Lienard-Wiechert Potentials II:

Fields of a Charge in Motion

ics
am
yn
od
tr
ec
El
& Shobhit Mahajan
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shobhit.mahajan@gmail.com
r
eo
Th
tic
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ag
om
tr
ec
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Version 1.0
Last modified on April 29, 2020
 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

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Chapter 1

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Lienard-Wiechert Potentials II: Fields of a

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Charge in Motion- Covariant Formulation

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Reading: Pages 661-664, J.D. Jackson, III Edition

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The material in this set of notes is on Pg 664 of Jackson. However, as usual, Jackson
covers this whole material in a few lines and states the final result. It is important that
you work out each and every step of the derivation to understand how the field strength
&
tensor is obtained. Since this material starts with assuming that you are already familiar
with the calculation of the Lienard-Wiechert potential due to a moving charge, please also
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review the material in the set of notes circulated last week on the topic.
r
eo
Th

1.1 Introduction
Let us take stock of what we have been doing in the last few sets of notes that have been circulated
since the University closed down.
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We first discussed motion of charged particles in various configurations of E and B fields and found
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the trajectories of the particle. We then moved on to preparing the ground for a discussion of the
production of radiation from charges.
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For this, we set up the potential formulation of electrodynamics since we wanted a covariant formu-
om

lation and we know that the formulation in terms of E and B, that is the usual Maxwell’s eqquations
that we are familiar with, is not covariant. We worked out the equations in both Lorenz and Coulomb
gauges. When we wrote the Maxwell’s equations in terms of the four potential Aµ we obtained the
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evolution equation for Aµ as well as the evolution equations for the scalar and vector potentials, φ and
A. To remind you, these equations were differential equations with the given sources, that is the given
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charge and current density, ρ and j which were also part of a current density four vector, J µ .
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To solve these equations, we introduced the method of Green functions along with Fourier trans-
forms. The Green function for a differential equation (or differential operator) is basically the solution
with a delta function source. Once we have the Green function, we can use Huygens principle or super-
position to obtain the solution for an arbitrary source. We obtained the Green function solution to the
evolution equation for the scalar potential, φ as well as for the vector potential A. This was obviously

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

a non-covariant formulation. We next found the covariant Green function for the evolution equation for
the four potential, Aµ . In this case, we found that we obtain two kinds of solutions- an advanced as well
as a retarded solution. Causality, that is the principle that the cause for any event happens before the
event itself, made us reject the advanced solution and so we were finally left with the retarded solution

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to Aµ . The retarded solution is non-vanishing only on the backward lightcone of the field point. This
follows from the requirement that the effect of the charge is transmitted to the field point at the speed

am
of light.

Once we have the retarded solutions to the evolution equation for Aµ , we then discussed the case

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of a charge in motion. In this case, we obtained the potential solutions, both in a covariant and non-
covariant fashion. These solutions are called the Lienard-Wiechert potentials. We are thus now at a

od
point where we have the potentials due to a charge in motion. What we want to determine are the
fields produced by such a charge since we are interested in the radiation produced. This set of notes
discusses how to obtain the electric and magnetic fields at a field point due to a point

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charge in motion.

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1.2 Field Strength Tensor
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Although we have computed the retarded potential due to a moving point charge, we are ultimately
interested in the fields. We can of course do this directly from the expressions for φ (Eq(1.1)) and
A (Eq(1.2)) which we had obtained in the previous set of notes on Lienard-Wiechert potentials for a
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charge in motion.
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R qu0 (τ )
  
qγc
 
q

Th

0
A =φ= α = = (1.1)
u (xα − rα (τ )) τ =τ0 γcR(1 − β · n̂) ret R(1 − β · n̂) ret

and similarly,
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R
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qβ
A= (1.2)
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R(1 − β · n̂) ret

Recall that both E and B can be expressed in terms of the scalar and vector potentials as
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1 ∂A
E = −∇φ −
c ∂t
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and
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B =∇×A
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However, it is much simpler to start with the covariant form of the four potential. We have already
seen this in the notes on Lienard-Wiechert potentials Part I. To remind you, we have,

R µ α
A (x ) =
4π
c

4 0 α
d x DR (R )J (x ) =
4π
c
µ 0

d4 x0 DR (xα − x0α )J µ (x0 ) (1.3)

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

where DR (Rα ) is the retarded Green function

R DR (Rα ) = Θ(R0 )
1
4πR
1
δ(x0 − x00 − R) = Θ(x0 − x00 ) δ(|xα − x0α |2 ))
2π
(1.4)

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Using these definitions, and the definition of J µ for a point charge in motion, that is


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µ
J (x, t) = c dτ qδ 4 (xα − x0α (τ ))uµ (τ ) (1.5)

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we see that

4π

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µ α
A (x ) = d4 x0 DR (xα − x0α )J µ (x0 )
c
 
1

tr
= 4πq dτ d4 x0 Θ(x0 − x00 ) δ(|xα − x0α |2 ))uµ (τ )δ 4 (x0α − rα (τ ))
2π
 

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4 0
= 2q dx dτ Θ(x0 − x00 )δ(|xα − x0α |2 ))uµ (τ )δ 4 (x0α − rα (τ ))


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= 2q dτ uµ (τ )Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ) (1.6)
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Remember that here, xα is the field point, τ is the proper time of the charge in motion
whose trajectory is given by r(τ ) and uµ is the four velocity of the charge. The Θ function
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ensures causality, that is the time at the field point, x0 is later than the time at the source
r
or charge, r0 (τ ). The delta function imposes the light cone condition since it is only non-
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zero when its argument is zero which is on the light cone.

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To find the fields, we need the field strength tensor F µν since we know that its components give us
the components of the electric and magnetic fields.
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 
0 −E 1 −E 2 −E 3
 E1 0 −B 3 B 2 
F µν = 
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2 3
 (1.7)
 E B 0 −B 1 
E3 B2 B1 0
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µν
Thus we need to find the field strength tensor, F which recall, in terms of the four potential is
given by
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F µν = ∂ µ Aν − ∂ ν Aµ (1.8)
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Let us start with the first term in Eq(1.8). Substituting the expression for Aµ from Eq(1.6), we have

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∂ A = 2q dτ uν (τ )∂ µ Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )

µ ν
 
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dτ uν (τ ) (∂ µ Θ(x0 − r0 (τ )))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ) + Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))(∂ µ δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ))
 
= 2q

dτ uν (τ ) δ(x0 − r0 (τ ))∂ µ (x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ) + Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))(∂ µ δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ))
 
= 2q
(1.9)

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

where we have used the fact that u(τ ) is not a function of the field coordinates and that

dΘ(x)
= δ(x)
dx

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To see this, consider the integral
z 

am

dΘ(x)
− δ(x) dx
dx
−z

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We know that the Θ function is only non-zero for positive arguments. We also know that the delta
function is normalized to 1 provided the integration region includes the point where it is non-zero. Thus

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we have
z 

tr

dΘ(x)
− δ(x) dx = Θ(z) − Θ(−z) − 1 = 1 − 0 − 1 = 0
dx

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−z

Since this is true for any z, it must be that the integrand vanishes and we have

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dΘ(x)
= δ(x)
dx &
Now notice that in Eq(1.9) the first integral is constrained to get contribution only from x0 −r0 (τ ) = 0
y
because of the delta function. But
r

(x0 − r0 (τ ))2 − (x − r(τ ))2 = 0

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because of the light cone condition imposed by the delta function, δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ). Hence the delta
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function forces contribution only from |x − r(τ0 )| = R = 0 which we can ignore. This is
because the point R = 0 means that the field point is at the source itself and thus it is
the contribution from the source at the source itself which is not relevant. If we exclude the
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point R = 0, we are left with


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µ ν
∂ A = 2q dτ uν (τ )Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))(∂ µ δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )) (1.10)

The partial derivative acting on the delta function can be written as (denoting f (τ ) = |xα − rα (τ )|2 )
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dδ dτ dδ[f (τ )] µ
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∂ µ δ[f (τ )] = ∂ µ f (τ ) = ∂ f (τ ) (1.11)
df (τ ) df (τ ) dτ
Now
tr

∂ µ f (τ ) = ∂ µ [(xα − rα (τ ))(xα − rα (τ ))]

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= ∂ µ (xα − rα (τ ))η αβ (xβ − rβ (τ ))

 
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= η αβ [δ µ α (xβ − rβ (τ )) + δ µ β (xα − rα (τ ))]

= (xµ − rµ (τ )) + (xµ − rµ (τ ))
= 2(xµ − rµ (τ )) (1.12)

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

Next we have
df (τ ) d
= [(xα − rα (τ ))(xα − rα (τ ))]
dτ dτ
drα (τ )

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= −2(xα − rα (τ ))
dτ
= −2(xα − rα (τ ))uα (1.13)

am
since
drα (τ )
= uα

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dτ
Putting it all together, we thus have

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µ α α 2 µ µ −1 dδ[f (τ )]
∂ δ(|x − r (τ )| ) = 2(x − r (τ ))
2(xα − rα (τ ))uα

tr
dτ
(xµ − rµ (τ )) dδ[f (τ )]

ec
= − α (1.14)
u (xα − rα (τ )) dτ

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We are now ready to substitute this into our equation for Aµ (Eq(1.10))

µ ν ν 0 0 (xµ − rµ (τ )) dδ[f (τ )]
∂ A = −2q dτ u (τ )Θ(x − r (τ )) α &
u (xα − rα (τ )) dτ
(1.15)

This is now in the form where an integration by parts can be performed.

r y
(xµ − rµ (τ ))
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∂ µ Aν = − 2quν (τ )Θ(x0 − r0 (τ )) α δ[f (τ )]

u (xα − rα (τ ))
 (1.16)
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(xµ − rµ (τ ))
 
d ν 0 0
+ 2q dτ u (τ )Θ(x − r (τ )) α δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )
dτ u (xα − rα (τ ))
Remember that the first term after the integration by parts has to be evaluated at the boundary,
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which in our case is at infinity. As always, we assume that the boundary terms go to zero and hence
the first term in Eq(1.16) vanishes at the boundary. So we are left with the second term. We thus have

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(xµ − rµ (τ ))
 
µ ν d ν 0 0
∂ A = 2q dτ u (τ )Θ(x − r (τ )) α δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )
dτ u (xα − rα (τ ))
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d (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν
 
= 2q dτ Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )
dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))
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  (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν
d 
+ 2q dτ Θ(x0 − r0 (τ )) α δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 )
dτ u (xα − rα (τ ))

tr

d (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν
 
= 2q dτ Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ) (1.17)
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dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))
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where the derivative of the theta function gives a delta function which because of the light cone
condition imposed by the delta function, as we have seen above, only contributes at R = 0 and hence
can be neglected.

Notice that now we have the integration on the lightcone as we saw in the notes on Lienard-Wiechert
potentials Part I, (Eq(1.9)), where we had

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics


µ α
A (x ) = 2q dτ uµ (τ )Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ))

We did this integration and got,

ics


am
A (x ) = 2q dτ uµ (τ )Θ(x0 − r0 (τ ))δ(|xα − rα (τ )|2 ))
µ α

 
µ 1
= qu (τ ) α (1.18)

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u (xα − rα (τ )) τ =τ0

Notice that this integral and that in Eq(1.17) are identical if we just replace

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d (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν
 
µ
u →

tr
dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))

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and so we get finally
(xµ − rµ (τ ))uν
 
µ ν q d

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∂ A = β (1.19)
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))
The expression for ∂ ν Aµ is easily obtained by the substitution of µ ←→ ν in Eq(1.19).
&
(xν − rν (τ ))uµ
 
q d
y
ν µ
∂ A = β (1.20)
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))
r
eo

Knowing both ∂ µ Aν and ∂ ν Aµ , we can just write down the field strength tensor as

R
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d (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν − (xν − rν (τ ))uµ

 
µν q
F = β (1.21)
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) dτ uα (xα − rα (τ ))

where it is understood that everything has to be evaluated at the retarded proper time τ0 .
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The expression for the field strength is manifestly covariant since it is written in terms of Lorentz
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scalars and four vectors. However, what we are interested in are the fields which are components of
the field strength tensor. We would also like to have the fields as explicit functions of the charge’s
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parameters like velocity and acceleration since these are quantities which we would know.
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We need
d α d α duα
((xα − rα (τ ))u ) = (xα − rα (τ ))u + (xα − rα (τ ))
tr

dτ dτ dτ
α duα
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= −uα u + (xα − rα (τ ))
dτ
α
du
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= −c2 + (xα − rα (τ )) (1.22)

dτ
where we have used the fact that xα , the field coordinates, do not depend on τ which
recall is the proper time of the source particle and

uα uα = c2

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 Shobhit Mahajan Electromagnetic Theory & Electrodynamics

where

drµ (τ )
uµ =
dτ

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is the four velocity of the charge.
We can now perform the differentiation in Eq(1.21). We have

am
ν
uβ (xβ − rβ (τ )) −uµ uν + (xµ − rµ (τ )) du

d (xµ − rµ (τ ))uν − (xν − rν (τ ))uµ
 
dτ
=
dτ uα (xα − rα (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2

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µ
uβ (xβ − rβ (τ )) uν uµ − (xν − rν (τ )) du

dτ
+
(uα (xα − rα (τ )))2

od
h i
µ µ ν ν ν µ 2 duβ
[(x − r (τ ))u − (x − r (τ ))u ] −c + dτ (xβ − rβ (t))
−

tr
(uα (xα − rα (τ )))2
(1.23)

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Notice that the uµ uν terms will cancel out. We want to separate out the terms which depend on the

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velocity from those that depend on the acceleration. So we write Eq(1.21) using Eq(1.23) as
duν ρ
  
q 1 ν du
F µν
= β
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2
µ µ
& ρ
(x − r (τ )) u (xρ − rρ (τ ))
dτ
−u
dτ
(xρ − rρ (t))
q 1
y
− β {µ ←→ ν}
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (u (xα − rα (τ )))2
α
r

q 1
eo

 2 µ µ ν

+ β c (x − r (τ ))u − µ ←→ ν (1.24)
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2
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Writing it out explicitly, we have

R
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Field Strength Tensor due to a charge in motion

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duν ρ
  
q 1 ν du
F µν = β µ µ ρ
(x − r (τ )) u (xρ − rρ (τ )) −u (xρ − rρ (t))
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2 dτ dτ
ag

duµ ρ
  
q 1 ν ν ρ µ du
− β (x − r (τ )) u (xρ − rρ (τ )) −u (xρ − rρ (t))
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2 dτ dτ
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q 1  2 µ µ ν 2 ν ν µ

+ β c (x − r (τ ))u − c (x − r (τ ))u (1.25)
u (xβ − rβ (τ )) (uα (xα − rα (τ )))2
tr
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Please remember that the quantities have to be evaluated at the retarded proper time
τ0 . This is the field strength due to a point charge in motion. We have the field strength tensor in
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terms of the particle’s velocity and acceleration. Notice that the first two terms depend on the
particle’s acceleration and velocity but the third term is only dependent on the particle’s
velocity. The field strength tensor written in this form will allow us to look at various situations
(particle moving with uniform velocity for instance) and find the electric and magnetic fields. We shall
be doing this in the next few set of notes.