked to slides of pharmacological data, which improved
attention and retention by simultaneous activation of intuitive right brain with rational left. It can also be
used in topics as diverse as cartography, mathematics, gastronomy, fashion and website
design.[86][87][88][89][90]

Criticism
The philosophy of aesthetics as a practice has been criticized by some sociologists and writers of art and
society. Raymond Williams, for example, argues that there is no unique and or individual aesthetic object
which can be extrapolated from the art world, but rather that there is a continuum of cultural forms and
experience of which ordinary speech and experiences may signal as art. By "art" we may frame several
artistic "works" or "creations" as so though this reference remains within the institution or special event
which creates it and this leaves some works or other possible "art" outside of the frame work, or other
interpretations such as other phenomenon which may not be considered as "art".[91]

Pierre Bourdieu disagrees with Kant's idea of the "aesthetic". He argues that Kant's "aesthetic" merely
represents an experience that is the product of an elevated class habitus and scholarly leisure as opposed to
other possible and equally valid "aesthetic" experiences which lay outside Kant's narrow definition.[92]

Timothy Laurie argues that theories of musical aesthetics "framed entirely in terms of appreciation,
contemplation or reflection risk idealizing an implausibly unmotivated listener defined solely through
musical objects, rather than seeing them as a person for whom complex intentions and motivations produce
variable attractions to cultural objects and practices".[93]

See also
Philosophy portal
Art and Theosophy
Art periods
History of aesthetics before the 20th century
Medieval aesthetics
Mise en scène
Theory of art

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Further reading
Mario Perniola, 20th Century Aesthetics.
Towards A Theory of Feeling, translated by
Massimo Verdicchio, London, New Delhi,
New York, Sydney: Bloomsbury, 2013,
ISBN 978-1-4411-1850-9.
Chung-yuan, Chang (1963–1970). Creativity
and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy,
Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper
Torchbooks. ISBN 978-0-06-131968-6.
Handbook of Phenomenological Aesthetics.
Edited by Hans Rainer Sepp and Lester
Embree. (Series: Contributions To
Phenomenology, Vol. 59) Springer,
Dordrecht / Heidelberg / London / New York
2010. ISBN 978-90-481-2470-1
Theodor W. Adorno, Aesthetic Theory,
Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press,
1997.
Ayn Rand, The Romantic Manifesto: A
Philosophy of Literature, New York, NY, New
American Library, 1971
Derek Allan (https://web.archive.org/web/20
051214215609/http://www.home.netspeed.c
om.au/derek.allan/default.htm), Art and the
Human Adventure, Andre Malraux's Theory
of Art, Rodopi, 2009
Derek Allan. Art and Time (https://web.archi
ve.org/web/20130318222226/http://www.c-s
-p.org/Flyers/Art-and-Time1-4438-4400-4.ht
m), Cambridge Scholars, 2013.
Augros, Robert M., Stanciu, George N., The
New Story of Science: mind and the
universe, Lake Bluff, Ill.: Regnery Gateway,
1984. ISBN 0-89526-833-7 (has significant
material on Art, Science and their
philosophies)
John Bender and Gene Blocker
Contemporary Philosophy of Art: Readings
in Analytic Aesthetics 1993.
René Bergeron. L'Art et sa spiritualité.
Québec, QC.: Éditions du Pelican, 1961.
Christine Buci-Glucksmann (2003),
Esthétique de l'éphémère, Galilée. (French)
Noël Carroll (2000), Theories of Art Today,
University of Wisconsin Press.
Mario Costa (1999) (in Italian), L'estetica dei
media. Avanguardie e tecnologia, Milan:
Castelvecchi, ISBN 88-8210-165-7.
Benedetto Croce (1922), Aesthetic as
Science of Expression and General
Linguistic.
E.S. Dallas (1866), The Gay Science, 2
volumes, on the aesthetics of poetry.
Danto, Arthur (2003), The Abuse of Beauty:
Aesthetics and the Concept of Art, Open
Court.
Stephen Davies (1991), Definitions of Art.
Terry Eagleton (1990), The Ideology of the
Aesthetic. Blackwell. ISBN 0-631-16302-6
Susan L. Feagin and Patrick Maynard
(1997), Aesthetics. Oxford Readers.
Penny Florence and Nicola Foster (eds.)
(2000), Differential Aesthetics. London:
Ashgate. ISBN 0-7546-1493-X
Berys Gaut and Dominic McIver Lopes
(eds.), Routledge Companion to Aesthetics.
3rd edition. London and New York:
Routledge, 2013.
Annemarie Gethmann-Siefert (1995),
Einführung in die Ästhetik, Munich, W. Fink.
David Goldblatt and Lee B. Brown, ed.
(2010), Aesthetics: A Reader in the
Philosophy of the Arts. 3rd edition. Pearson
Publishing.
Theodore Gracyk (2011), The Philosophy of
Art: An Introduction. Polity Press.
Greenberg, Clement (1960), "Modernist
Painting", The Collected Essays and
Criticism 1957–1969, The University of
Chicago Press, 1993, 85–92.
Evelyn Hatcher (ed.), Art as Culture: An
Introduction to the Anthropology of Art. 1999
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1975),
Aesthetics. Lectures on Fine Art, trans. T.M.
Knox, 2 vols. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hans Hofmann and Sara T Weeks; Bartlett
H Hayes; Addison Gallery of American Art;
Search for the real, and other essays (http://
www.worldcatlibraries.org/oclc/1125858&ref
erer=brief_results) (Cambridge,
Massachusetts, M.I.T. Press, 1967)
OCLC 1125858 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/1125858)
Michael Ann Holly and Keith Moxey (eds.),
Art History and Visual Studies. Yale
University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-300-09789-
1
Carol Armstrong and Catherine de Zegher
(eds.), Women Artists at the Millennium.
Massachusetts: October Books/MIT Press,
2006. ISBN 0-262-01226-X
Kant, Immanuel (1790), Critique of
Judgement, Translated by Werner S. Pluhar,
Hackett Publishing Co., 1987.
Kelly, Michael (Editor in Chief) (1998)
Encyclopedia of Aesthetics. New York,
Oxford, Oxford University Press. 4 vol.
pp. xvii–521, pp. 555, pp. 536, pp. 572;
2224 total pages; 100 b/w photos;
ISBN 978-0-19-511307-5. Covers
philosophical, historical, sociological, and
biographical aspects of Art and Aesthetics
worldwide.
Kent, Alexander J. (2005). "Aesthetics: A
Lost Cause in Cartographic Theory?". The
Cartographic Journal. 42 (2): 182–188.
doi:10.1179/000870405x61487 (https://doi.o
rg/10.1179%2F000870405x61487).
Søren Kierkegaard (1843), Either/Or,
translated by Alastair Hannay, London,
Penguin, 1992
Peter Kivy (ed.), The Blackwell Guide to
Aesthetics. 2004
Carolyn Korsmeyer (ed.), Aesthetics: The
Big Questions. 1998
Lyotard, Jean-François (1979), The
Postmodern Condition, Manchester
University Press, 1984.
Merleau-Ponty, Maurice (1969), The Visible
and the Invisible, Northwestern University
Press.
David Novitz (1992), The Boundaries of Art.
Mario Perniola, The Art and Its Shadow,
foreword by Hugh J. Silverman, translated
by Massimo Verdicchio, London-NewYork,
Continuum, 2004.
Griselda Pollock, "Does Art Think?" In:
Dana Arnold and Margaret Iverson (eds.)
Art and Thought. Oxford: Basil Blackwell,
2003. 129–174. ISBN 0-631-22715-6.
Griselda Pollock, Encounters in the Virtual
Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the
Archive. Routledge, 2007. ISBN 0-415-
41374-5.
Griselda Pollock, Generations and
Geographies in the Visual Arts. Routledge,
1996. ISBN 0-415-14128-1.
George Santayana (1896), The Sense of
Beauty. Being the Outlines of Aesthetic
Theory. New York, Modern Library, 1955.
Elaine Scarry, On Beauty and Being Just.
Princeton, 2001. ISBN 978-0-691-08959-1
Friedrich Schiller, (1795), On the Aesthetic
Education of Man. Dover Publications,
2004.
Alan Singer and Allen Dunn (eds.), Literary
Aesthetics: A Reader. Blackwell Publishing
Limited, 2000. ISBN 978-0-631-20869-3
Jadranka Skorin-Kapov, The Intertwining of
Aesthetics and Ethics: Exceeding of
Expectations, Ecstasy, Sublimity. Lexington
Books, 2016. ISBN 978-1-4985-2456-8
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, A History of Six
Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, The Hague,
1980. ISBN 978-90-247-2233-4
Władysław Tatarkiewicz, History of
Aesthetics, 3 vols. (1–2, 1970; 3, 1974), The
Hague, Mouton.
Markand Thakar Looking for the 'Harp'
Quartet: An Investigation into Musical
Beauty. University of Rochester Press,
2011.
Leo Tolstoy, What Is Art?, Penguin Classics,
1995.
Roger Scruton, Beauty: A Very Short
Introduction, Oxford University Press, 2009.
ISBN 0199229759
Roger Scruton, The Aesthetic
Understanding: Essays in the Philosophy of
Art and Culture (1983) ISBN 1890318027
The London Philosophy Study Guide (http://
www.ucl.ac.uk/philosophy/LPSG/) offers
many suggestions on what to read,
depending on the student's familiarity with
the subject: Aesthetics (http://www.ucl.ac.u
k/philosophy/LPSG/Aesthetics.htm)
John M. Valentine, Beginning Aesthetics: An
Introduction To The Philosophy of Art.
McGraw-Hill, 2006. ISBN 978-0-07-353754-
2
von Vacano, Diego, "The Art of Power:
Machiavelli, Nietzsche and the Making of
Aesthetic Political Theory," Lanham MD:
Lexington: 2007.
Thomas Wartenberg, The Nature of Art.
2006.
John Whitehead, Grasping for the Wind.
2001.
Ludwig Wittgenstein, Lectures on
aesthetics, psychology and religious belief,
Oxford, Blackwell, 1966.
Richard Wollheim, Art and its objects, 2nd
edn, 1980, Cambridge University Press,
ISBN 0-521-29706-0
Indian aesthetics
Wallace Dace (1963). "The Concept of
"Rasa" in Sanskrit Dramatic Theory".
Educational Theatre Journal. 15 (3): 249–
254. doi:10.2307/3204783 (https://doi.org/1
0.2307%2F3204783). JSTOR 3204783 (http
s://www.jstor.org/stable/3204783).
René Daumal (1982). Rasa, or, Knowledge
of the self: essays on Indian aesthetics and
selected Sanskrit studies (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=0wLXAAAAMAAJ).
ISBN 978-0-8112-0824-6.
 Natalia Lidova (2014). "Natyashastra".
Oxford University Press.
doi:10.1093/obo/9780195399318-0071 (http
s://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780195399
318-0071).
Natalia Lidova (1994). Drama and Ritual of
Early Hinduism (https://books.google.com/b
ooks?id=3TKarwqJJP0C). Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1234-5.
Ananda Lal (2004). The Oxford Companion
to Indian Theatre (https://books.google.com/
books?id=DftkAAAAMAAJ). Oxford
University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-564446-3.
Tarla Mehta (1995). Sanskrit Play
Production in Ancient India (https://books.go
ogle.com/books?id=l7naMj1UxIkC). Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-1057-0.
Rowell, Lewis (2015). Music and Musical
Thought in Early India (https://books.google.
com/books?id=h5_UCgAAQBAJ). University
of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73034-9.
Emmie Te Nijenhuis (1974). Indian Music:
History and Structure (https://books.google.
com/books?id=NrgfAAAAIAAJ). BRILL
Academic. ISBN 978-90-04-03978-0.
Farley P. Richmond; Darius L. Swann;
Phillip B. Zarrilli (1993). Indian Theatre:
Traditions of Performance (https://books.goo
gle.com/books?id=OroCOEqkVg4C). Motilal
Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0981-9.
Kapila Vatsyayan (2001). Bharata, the
Nāṭyaśāstra (https://books.google.com/book
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ISBN 978-81-260-1220-6.
Kapila Vatsyayan (1974). Indian classical
dance. Sangeet Natak Akademi.
OCLC 2238067 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
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Kapila Vatsyayan (2008). Aesthetic theories
and forms in Indian tradition. Munshiram
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OCLC 286469807 (https://www.worldcat.or
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External links
Aesthetics (https://inpho.cogs.indiana.edu/taxonomy/2247) at the Indiana Philosophy Ontology
Project
Aesthetics (https://philpapers.org/browse/aesthetics) at PhilPapers
"Aesthetics" (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aestheti). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Aesthetics in Continental Philosophy (http://www.iep.utm.edu/aes-cont/) article in the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Medieval Theories of Aesthetics (http://www.iep.utm.edu/m-aesthe/) article in the Internet
Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Revue online Appareil (https://web.archive.org/web/20110127123626/http://revues.mshparisno
rd.org/appareil/index.php?id=61)
Postscript 1980– Some Old Problems in New Perspectives (http://www.ditext.com/anka/beards
ley/post.html)
Aesthetics in Art Education: A Look Toward Implementation (http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-92
19/art.htm)
More about Art, culture and Education (https://web.archive.org/web/20141103070457/http://kn
owledgeworld.com.bd/what-is-art/)
An history of aesthetics (http://www.kunstbewegung.info/de/Revised_interpretation_of_foundin
g%27s_and_concepts_through_an_history_of_aesthetics)
The Concept of the Aesthetic (http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aesthetic-concept)
Aesthetics (https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/aesthetics/v-1) entry in the
Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Philosophy of Aesthetics (https://web.archive.org/web/20150321060625/http://www.philosophy
archive.com/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_Aesthetics) entry in the Philosophy Archive
Washington State Board for Community & Technical Colleges: Introduction to Aesthetics (htt
p://www.saylor.org/site/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Module-1.pdf)
 Art Perception (http://cycleback.files.wordpress.com/2014/05/art_perception_cycleback1.pdf)
Complete pdf version of art historian David Cycleback's book.
Beauty (https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9hf), BBC Radio 4 discussion with Angie
Hobbs, Susan James & Julian Baggini (In Our Time, May 19, 2005)

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