Educational Media International, 2013

Vol. 50, No. 3, 149–161, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2013.839152

Approaching science by watching TV: what do entertainment

programs contribute to viewers’ competence in genetic
engineering?
Carina Weinmann*, Charlotte Löb, Tamara Mattheiß and Peter Vorderer*

Department of Media and Communication Studies, University of Mannheim, Mannheim,

Germany
(Received 19 April 2013; final version received 24 July 2013)

This study examined the potential of entertainment-education (E-E) for

promoting engagement with a science issue. It was assumed that certain enter-
taining features of a media experience increase viewers’ perceived knowledge
about an issue. Drawing on different theoretical models of E-E and on persuasive
effects of narrative media messages, three hypotheses and one research question
were assessed in a survey among 103 participants, who were shown a movie
about genetic engineering beforehand. Results suggested that the higher viewers’
transportation, identification, and enjoyment were, the more they actually felt
informed. Viewers’ degree of transportation, though, revealed to be sufficient to
explain their perceived knowledge.
Keywords: entertainment-education; perceived knowledge; path model; genetic
engineering

Interest in science is widespread among European citizens. According to a recent

survey by the European Commission (2010), nearly 80% of the Europeans are either
very or moderately interested in scientific and technological processes and develop-
ments. However, only 11% of respondents regard themselves as well informed about
science and technology. Accordingly, the majority of respondents assume that scien-
tists fail in informing the public about their work and demand for better information
about science. Moreover, the survey revealed a rather skeptical attitude toward the
scientific sphere, for example, people assume that scientists cannot be trusted
because they depend on the industry. Empirical communication research underpins
these findings. Studies revealed that compared to the USA or China, for example,
Europeans hold a critical view toward science, especially toward emerging technolo-
gies like biotechnology or genetic engineering (e.g. Knight, 2008; Lü, 2009; Midden
et al., 2002).
For decades, researchers have examined the relationship between science and the
public, referred to as research about the public understanding of science (PUS) or
scientific literacy, respectively (e.g. Bauer, Allum, & Miller, 2007; DeBoer, 2000;
Miller, 2004). This approach’s basic aim is to inform and educate the public about
scientific issues (e.g. Thomas & Durant, 1987). Besides educational efforts in
schools and universities, “informal science educators” (Miller, 2004, p. 291) such as

*Corresponding authors. Email: c.weinmann@uni-mannheim.de; vorderer@gmail.com

© 2013 International Council for Educational Media

150 C. Weinmann et al.

mass media professionals are regarded as key actors in fostering people’s scientific
literacy and thus their engagement in scientific processes and decisions. This issue
seems to be of importance not only for researchers but also for scientists: In a survey
of 1354 researchers in the USA, Japan, Germany, France, and the UK, Peters et al.
(2008) found that more than 90% named the improvement of research’s image
among and the education of the public as important motivations for their interaction
with the mass media; these are precisely the two aspects which – according to the
European Commission study (2010) – seem to be lacking within the European popu-
lation. As there is also slight empirical evidence that traditional media, that is, news-
papers, fail to achieve the mentioned goals in the case of biotechnology (Samani,
Amin, & Rezali, 2011), we suggest to rely on entertainment media as an alternative.
This addresses the field of entertainment-education (E-E) research. E-E is a com-
munication strategy which aims at influencing the audience’s knowledge, attitudes,
and behavior by implementing a specific message in an entertaining format, such as
a soap opera or a movie (e.g. Singhal & Rogers, 2001). In recent years, E-E has pro-
ven to be effective in various contexts (cf. Singhal, Cody, Rogers, & Sabido, 2004).
While there is a growing body of literature about the success of E-E interventions
concerning health issues, however, E-E researchers have rarely dealt with science
communication. Furthermore, the relationships between different predictors for E-E
effects have only rarely been examined so far (cf. e.g. Moyer-Gusé, 2008). Thus,
this article addresses the following question: To what extent and in which way can
E-E contribute to laypersons’ perceived knowledge about scientific issues?
Building on social cognitive theory, persuasive effects of narrative media
messages, as well as on different theoretical models of E-E, we devised three hypoth-
eses to be tested and posed one research question to be answered. To identify and to
assess the potential and characteristics of the E-E strategy within the field of science
communication, we conducted a survey among 103 undergraduate students after they
had watched an episode of the German drama series Tatort (called “Auskreuzung”,
German for “Cross-Pollination”), which focused on genetic engineering.

E-E strategy: status quo and theoretical background

Previous campaigns, current and future perspectives
E-E as a distinct program has its roots in developing countries, where it was mainly
implemented to propagate ethical values and social norms or to improve health stan-
dards. Most notably, this was achieved through telenovelas and soap operas on radio
or television (e.g. Papa et al., 2000; Rogers et al., 1999; Singhal, Rogers, & Brown,
1993; Vaughan, Regis, & St. Catherine, 2000). Subsequently, E-E became more and
more prominent in the USA as well, especially concerning health and nutrition
issues (e.g. Murphy, Frank, Moran, & Patnoe-Woodley, 2011; Peng, 2009; Ritterfeld
& Jin, 2006; Wilkin et al., 2007). Many of these campaigns were designed and
supported by the Hollywood, Health & Society program at The Norman Lear Center
of the University of Southern California’s Annenberg School of Communication,
through which E-E has become an integral part of numerous TV series such as
Grey’s Anatomy, House or Law & Order (Hollywood, Health & Society, 2011).
By contrast, in Germany, E-E is a rather unknown strategy, concerning both prac-
tical implementations and scientific research. One exception is a study conducted by
Arendt (2010) about the series Lazy Town and its potential to prevent children from
negative nutrition behavior. Moreover, the so-called MINTiFF-project, placed at the
 Educational Media International 151

Technical University of Berlin and supported by the German Federal Ministry of

Education and Research, aims at boosting the popularity of scientific and technical
careers. The Tatort episode “Auskreuzung”, which we used in our study (see above),
was produced within this project with the explicit objective to deploy a scientific E-E
message (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2011, pp. 87−88).
There are numerous factors to be considered when designing and implementing
an E-E message, for example, to consider ethical norms and the specific cultural
background (e.g. Bandura, 2004; Lubjuhn & Bouman, 2009) and to use a multime-
dia strategy for reaching a wide audience (e.g. Lampert, 2003; Larson, 2009; Sherry,
2002; Singhal & Rogers, 2001). From a more theoretical viewpoint and presumably
most important for communication scholars, there are at least two crucial factors:
First, in order to monitor and to improve an E-E campaign’s success, several evalua-
tion processes should be executed; while planning it (“formative research”) as well
as during and after the campaign’s implementation (“summative research”) (Lubjuhn
& Reinermann, 2010; Singhal & Rogers, 2001). Second, developing an E-E mes-
sage demands a profound theoretical basis, integrating different theoretical concepts
(Singhal & Rogers, 2001, 2002). Our study belongs to the field of summative
research on E-E interventions on the one hand, while further investigating the
theoretical background on the other hand.

Dependent variables: goals of E-E and scientific literacy research

The basic goals of an E-E intervention are to influence people’s knowledge, atti-
tudes, and behavior (e.g. Singhal & Rogers, 2001). Increasing people’s knowledge
is also the main goal of the approach which addresses the promotion of people’s
PUS or scientific literacy, respectively (e.g. Bauer et al., 2007; DeBoer, 2000; Miller,
2004). There are numerous, partly contradicting definitions of the concept “scientific
literacy” and its related goals (cf. e.g. Laugksch, 2000; Miller, 1983). They have in
common, however, that “[s]cientific literacy defines what the public should know
about science in order to live more effectively with respect to the natural world”
(DeBoer, 2000, p. 594). More precisely, to be “scientifically literate is not to be
expert in anything in particular, but rather to be able to deal effectively with matters
scientific as they arise in the course of life” (Thomas & Durant, 1987, p. 13). Thus,
the basic and preceding aim is to increase the public’s knowledge about scientific
issues. The most frequently named benefit is that well-informed citizens are able to
participate and engage in the political decision-making process, thus guaranteeing
for a healthy and profound democracy (Thomas & Durant, 1987).
However, there are at least two different forms of knowledge, one being presum-
ably more influential than the other. As Powell and Kleinman (2008) outline in their
study about citizen’s participation in nanotechnology debates, “it does not necessar-
ily follow that knowledge about the content and methods of science will motivate
people to participate in scientific and technological policy decisions” (pp. 332–333).
Rather, they argue people’s perceived knowledge, that is, what they think to know,
influences their willingness to participate in political decision-making. In fact, there
is empirical evidence that perceived knowledge differs from factual knowledge and
that perceived knowledge could actually be more influential on people’s decisions
(e.g. Ellen, 1994; Frewer, Shepherd, & Sparks, 1994; Knight, 2005). Therefore,
rather than focusing on people’s actual knowledge, we ask about their perceived
knowledge.
152 C. Weinmann et al.

Independent variables: combining theoretical concepts and models

Starting as a rather practical matter, the E-E approach later received theoretical
support mainly by applying Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory (SCT) (cf. e.g.
Singhal & Rogers, 2001; Slater, 2002). This theory assumes that people gain
knowledge and plan their behavior by observing others, that is, role models, in their
social environment (Bandura, 1977, 1989; Bandura & Walters, 1969). As also
explained by Bandura (2004), E-E is regarded as a strategy which connects and
applies the components and assumptions proposed by SCT. Mass media actors
thereby serve as role models for viewers, offering the possibility of individual and
social change. Ideally, media models should conform to “vicarious motivators”
(Bandura, 2004, p. 84), displaying the benefits deriving from a specific behavior.
With regard to the viewers, Bandura stresses their “attentional involvement” (2004,
p. 84) as being crucial to extend an E-E message’s impact. Beyond these, Bandura’s
remarks on an E-E message’s presentation and its processing through the audience
are rather scarce. Nevertheless, they can be regarded as presuppositions for further
efforts made by several scholars who seek to underpin E-E theoretically.
According to Slater (2002), SCT cannot sufficiently explain E-E effects. Rather,
persuasion theory has to be added for a more complex understanding, as
persuasion is the main goal of E-E anyway. Thus, Slater’s aim is to integrate both
theories to explain persuasive effects of “entertainment narratives” (Slater, 2002,
p. 166). As he states, embedding an E-E message in a narrative structure should
help foster persuasive means of communicators, under which he subsumes behav-
ior as well as attitude change. According to Slater, narrative media formats often
reach large audiences, raise attention, and evoke interpersonal discussions, thus set-
ting the specific topic on the public agenda (Slater, 2002, pp. 167–168). Further-
more, such formats’ narratives enable producers to develop and viewers to observe
favorable attitudes and behaviors directly on screen. Another positive feature of
narrative messages is outlined by the so-called extended elaboration likelihood
model (E-ELM). It basically relies on the ELM which deals with the processing of
non-narrative persuasive messages (Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). In contrast to infor-
mative messages occurring in news programs, for example, persuasive messages in
fictional formats do not need to impinge on the viewer to be effective. Rather,
narrative E-E messages can much more implicitly influence viewers’ attitudes in
the intended way; especially by reducing any kind of counter arguing through a
viewer’s distraction while following a narrative (Slater, 2002, pp. 173–175; Slater
& Rouner, 2002).
Similar to Bandura’s argument of “attentional involvement”, the E-ELM explains
the extent to which viewers actually follow an implicit E-E message by referring to
the concept of transportation established by Green and Brock (2000): A viewer’s
participation in the narrative and his or her feeling of being absorbed in a storyline
is the premise for its persuasive means to take effect. This theoretical argument is in
line with the findings of Murphy et al. (2011): In their study about an E-E message
in the US series Desperate Housewives, they found transportation to be the strongest
predictor of increased knowledge about the specific topic (pp. 423–424). Due to
these assumptions and results, we state the following hypothesis:

H1: The higher the viewers’ degree of transportation, the greater their perceived
knowledge about the issue of the narrative.
 Educational Media International 153

Viewers’ transportation, in turn, is closely linked to their identification with a media

character. According to Cohen (2001) “identification is a mechanism through which
audience members experience reception and interpretation of the text from the
inside, as if the events were happening to them” (p. 245), which means that a viewer
feels somewhat as if they were the media character while following the storyline.
This aspect is also mentioned by SCT: Bandura (2004) assumes that, when a model
observed in the mass media is similar to the observer and when he or she succeeds
in his or her actions, social modeling can increase the observer’s self-efficacy. An
individual’s self-efficacy in turn is found to be closely linked to his or her perceived
knowledge (cf. e.g. Djuricich, Ciccarelli & Swigonski, 2004; Egbert & Parrott,
2001; Goh, Primavera, & Bartalini, 1996). Although Bandura refers to perceived
similarity rather than to identification as explained above, there is indeed empirical
evidence which suggests that identification leads to increased knowledge when
watching E-E messages (Wilkin et al., 2007). In line with these insights, we suggest
the following hypotheses:

H2: The higher the viewers’ degree of identification with the main character, the
greater their perceived knowledge about the issue of the narrative.

Further factors influencing an E-E message’s effect are mentioned by Moyer-Gusé

(2008), who developed the so-called entertainment overcoming resistance model
(EOLM), which is based on SCT and the E-ELM. Similar to the E-ELM, this model
assumes that through their narrative structure, E-E programs obscure their persuasive
means. More precisely, various entertainment features account for reducing viewers’
resistance against the persuasiveness of a media message. Thereby, attitudes and
behaviors conveyed through a storyline should be more successful. Among the
entertainment features that Moyer-Gusé takes in account are transportation and
identification, which fosters our first and second hypothesis. Another feature is
enjoyment, which can be described as an individual’s feeling of pleasure while
consuming a media product, and which elsewhere has been identified as the “core”
of the entertainment experience (cf. e.g. Bosshart & Macconi, 1998; Vorderer,
Klimmt, & Ritterfeld, 2004). Thus, we state as our third hypothesis:

H3: The higher the viewers’ degree of enjoyment, the greater their perceived
knowledge about the issue of the narrative.

Besides exploring the predictive value of these three variables individually, we aim
to explore the relationships between identification, transportation, and enjoyment, as
well as their respective connections to viewers’ perceived knowledge, that is,
whether their influences on people’s perceived knowledge are direct, indirect, or
even irrelevant compared to the other ones. At least theoretically, there are sugges-
tions that they are closely linked or even part of one another (cf. e.g. Vorderer et al.,
2004). In line with this, Moyer-Gusé (2008) calls for further research to explore the
extent to which the two concepts of transportation and identification overlap and
what this implies for E-E effects. We therefore pose the following research question:

RQ: How are transportation, identification, enjoyment, and perceived knowledge

related to each other?
154 C. Weinmann et al.

Method
To test our hypotheses and to answer our research question, we conducted a survey
among 111 undergraduate students after having shown them a movie about genetic
engineering. The survey was conducted on 21 September 2011 within an
introductory lecture of Media and Communication Studies at a mid-size university
in Germany.

Material
Participants were shown a full episode of the German serial film format Tatort
(Crime Scene), which is usually aired in Germany on Sundays at primetime and
regularly reaches about eight million viewers (Rundfunk, 2012). The series is known
for dealing with socially relevant issues, and it often combines entertainment
with insights into the respective topic (Hickethier, 2010). We fell back on the epi-
sode “Auskreuzung” (“Cross-Pollination”) which dealt with the topic of genetic
engineering. This episode is a special one insofar as it was produced with scientific
support and the explicit intention of implementing an E-E message about genetic
engineering (Federal Ministry of Education and Research, 2011, pp. 87–88) and
therefore offered an excellent opportunity to check for E-E effects within science
communication.

Participants and procedure

The movie was presented on an evening in a large, dimmed lecture auditorium.
Participants were allowed to eat and drink in order to establish an atmosphere that
was as similar as possible to a situation of watching a movie in a cinema. At the
beginning, all participants were welcomed and introduced to the session by the
investigators. After watching the Tatort episode, all participants filled out a
questionnaire containing the concepts of interest, namely enjoyment, transportation,
identification, and perceived knowledge, as well as several questions concerning
their socio-demographic data.

Measures
To measure the independent variables of our hypotheses, three different scales were
used. For each, participants were asked to respond to the items on a seven-point
Likert scale ranging from 1 (“Applies not at all”) to 7 (“Applies completely”).
Participants’ transportation into the story was measured by a version of the transpor-
tation scale designed and tested by Green and Brock (2000, p. 704). We selected
eight of the twelve items suggested by the authors, translated, and adjusted them to
the context of our study.1 This shortened version of the transportation scale had an
acceptable internal reliability, Cronbach’s alpha (α = .75). As a measure of identifi-
cation, we translated the 10-item scale suggested by Cohen (2001, p. 256) which
showed a high internal reliability, Cronbach’s alpha (α = .88). Enjoyment can be
understood as a construct consisting of two dimensions: pleasure and comprehension
(cf. e.g. Vorderer & Ritterfeld, 2009). Our operationalization of this construct was
based on a 12-item scale developed by Oliver and Bartsch (2010, p. 63). Our scale,
which is a German translation of the original version, had a high internal reliability,
 Educational Media International 155

Cronbach’s alpha (α = .89). The construct of perceived knowledge, which served

both as the dependent variable of our hypotheses, was measured based on a nine-
item scale designed by (for the items see Appendix 1) Mattheiß et al. (2013). The
internal reliability, Cronbach’s alpha (α = .76), was satisfying.
Beside these measures, we used a set of different control variables. We therefore
collected data about participants’ need for cognition and social desirability as well
as socio-demographic data (age, sex, and native language). We used Bless, Wänke,
Bohner, Fellhauer, and Schwarz (1994) need for cognition scale, which is measured
on a seven-point Likert scale and corresponds with the original scale designed by
Cacioppo and Petty (1982). Furthermore, we added 10 out of 17 items of the social
desirability scale by Stöber (2001) to our questionnaire. The excluded items did not
correspond with the topic of this study. Participants could answer these items by
choosing between the options “Does apply” and “Does not apply”.
Applying multiple regressions, we checked for possible influences of these addi-
tional variables on the dependent variable perceived knowledge. We found a posi-
tive, significant influence of the need for cognition on the perceived knowledge
( β = .21, t(97) = 2.02, p = .046 with F(5, 97) = 1.14, p = ns, Adj. R2 = .01).

Results
The student sample recruited for this study consisted of 103 participants.2 The age
of participants was on average 21 years (M = 20.93, SD = 5.17), and the majority
of them were female (77.7%) and native speakers (94.2%), which is typical for the
subject Media and Communication Science at this university.
Turning to our hypotheses, we conducted linear regression analyses. In accor-
dance with our assumption stated by hypothesis 1, we found positive influences of
viewer’s degree of transportation on their perceived knowledge, β = .36, t(101) =
3.88, p = .000 with F(1, 101) = 15.05, p = .000, Adj. R2 = .12. As predicted by
hypothesis 2, there were positive influences of viewers’ degree of identification on
their feeling of being informed by the respective Tatort episode, β = .31, t(101) =
3.23, p = .002 with F(1, 101) = 10.44, p = .002, Adj. R2 = .09. Hypothesis 3
assumed that a higher degree of enjoyment goes along with a higher degree of per-
ceived knowledge. Indeed, we found positive influences of viewers’ enjoyment on
their perceived knowledge, β = .28, t(101) = 2.94, p = .004 with F(1, 101) = 8.67,
p = .004, Adj. R2 = .07 (the regression tables are provided in Appendix 2).
To answer our research question, we used path analysis and tested various mod-
els. Figure 1 shows the model which fits the data best, χ² = 3.13, df = 3, p = .35,
CFI = 1.00, TLI = .99, RMSEA = .03. According to this, we can state that enjoy-
ment significantly predicts transportation ( β = .70, p < .001). Transportation, in turn,
significantly predicts perceived knowledge ( β = .36, p < .001) as well as identifica-
tion ( β = .52, p < .001). Identification, though, is not related to perceived knowledge
when enjoyment and transportation are considered as well (in contrast to identifica-
tion alone as stated by hypothesis 1).
Thus, supporting our hypotheses, we conclude that, when regarded individually,
viewers’ degrees of transportation, identification, and enjoyment positively and
significantly predict their perceived knowledge. When the three variables are
considered together, though, only transportation remains as a significant direct
predictor of viewers’ perceived knowledge.
156 C. Weinmann et al.

,70*** ,36*** Perceived

Enjoyment Transportation
Knowledge

,52***

Identification

Figure 1. Path model for perceived knowledge, identification, transportation, and enjoyment
(standardized coefficients).
Note: N = 103; ***p < .001.

Discussion
The overarching question of this study was as follows: To what extent and in which
way does E-E contribute to laypersons’ perceived knowledge about scientific issues?
We showed that the Tatort episode, which was produced with the explicit intention
to educate people about a scientific issue, made participants feel relatively well
informed (M = 4.46 on a seven-point Likert scale). Moreover, the episode’s enter-
taining features were indeed positively associated with people’s scientific knowl-
edge, at least the knowledge they thought they had. As mentioned above, this kind
of knowledge has shown to be more important concerning people’s behavior (e.g.
Ellen, 1994; Frewer et al., 1994; Knight, 2005). The implemented entertainment-
education strategy thus revealed to be successful in this regard. Hence, E-E can
serve as a practical application of the basic goal set by the research about scientific
literacy, that is, to contribute to laypersons’ perceived knowledge about scientific
issues, providing them with the ability to integrate them in their daily lives (Thomas
& Durant, 1987). As a practical consequence, we therefore suggest to convey scien-
tific information more often via entertainment media instead of relying exclusively
on more informative media formats and genres, for example, newspaper articles
about scientific issues or TV interviews with researchers.
Theoretically, our study supports previous empirical insights as well as specific
parts of the “entertainment overcoming resistance model” (EOLM) suggested by
Moyer-Gusé (2008). We found that at least three elements of entertainment – enjoy-
ment, transportation, and identification – overcome viewers’ assumed resistance
against the E-E message, at least insofar that they obviously followed it and actually
felt informed by it. In addition, our results contribute to the ongoing theoretical
debate in stating that the concept of transportation is sufficient to explain at least
viewers’ degree of perceived knowledge as one possible E-E effect. Nevertheless,
this is probably merely the first step of an E-E campaign. Hence, further research
should examine whether and via which processes a media products’ entertaining
features can lead to one of the outcomes predicted by the EOLM, that is, a behavior
that meets the respective storyline’s message (Moyer-Gusé, 2008, p. 415). Moreover,
the time span in which this outcome arises and how long it then persists demands
further investigation.
The finding that a media product’s entertaining features lead to greater perceived
knowledge, however, is in line with recent developments in entertainment theory,
 Educational Media International 157

which devise a second aspect of entertainment besides enjoyment. This aspect is

named appreciation (e.g. Oliver & Bartsch, 2010) or eudaimonic in contrast to hedo-
nic entertainment experience (e.g. Vorderer & Reinecke, 2012; Wirth, Hofer, &
Schramm, 2012) and draws, in contrast to the merely emotional dimension, on the
cognitive processing of the audience. In the case of appreciation, it is defined as
“the quality or perceived artistic value of the media content under consideration”
(Oliver & Bartsch, 2010, p. 56). Of course, we did not measure this cognitive
dimension of media entertainment in our study. Nevertheless, attesting that a given
media content has a high quality can be regarded as related to a viewer’s assessment
that he or she has been able to learn something from it. Thereby, our findings
support the assumption that not only enjoyment (hedonic experience) but also
appreciation (eudaimonic experience) is an integral part of media entertainment.
Lastly, there are at least two limitations or important aspects, respectively, which
have to be outlined. As described above, our results are based on a student sample
only. We therefore have to question the validity of the results with respect to the
society as a whole. Moreover, we again emphasize that people’s perceived knowl-
edge should not be mistaken for actual knowledge gain. As for example, Fahr
(2008) argues people feeling well informed about an issue could objectively have
not learned much about it and vice versa. Hence, it remains open whether and if
yes, through which processes the feeling of being informed leads to greater knowl-
edge about an issue or not. Further research should address this point, not only
because of its theoretical relevance. Although actual knowledge might be less influ-
ential on people’s decisions, it is surely an important concern of both entertainment-
education and scientific literacy research to really inform people about specific
issues.

Notes
1. Since the transportation scale was originally constructed for reading experiences, items 1
and 3 were not suitable for our study. Furthermore, the items 5 and 11 can not be
answered directly after the viewing.
2. Originally, the sample consisted of 111 participants. Eight of them were removed due to
missing data.

References
Arendt, K. (2010). Kann Fernsehen zu besserem Essen verführen? Zur Wirksamkeit von
Entertainment-Education-Maßnahmen für Kinder am Beispiel der Kinderserie LazyTown
[Can television lead to better eating? On the effectiveness of entertainment-education
actions for children using the children’s series LazyTown as an example]. Televizion, 23,
28–31.
Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Bandura, A. (1989). Human agency in social cognitive theory. American Psychologist, 44,
1175–1184. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.44.9.1175
Bandura, A. (2004). Social cognitive theory for personal and social change enabling media.
In A. Singhal, M. J. Cody, E. M. Rogers, & M. Sabido (Eds.), Entertainment-education
and social change: History, research, and practice (pp. 75–96). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum.
Bandura, A., & Walters, R. H. (1969). Social learning and personality development. London:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Bauer, M. W., Allum, N., & Miller, S. (2007). What can we learn from 25 years of PUS
survey research? Liberating and expanding the agenda. Public Understanding of Science,
16, 79–95. doi:10.1177/0963662506071287
158 C. Weinmann et al.

Bayerischer Rundfunk, (Ed.). (2012). Tatort: Zahlen, Daten, Fakten [Crime Scene: Figures,
dates, facts]. Retrieved from http://www.daserste.de/tatort/beitrag_dyn~uid,5tcmwk8npm
vi6hxv~cm.asp
Bless, H., Wänke, M., Bohner, G., Fellhauer, R., & Schwarz, N. (1994). Need for Cognition:
Eine Skala zur Erfassung von Engagement und Freude bei Denkaufgaben [Need for
cognition: A scale measuring engagement and happiness in cognitive tasks]. Zeitschrift
für Sozialpsychologie, 25, 147–154.
Bosshart, L., & Macconi, I. (1998). Media entertainment. Communication Research Trends,
18, 3–6.
Cacioppo, J. T., & Petty, R. E. (1982). The need for cognition. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 42, 116–131.
Cohen, J. (2001). Defining identification: A theoretical look at the identification of audiences
with media characters. Mass Communication and Society, 4, 245–264. doi:10.1207/
S15327825MCS0403_01
DeBoer, G. E. (2000). Scientific literacy: Another look at its historical and contemporary
meanings and its relationship to science education reform. Journal of Research in Science
Teaching, 37, 582–601.
Djuricich, A. M., Ciccarelli, M. & Swigonski, N. L. (2004). A continuous quality improve-
ment curriculum for residents: Addressing core competency, improving systems.
Academic Medicine, 79(10). Retrieved from http://journals.lww.com/academicmedicine/
Fulltext/2004/10001/A_Continuous_Quality_Improvement_Curriculum_for.20.aspx
Egbert, N., & Parrott, R. (2001). Self-efficacy and rural women’s performance of breast and
cervical cancer detection practices. Journal of Health Communication, 6, 219–233.
doi:10.1080/108107301752384415
Ellen, P. S. (1994). Do we know what we need to know? Objective and subjective knowledge
effects on pro-ecological behaviors. Journal of Business Research, 30, 43–52.
doi:10.1016/0148-2963(94)90067-1
European Commission. (2010). Special Eurobarometer: Science and technology (No. 340).
European Commission.
Fahr, A. (2008). Politische Talkshows aus Zuschauersicht: Informiertheit und Unterhaltung
im Kontext der Politikvermittlung [Political talk shows from the audience’s perspective:
Subjective information and entertainment in the context of political communication].
München: Reinhard Fischer.
Federal Ministry of Education and Research (Ed.). (2011). STEM and equal opportunities in
TV drama formats. Proceedings of the 1st International MINTiFF-Conference 2010.
Bonn, Berlin, Germany. Retrieved from http://www.bmbf.de/pub/equal_opportuni-
ties_in_tvdrama_formats.pdf
Frewer, L. J., Shepherd, R., & Sparks, P. (1994). The interrelationship between perceived
knowledge, control and risk associated with a rage of food-related hazards targeted at the
individual, other people and society. Journal of Food Safety, 14, 19–40. doi:10.1111/
j.1745-4565.1994.tb00581.x
Goh, D. S., Primavera, C., & Bartalini, G. (1996). Risk behaviors, self-efficacy, and AIDS
prevention among adolescents. The Journal of Psychology, 130, 537–546. doi:10.1080/
00223980.1996.9915020
Green, M. C., & Brock, T. C. (2000). The role of transportation in the persuasiveness of pub-
lic narratives. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 701–721. doi:10.1037/
0022-3514.79.5.701
Hickethier, K. (2010, May 17). „“Tatort” und “Lindenstraße” als Spiegel der Gesellschaft
[“Crime Scene” and “Linden Street” as mirrors of society]. Aus Politik und
Zeitgeschichte, 12, 41–46. Retrieved from http://www.bpb.de/publikationen/CSCKB2,0,
Tatort_und_Lindenstra%DFe_als_Spiegel_der_Gesellschaft.html
Hollywood, Health & Society. (2011). Hollywood, Health & Society (Official website).
Retrieved from http://hollywoodhealthandsociety.org/
Knight, A. J. (2005). Differential aspects of perceived and objective knowledge measures on
perceptions of biotechnology. AgBioForum, 8, 221–227.
Knight, A. J. (2008). Perceptions, knowledge and ethical concerns with GM foods and the
GM process. Public Understanding of Science, 18, 177–188. doi:10.1177/0963662507
079375
 Educational Media International 159

Lampert, C. (2003). Gesundheitsförderung durch Unterhaltung? Zum Potenzial des

Entertainment-Education-Ansatzes für die Förderung des Gesundheitsbewusstseins [Health
promotion through entertainment? On the potential of the entertainment-education
approach for the promotion of health awareness]. Medien & Kommunikationswissenschaft,
51, 461–477. Retrieved from http://www.m-und-k.nomos.de/fileadmin/muk/doc/MuK_
03_03-4.pdf
Larson, D. L. (2009). Advancing entertainment education: Using the Rosie O’Donnell show
to recognize implementation strategies for saturated markets. Communication Theory, 19,
105–123. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2009.01337.x
Laugksch, R. C. (2000). Scientific literacy: A conceptual overview. Science Education, 84,
71–94. doi:10.1002/(SICI)1098-237X(200001)84:1<71:AID-SCE6>3.0.CO;2-C
Lü, L. (2009). The value of the use of biotechnology: Public views in China and Europe.
Public Understanding of Science, 18, 481–492. doi:10.1177/0963662507082892
Lubjuhn, S., & Bouman, M. (2009). Entertainment-Education in den Niederlanden und den
USA: Was kann Deutschland davon lernen? [Entertainment-education in the Netherlands
and the US: What can Germany learn from it?]. Medien und Erziehung, 53, 44–49.
Lubjuhn, S., & Reinermann, J.-L. (2010). Entertainment-Education in Deutschland: Beispiele
aus der Praxis und Weiterentwicklungsmöglichkeiten [Entertainment-education in
Germany: Examplesfrompracticalexperiencesandopportunitiesforfurtherdevelopments].
Medien und Erziehung, 54, 63–69.
Mattheiß, T., Weinmann, C., Löb, C., Rauhe, K., Bartsch, K., Roth, F., …, & Vorderer, P.
(2013). Political learning through entertainment – Only an illusion? How the motivation
for watching political talk shows influences viewers’ experience. Journal of Media
Psychology.
Midden, G., Boy, D., Einsiedel, E., Fjoestad, B., Liakopoulos, M., Miller, J. D., Öhman, S., &
Wagner, W. (2002). The structure of public perceptions. In W. Martin Bauer & G. Gaskell
(Eds.), Biotechnology: The making of a global controversy (pp. 203–223). Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press; Published in association with the Science Museum.
Miller, J. D. (1983). Scientific literacy: A conceptual and empirical review. Daedalus, 112,
29–48.
Miller, J. D. (2004). Public understanding of, and attitudes toward, scientific research: What
we know and what we need to know. Public Understanding of Science, 13, 273–294.
doi:10.1177/0963662504044908
Moyer-Gusé, E. (2008). Toward a theory of entertainment persuasion: Explaining the persua-
sive effects of entertainment-education messages. Communication Theory, 18, 407–425.
doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2008.00328.x
Murphy, S. T., Frank, L. B., Moran, M. B., & Patnoe-Woodley, P. (2011). Involved,
transported, or emotional? Exploring the determinants of change in knowledge, attitudes,
and behavior in entertainment-education. Journal of Communication, 61, 407–431.
doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2011.01554.x
Oliver, M. B., & Bartsch, A. (2010). Appreciation as audience response: Exploring
entertainment gratifications beyond hedonism. Human Communication Research, 36,
53–81. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2958.2009.01368.x
Papa, M. J., Singhal, A., Law, S., Pant, S., Sood, S., Rogers, E. M., & Shefner-Rogers, C. L.
(2000). Entertainment-education and social change: An analysis of parasocial interaction,
social learning, collective efficacy, and paradoxical communication. Journal of
Communication, 50, 31–55. doi:10.1111/j.1460-2466.2000.tb02862.x
Peng, W. (2009). Design and evaluation of a computer game to promote a healthy diet for
young adults. Health Communication, 24, 115–127. doi:10.1080/10410230802676490
Peters, H. P., Brossard, D., De Cheveigne, S., Dunwoody, S., Kallfass, M., Miller, S., &
Tsuchida, S. (2008). Science communication: Interactions with the mass media. Science,
321, 204–205. doi:10.1126/science.1157780
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1986). The elaboration likelihood model of persuasion.
Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 19, 123–205. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(08)
60214-2
Powell, M., & Kleinman, D. L. (2008). Building citizen capacities for participation in nano-
technology decision-making: The democratic virtues of the consensus Conference model.
Public Understanding of Science, 17, 329–348. doi:10.1177/0963662506068000
160 C. Weinmann et al.

Ritterfeld, U., & Jin, S.-A. (2006). Addressing media stigma for people experiencing mental
illness using an entertainment-education strategy. Journal of Health Psychology, 11,
247–267. doi:10.1177/1359105306061185
Rogers, E. M., Vaughan, P. W., Swalehe, R. M. A., Rao, N., Svenkerud, P., & Sood, S.
(1999). Effects of an entertainment-education radio soap opera on family planning
behavior in Tanzania. Studies in Family Planning, 30, 193–211. doi:10.1111/j.1728-
4465.1999.00193.x
Samani, M. C., Amin, L., & Rezali, N. I. (2011). Using media to educate public on biotech-
nology. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 15, 2360–2364. doi:10.1016/j.sbs-
pro.2011.04.108
Sherry, J. L. (2002). Media saturation and entertainment-education. Communication Theory,
12, 206–224. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2002.tb00267.x
Singhal, A., Cody, M. J., Rogers, E. M., & Sabido, M. (Eds.). (2004). Entertainment-educa-
tion and social change: History, research, and practice. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (2001). The entertainment-education strategy in communication
campaigns. In R. E. Rice, & C. K. Atkin (Eds.), Public communication campaigns (3rd
ed., pp. 343–356). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Singhal, A., & Rogers, E. M. (2002). A theoretical agenda for entertainment-education.
Communication Theory, 12, 117–135. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2002.tb00262.x
Singhal, A., Rogers, E. M., & Brown, W. J. (1993). Harnessing the potential of entertain-
ment-education telenovelas. International Communication Gazette, 51, 1–18. doi:10.
1177/001654929305100101
Slater, M. D. (2002). Entertainment education and the persuasive impact of narratives. In M.
C. Green, J. J. Strange, & T. C. Brock (Eds.), Narrative impact: Social and cognitive
foundations (pp. 157–181). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Slater, M. D., & Rouner, D. (2002). Entertainment-education and elaboration likelihood:
Understanding the processing of narrative persuasion. Communication Theory, 12,
173–191. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2002.tb00265.x
Stöber, J. (2001). The social desirability scale-17 (SDS-17): Convergent validity, discriminant
validity. European Journal of Psychological Assessment, 17, 222–232. doi:10.1027//
1015-5759.17.3.222
Thomas, G., & Durant, J. (1987). Why should we promote the public understanding of
science? Science Literacy Papers, 1, 1–14.
Vaughan, P. W., Regis, A., & St. Catherine, E. (2000). Effects of an entertainment-education
radio soap opera on family planning and HIV prevention in St. Lucia. International
Family Planning Perspectives, 26, 148–157. Retrieved from http://www.guttmacher.org/
pubs/journals/2614800.pdf
Vorderer, P., Klimmt, C., & Ritterfeld, U. (2004). Enjoyment: At the heart of media entertain-
ment. Communication Theory, 14, 388–408. doi:10.1111/j.1468-2885.2004.tb00321.x
Vorderer, P., & Reinecke, L. (2012). Zwei-Prozess-Modelle des Unterhaltungserlebens:
Unterhaltung im Schnittbereich hedonischer und non-hedonischer Bedürfnisbefriedigung
[Two-process-models of the entertainment experience: Entertainment at the intersection
of hedonic and non-hedonic satisfaction of needs]. In L. Reinecke, & S. Trepte (Eds.),
Unterhaltung in neuen Medien [Entertainment in new media] (pp. 12–29). Köln: Herbert
von Halem Verlag.
Vorderer, P., & Ritterfeld, U. (2009). Digital Games. In R. Nabi, & M. B. Oliver (Eds.),
Handbook of media effects (pp. 455–467). London: Sage.
Wilkin, H. A., Valente, T. W., Murphy, S., Cody, M. J., Huang, G., & Beck, V. (2007). Does
entertainment-education work with Latinos in the United States? Identification and the
effects of a telenovela breast cancer storyline. Journal of Health Communication, 12,
455–469. doi:10.1080/10810730701438690
Wirth, W., Hofer, M., & Schramm, H. (2012). Beyond pleasure: Exploring the eudaimonic
entertainment experience. Human Communication Research, 38, 406–428. doi:10.1111/
j.1468-2958.2012.01434.x
 Educational Media International 161

Appendix 1. Perceived knowledge scale

(1) I think that I am able to explain the Tatort’s content without difficulty.
(2) I think I have learned something.
(3) I think that I have understood the essential facts of the Tatort.
(4) On the basis of the Tatort, I think I could discuss the topic with someone else.
(5) I think that I now understand the complexity of the topic.
(6) I am aware of the Tatort’s details.
(7) I can sum up the essential points of the Tatort.
(8) I think I could evaluate further information within the context of the Tatort.
(9) I felt well informed by the Tatort.

Appendix 2.

Table 2.1: Simple regression analysis predicting perceived knowledge from transpor-
tation (unstandardized coefficients)
B 95% CI
Constant −.15 [−.34, .05]
Transportation .37*** [.18, .56]
R² .13
F 15.05***
Note: N = 103;
***p < .001.

Table 2.2: Simple regression analysis predicting perceived knowledge from

identification (unstandardized coefficients)
B 95% CI
Constant −.08 [−.29, .13]
Identification .32** [.12, .51]
R² .09
F 10.44**
Note: N = 103;
**
p < .01.

Table 2.3: Simple regression analysis predicting perceived knowledge from

enjoyment (unstandardized coefficients)
B 95% CI
Constant −.14 [−.35, .06]
Enjoyment .31** [.10, .52]
R² .08
F 8.67**
Note: N = 103;
**p < .01.
Copyright of Educational Media International is the property of Routledge and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright
holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for
individual use.