EECE671

Chapter 4

MOTOR VEHICLES EMISSIONS

AND
NOISE POLLUTION

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 Introduction
• Transportation systems have various socio-economic benefits
and significant impacts on our daily life.

• Transportation system was used as a living- standard reference

index so that the degree of development of any country can be
measured in accordance to the development in its
transportation sector.

• Transport sector has undesirable impacts on our environment:

Emissions and noise pollution.

• Transport sector consumes up to 30% of world energy.

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 Introduction- ctd

• 27-37% of total energy consumed are used for

transportation (globally).

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Energy Consumption by Sector- ctd

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 Annual World Car production

The number of annually manufactured vehicles increased from

around 60 million in 2010 to over 97 million in 2017.

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 General constituents of a transportation system

THE
Inputs TRANSPORTATION Outputs
SYSTEM
Travelers Fixed facilities, terminals… Travelers
Freight Flows: Planes, vehicles, travelers,etc... Freight
Employees Employees
Land
Fuel Waste products
Raw materials Emissions
Etc. Noise
Land destruction
Etc.

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 1- Internal Combustion Engine (ICE)

• Formally invented by Otto in 1876,

• Mostly used type of engines in all applications.
• IC engine operates on the principle of converting chemical
energy into mechanical by mixing fuels, like gasoline (petrol)
or diesel, with air and then igniting the mixture.
• 2- stroke and 4- stroke engines

• External combustion engines are used in limited applications

(mainly in locomotives.)

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 Stoichiometric Ratio
• The energy released from the fuel will be maximum
when sufficient O2 is supplied for the complete
combustion of the fuel.(max. efficiency operation)
• This optimum air- to- fuel ratio is referred to as
stoichiometric ratio.

Efficiency Versus Mixture Ratio

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 Stoichiometric ratio-ctd

For a general gasoline equation of CxHy, the

complete combustion will yield x mol of CO2 and
y/2 mol of H2O.

CxHy + (x+y/4)O2 → xCO2 + (y/2)H2O+energy

• The stoichiometric ratio is generally expressed

as:
Δ = x + y/4

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 stoichiometric ratio-ctd

Specific case:
Gasoline is a chemical mixture of
hydrocarbons presented as C7H13 whose
complete combustion is based on the
following chemical reaction:

C7H13 + 10.25O2 →7CO2 + 6.5H2O + energy

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• N2 and O2 form 78.09% and 20.95% of the atmosphere
respectively,
• every O2 molecule is accompanied by 3.727 N2 molecules.
• The complete combustion reaction, considering N2, is:

C7H13 + 10.25O2 + 38.2N2 →7CO2 +6.5H2O + 38.2N2 + energy

• The corresponding stoichiometric (air/fuel) ratio is:

10.25  32  38.206  28
 14.4
12  7  13

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• In practice, and due to several factors such as
carburetor/injection adjustment and design,
ignition timing and temperature, and combustion
chamber design, physical properties of fuel and
driving modes, the combustion is not perfect.

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 Depending on the air- to- fuel ratio, the combustion
mixture can be divided into 2 types:

• Lean mixtures: with excessive air (air greater than

stoichiometric ratio),
→the exhaust will contain unburnt O2, and a higher
level of NOx will be emitted.

• Rich mixtures: with excessive fuel (air less than

stoichiometric ratio), the fuel will not be completely
burnt,
→CO, H2, unburnt fuel and carbon (smoke) will be
emitted from the exhaust.

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 1.1. Spark Ignition Engines (Petrol)

• In conventional spark ignition (or petrol) engines a

mixture of gazoline, provided via the carburetor, is
compressed in the engine cylinder and then ignited by
a spark.

• This spark ignition is only possible if the mixture ratio

obtained by the carburator is close to the stoichiometric
ratio.

• Power control is provided by means of a "throttle" valve

that controls the amount of air entering the carburator.
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Figure 4.4: Engine strokes
4- strokes operation
1. Intake stroke: in which the fuel and air
mixture is passed to the cylinder through the
intake valve.

2. Compression stroke, consists of

compressing the mixture by the rising piston.
As a result, the mixture volume is reduced
while its temperature and pressure are
increased.

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 4- strokes operation-ctd

3. Power Stroke: The timed spark ignites the

compressed mixture thus increasing further its
pressure and temperature and moving the operating
point under ideal conditions from point 2 to point 3 on
the combustion loop. This ignition leads to the power
stroke in which the piston is pushed downwards by the
increased mixture pressure, and on the combustion
loop, this movement that leads to a drop in the mixture
pressure is represented by moving from point 3 to
point 4.

4. Exhaust stroke, the piston moves upwards and the

burnt gas is released through the exhaust valve to the
exhaust and fresh mixture is passed into the cylinder.

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 Figure 4.5. Combustion Loop

The new mixture drops further the pressure inside the cylinder without actually
affecting the volume, shift from point 4 to 1, and a new cycle is started.

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 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

LCA is generally used to identify which stage in

the production, use and disposal of a given
transport technology is responsible for the most
significant atmospheric emissions. Emissions
from transport are generally categorized as
- Direct
- Indirect.

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 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)- ctd

Direct Emissions:
• 60–65% of life-cycle GHG from a petrol-engine car
are CO2 exhaust emissions during the usage.
• Direct emissions are obtained by multiplying the
emission rate of a vehicle, in gr/km, by the distance
travelled, in km, and by a factor reflecting the
driving style.
• Driving style factor varies from 0.85 for economic
driving mode, 1 for normal drive, and 1.2 for
aggressive driving mode.

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 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)- ctd
Indirect emissions:
• Fuel Production Cycle: 5–20% are generated during
the fuel production cycle which includes the following
processes:
– Feedstock production – production of raw materials
to obtain the fuel needed
– Feedstock transport – raw materials transported to
refineries or processing plants
– Fuel production – refining/processing of the raw
materials into standard fuel
– Fuel distribution – distribution of the fuels to fuel
stations.

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 Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) - ctd
Indirect emissions:
Vehicles production cycle (10%), includes the following
processes:
– Material production – the materials used include steel,
plastics, non-ferrous metals such as aluminum, glass,
rubber and composites such as glass fiber.
– Vehicle assembly – energy required for vehicle assembly
lines and manufacturing plant.
– Vehicle distribution – transport (intercontinental) of
vehicles to the dealerships.
– Vehicle maintenance – maintenance and repair over the
lifetime of the vehicle.
– Vehicle disposal; end-of-life vehicles (ELVs) are shredded
and a proportion of some materials are recycled for further
use.

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 1.3. Fuel Classification

i. Conventional fuels: made of hydrocarbons, include:

a .Distillate fuels such as gasoline and diesel, these are used

for medium and high speeds and are derived from distilled
components.

Diesel fuel has higher energy content since it contains more carbon
and hydrogen atoms (C14H30). One liter of diesel contains around
41*106 J (39000BTU), compared to 35*106 J, and 33000 BTU for
gasoline. (around 15% difference).

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 b .Natural gas:
• Mostly made up of methane (CH4), about 95%.
• The other 5% is made up of various gases (butane, propane),
along with small amounts of water vapor.
• Its simple molecular structure (CH4) makes possible its nearly
complete combustion.
• Cleaner fuel compared to other fossil fuels.
• VOC emissions from natural gas are 80% less than from
gasoline.

• c. Viscous residual fuels

Derived from residual oils and used in low speed, large
engines (< 300 rpm, ex: ships). These types of fuels have to
be heated before they flow.

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Natural gas can be made into three forms:
- Low-pressure form for cooking or heating.

- Compressed natural gas (CNG). This form constitutes compressed methane

(CH4) into high-pressure fuel cylinders at pressure around 136-236 atm.
(140kg/cm2 – 246 kg/cm2). When released, CNG will mix with air and become
flammable only when the mixture is within 5 to 15 percent natural gas. When
the mixture is less than 5 percent natural gas, it doesn't burn.

- Liquefied natural gas (LNG), is produced when natural gas is cooled to -

164oC through a process known as liquefaction. During this process, the
natural gas, primarily methane, is cooled below its boiling point, whereby
certain concentrations of HC, water, CO2, O2, and some sulfur compounds are
either reduced or removed. LNG is also less than half the weight of water, but
is much more dense than natural gas (1/614 of the volume) or CNG, making it
more cost –efficient for transport. It is more expensive to produce or store
compared to other liquid fuels.

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ii- Unconventional fuels :

a- Liquid fuels: such as biogas and alcohol can be

converted into transportation fuel using several
methods all of which aim at modifying the hydrogen-
to- carbon ratio. Conventional fuels have an H/C ratio
of around 2:1. Coal, for example, requires a
significant increase in its ratio.

b- Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) can run gazoline engines

at any combination of gasoline and up to 85%
ethanol (or methanol). Ethanol is a carbohydrate (not
a hydrocarbon) that contains O2 and has a higher
octane number (109).
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 Unconventional fuels-ctd

c- Biodiesel:
• made through a process called transesterification.
• This process changes vegetable oil and animal fat
into esterified oil, which can be used as diesel fuel,
or mixed with regular diesel fuel.
• Biodiesel fuel produces lower tailpipe emissions
than regular diesel fuel,
• being made from plants and animals, it can be
regarded as a renewable resource.
• Biodiesel emissions have roughly 45-90% lower
toxic emissions compared to diesel.
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 Unconventional fuels-ctd
d- Fuel cells:
• Fuel cells turn hydrogen fuel and oxygen into electricity that
will drive the vehicle electric motors. Fuel cells combine
oxygen from the air with hydrogen from the vehicle's fuel tank
to produce electricity.
• When oxygen and hydrogen are combined they give off
electric energy and water (H2O) (zero emissions vehicles).
• Only water vapor or steam are emitted from the exhaust.
• Gaseous hydrogen is stored on a vehicle using one of the
following methods:

o Compressed and stored in special high-pressure containers.

o Stored in liquid form. To make hydrogen liquid, it is chilled and
compressed. Warming the liquid, or lowering the pressure,
releases gas (like boiling water), that can go to the fuel cell.

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 Modern Technologies

a- Electric vehicles (EV):

• Use one or more electric motors for propulsion.
• An electric vehicle may be powered through a collector
system by electricity from off-vehicle sources, or may be self-
contained with a set of batteries, solar panels, or a generator
that converts fuel to electricity.
• By some estimates electric vehicles sales may constitute
almost a third of new-car sales by the end of 2030

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 Modern Technologies- ctd
b- Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV)
• Combines a conventional IC engine system with an electric propulsion
system.
• The presence of the electric powertrain is intended to achieve either better
fuel economy or better performance.
• There is a variety of HEV types, the most common form of HEV is the
hybrid electric car, although hybrid electric trucks (minivans, pickups and
tractors) and buses also exist.
• As of January 2017, over 12 million hybrid electric vehicles have been sold
worldwide since their inception in 1997.

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 Unconventional fuels-ctd
d- Fuel cells:
• Fuel cells turn hydrogen fuel and oxygen into electricity that
will drive the vehicle electric motors. Fuel cells combine
oxygen from the air with hydrogen from the vehicle's fuel tank
to produce electricity.
• When oxygen and hydrogen are combined they give off
electric energy and water (H2O) (zero emissions vehicles).
• Only water vapor or steam are emitted from the exhaust.
• Gaseous hydrogen is stored on a vehicle using one of the
following methods:

o Compressed and stored in special high-pressure containers.

o Stored in liquid form. To make hydrogen liquid, it is chilled and
compressed. Warming the liquid, or lowering the pressure,
releases gas (like boiling water), that can go to the fuel cell.

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 Table 4.1: Impacts of different fuel types.
FUEL ADVANTAGES
ELECTRICITY  Potential for zero vehicle emissions.
 Power plant emissions easier to control,
and are outside populated areas.
 Can recharge at night when power
demand is low.
ETHANOL  Excellent automotive fuel.
 Very low emissions of ozone-forming
HC and toxics.
 Made from renewable sources.
 Can be domestically produced.
METHANOL  Excellent automotive fuel.
 Very low emissions of ozone-forming
hydrocarbons and toxics.
 Can be made from a variety of
feedstocks, including renewables.
NATURAL GAS  Very low emissions of ozone-forming
hydrocarbons, toxics, and carbon
(METHANE) monoxide.
 emissions
 emissions
PROPANE  Cheaper than gasoline today.
(Liquefied petroleum gas, LPG, it is the first  Most widely available clean fuel today.
product from natural gas processing (heavier  Emission rates similar to that of natural
HC, and LPG are removed prior to gas.
processing) and fuel refining.
REFORMULATED  Can be used in all cars without changing
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vehicles Engineering
fuel distribution systems.
GASOLINE  Somewhat lower emissions of ozone-
DISADVANTAGES
 Current technology is limited.
 Higher vehicle cost; lower vehicle
range performance.
 Less convenient refueling.
• High fuel cost.
• Somewhat lower vehicle range.
 Fuel could initially be imported.
 Somewhat lower vehicle range.
 Higher vehicle cost.
 Lower vehicle range.
 Less convenient refueling.
 High methane emission rate
 Cost will rise with demand.
 Limited supply.
 No energy security or trade balance
benefits.
 Somewhat higher fuel cost.
 34
Few energy security or trade
balance benefits.
 2- Air Pollution Impacts

• The complete combustion of fuel produces mainly CO2,

N2, and water vapor.

• In practice, however, the combustion is not complete and

the fuel is partially burnt giving HC, CO, NOx, and carbon
(soot).

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 a. Carbon Monoxide (CO)
• Caused by the incomplete combustion of rich mixtures in which
air less than normal stoichiometric ratio.
• It is estimated that up to 75% of CO found in the atmosphere
come from motor vehicles.
• CO concentration decreases as motor speed increases, and
therefore its concentration levels inside cities with traffic jams
could reach alarming levels.

b. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)

• Results from complete combustion processes.
• Motor vehicles still contribute to around 30% of all CO2 found in
the atmosphere.

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 c. Hydrocarbons (HC):
• Result from the combination of unburnt fuel and oil.
• Once emitted into the atmosphere they combine with NOx in
the presence of sunlight to produce ozone and smog.
• Like CO, their emission level increases with a decrease in
vehicle speed.

d. Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx) :

• Obtained from the high temperature combustion process of IC
engines in which N2 in air combines with O2 molecules at high
temperatures.
• NO2 is formed by further oxidation of nitric oxide (NO).
• Unlike CO and HC, NOx emission increases as the speed
vehicle increases.

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e. Particulates (PM10):
These contain soots from unburnt carbon and
other constituents of the fuel. Their emission
rate is much higher in diesel fuels and are
believed to have carcinogenic impacts.

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f. Oxides of Sulfur:
Sulfur is found in diesel and in small amounts in
gasoline. During combustion it transforms into sulfates
which when combined with other pollutants or moisture
can irritate the eyes, nose and even lungs.

g. Lead:
Standard fuel contains tetra-ethyl lead in a small
percentage as an anti- knock agent needed to prevent
the fuel from exploding before being ignited by the
spark plug.
Also, it was found that lead concentration in exhaust
emissions is lower while driving along highways than
those emitted from driving in urban areas.
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 Table 4.2: Lead content in fuels

Fuel type ml of lead/l of g of lead/l of

fuel fuel
Regular leaded 0.4 0.66
(92 oct.)
Super leaded (98 0.15 0.25
oct.)
Unleaded (95 0.008 0.013
oct.)

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Lead content in fuel varies from 0.15 g/l up to 1.1 g/l in
countries where it is used as a cheapest mean of
boosting octane rating.

MTBE (methyl tertiary- butyl ether) is one of

many alternative chemicals used to replace lead as an
antiknock agent. MTBE is also used as oxygenate to
increase oxygen content in fuel.

Moreover, avoiding the use of lead leads to

reduction in vehicle maintenance. Spark plugs, oil
and filters, and exhaust pipes are found to work for
longer period when used with unleaded fuels.

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 Table 4.3: Estimated cost savings.

Company Year Cost savings

[1980 US cents/l]
Wagner (American Oil 1971 0.9
Co.)
Grazy &Azhari (American 1972 1.4
Oil Co.)
Pahnke&Bettoney 1972 0.2
(DuPont)
Adams (Ethyl Corp.) 1972 0.4
Environment 1979 0.8

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 Table 4.4: Emission rates in g/100km for different fuels

Emissions Leaded Unleaded Diesel

gasoline gasoline
CO 540 140 24
CO2 14,000 15,000 13,000
NOx 140 25 38
SO2 208 301 160
HC 81 61 606
Source: Energy and Environment Institute, Germany

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 Average Idle Emissions
Emissi Units Petrol Petrol Petrol Diesel Diesel Diesel Motorcy
ons Passeng small big passeng small big cles
er cars trucks trucks er cars trucks trucks
(>4tons)

VOC g/hr 2.683 4.043 6.495 1.373 2.720 3.455 19.153

g/min 0.045 0.067 0.108 0.023 0.045 0.058 0.319

HC g/hr 3.163 4.838 7.260 1.353 2.680 3.503 21.115

g/min 0.053 0.081 0.121 0.023 0.045 0.058 0.352

CO g/hr 71.225 72.725 151.9 7.018 5.853 25.628 301.075

g/min 1.187 1.212 2.532 0.117 0.098 0.427 5.018

NOx g/hr 3.515 4.065 5.330 2.690 3.705 33.763 1.625

g/min 0.059 0.068 0.089 0.045 0.062 0.563 0.027

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Typical Exhaust Emissions (effect of driving mode)
Mode (operation) Air/Fuel Gas Flow NOx HC CO
Ratio cfm ppm ppm ppm

Idle (ideal) 12 6.5-7.0 30 350 17,000

Cruise
City 13.5-14 40 1,000 200 6,000
Highway 13.5-14 35 1,000 400 5,000
Acceleration (Maximum) 13.3 45 1,700- 350 7,000
2,500
Part throttle (Maximum) 12.7 100-125 700-1,200 400
Deceleration
(Minimum)
Free 12 6.8 60 1,200
Braking 12 6.8 60 1,200 18,000

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h. Other effects:

• The car industrial processes (over 60 million new cars

every year) create enormous amounts of toxic products that
are emitted into the atmosphere.
• The mining of metal ores (for car bodies) and drilling of oil
fields has also caused significant damage in the
environment.
• The disposal of cars has left huge amounts of non-
degradable plastics in landfill sites.
• High fertility rate of transport sector, and lot of people are
killed every year in car accidents (1000 people are killed
every week in Europe, (over 40 people are killed on
average every month in Lebanon).
• Land- use and disturbances of natural environment caused
by new roads, rail tracks, flights, and other transportation
facilities.
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 Table 4.5: NAAQS Standards
Primary Standard* Secondary Standard*
(more restrictive) (based on effects related to
Pollutant
(based on health related criteria) material or plant damages)
(humans)
Particulate matter
Annual geometric mean 75 60
Maximum 24-hr value 260 150
Lead
Quarterly arithmetic mean 1.5 1.5
Sulfur Oxides
Annual arithmetic mean 80 (0.03 ppm) 60 (0.02 ppm)
Maximum 24-hr value 365 (0.14 ppm) 1300 (0.5 ppm)
Carbon monoxide (most abundant)
Maximum 8-hr value 10 (9 ppm) Same as primary

Maximum 1-hr value 40 (35 ppm) Same as primary

Ozone (O3) Expected num. of days/yr when 1-hr max. value exceeds the standard (must be 1)
Maximum 1-hr value 235 (0.12 ppm) Same as primary

Hydrocarbons
Maximum 3-hr value 160 (0.24 ppm) Same as primary
(6-9 a.m.)
Nitrogen Oxides Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 47
Annual arithmetic mean 100 (0.5 ppm) Same as primary
 1.2. Compression Ignition Engines (Diesel)
• Invented by R. Diesel in 1892 in Germany.
• Inhaled air is compressed to a high pressure in the cylinder
and the fuel is injected as a fine spray of droplets.
• Due to this compression the temperature rises enough to
cause auto- ignition. (No spark candle is needed).
• As the fuel burns, it produces very hot gases which further
increase the pressure on the piston forcing it to move
downwards (power stroke).
• The oil base of Diesel fuel makes it heavier, oilier, and full of
more dangerous contaminants than petrol.
• Air- fuel ratio that ranges from 100:1 down to 15:1, i.e. much
leaner than those of petrol engines.

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 3. Diesel Engines and Air Pollution :
• Diesel engine has a world wide and broad range of applications exceeding
that of any other engine Ships, vehicles, machinery, trucks,…

• Diesel engines are more economical than their petrol counterparts

especially for larger sizes.

• Estimated fuel consumption for diesel engines is 25% less than that its
petrol equivalent, however, this figure includes the 15% increase in energy
content of the fuel itself.

• Regarding its operation, diesel engine has been regarded as inferior to

petrol engines since it has a:
• distinguished nasty smell
• loud noise
• high particulates emission rate.
• Over 40 substances that are considered toxic.

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Technical developments in vehicles and fuels, however,
have enhanced the performance and emission rates of
diesel engines and consequently they are used more for
motor vehicles of all sizes mainly buses and trucks and
other heavy- duty vehicles.

World Health Organization (WHO) has declared particulates

emitted from diesel exhaust to be human carcinogen. Such
substances include arsenic, benzene, formaldehyde, nickel, and
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, all of which have been known
to cause cancer.

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 3.1 Environmental Impacts in Relation to Petrol
Engines
a. Higher Noise levels:
• The higher degree of compression must be higher than
that of equivalent petrol engine and consequently
relatively heavier structures are required.
• The added weight slows down the car acceleration and
generally makes the engine noisier.
• Modern diesel engines, however, have overcome these
problems using advanced technologies.

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b. Higher Carbon Contents:

• In diesel engines, it is necessary to use a fuel that will ignite

spontaneously. It can meet this requirement if the content of hydrocarbons
(HC) contain a higher percentage of carbon.
• Higher carbon content leads to a greater tendency in the engine to
produce smoke.
• On the other hand, increasing the carbon content gives rise to the
molecular weight and makes the fuel less volatile (more difficult to change
from liquid to vapor form).
• A compromise between the carbon contents and fuel volatility has to be
maintained.

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c. Higher Sulfur Contents:

Sulfur is a natural content of petroleum crude oil

and exists in a range of hydrocarbons that are
predominant in heavier and less volatile
components. Therefore diesel fuel contains more
sulfur than normal petrol and the percentage is
normally around 0.5% or more.

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d. Smell:

Diesel engines pronounced smell arises from

the fuel itself or from small amounts of
unburned hydrocarbons, which are related to
the injection tools and combustion chamber
design.

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 EU standards for light DIESEL vehicles (lighter than 1305kg)

Tier Year CO NMHC HC HC+NOx NOx PM

Diesel
Euro 1 1994 2.72 - 0.97 - 0.14
Euro 2 1998 1.0 - 0.7 - 0.08
Euro 3 2000 0.64 - 0.56 0.50 0.05
Euro 4 2005 0.5 - 0.30 0.25 0.025
Euro 5 2009 0.5 - 0.30 0.18 0.005
Euro 6 2014 0.5 - 0.17 0.08 0.005

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 EU standards for light PETROL vehicles (lighter than 1305kg)

Tier Year CO NMHC HC HC+NOx NOx PM

Petrol
Euro 1 1994 2.72 - 0.97 -
Euro 2 1998 2.2 - 0.7 -
Euro 3 2000 2.3 0.2 0.15
Euro 4 2005 1.0 0.1 0.08
Euro 5 2009 1.0 0.068 0.1 0.06 0.005
Euro 6 2014 1.0 0.068 0.1 0.06 0.005

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 Emission Analysis
a. Microscale Modeling : Microscale modeling is used to determine the
impacts of a proposed or an existing project such as highways or
airports on the air quality usually within a distance of 300m from the
project.

b .Mesoscale Modeling : Mesoscale modeling is carried out in regions

that are 300 m and up to 20 Km or more away from the proposed
project location.

 Non-reactive pollutants (CO), that undergo no further chemical

reactions, are analyzed in both microscale and mesoscale regions.

 Reactive pollutants (NOx, HC) that can undergo further chemical

reactions) are not analyzed in microscale regions due to their rapid
transformation by chemical reactions after their release. They are
analyzed using mesoscale region only.

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 Emission Analysis-ctd
For either approach, input data required:
• Vehicular emission Rate: depending on vehicle age,
type, speed, fuel, and emission control devices, if
any.
• Regional topography: Geography of the region
(valleys or mountains) affects the speed and
direction of wind.
• Meteorology: Such as wind speed and direction and
degree of atmospheric stability.
• Ambient air quality : Degree of humidity, background
sources, temperature, and altitude.
• Traffic flow : depends on speed, drive mode and
vehicle use patterns (# of cold starts, length of
trips,…).
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 Emission Quantifications

2 approaches are generally adopted:

The top- down approach

The bottom- up approach

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1. The bottom-up approach (sector approach)
• This approach starts with collection of geographically resolved data, for
example traffic flow on an individual length of road, or in a certain
populated zone.

• In transport emissions where a large number of small individual sources

are involved, emissions factors need to be used, for example average
emissions of NOx per vehicle per km driven, driving mode,….

• Total emissions for a geographical area of interest can then be obtained

by summing all the individual contributions.

• This approach requires a very large amount of data, and this leads to
making several assumptions and approximations. For example, traffic
surveys are usually taken manually, so each road will be sampled no
more than a few days per year and average factors applied to relate this
to weekends, nights and other seasons.

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2. The top- down approach (reference approach)

• Starts with collection of data that describe the total

polluting activity throughout the whole country, such as
total national petrol sales over a certain period of time.
• These data are then related to the magnitude of the
consequent air pollution, by means of an emissions factor
that can be obtained by laboratory measurement,
• for example, the average NOx emission from burning 1
liter of petrol.
• It is important to allow for the fact that most of the time
engines and vehicles are not properly maintained for
emissions minimization.

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 Top down approach- The Algorithm

• Step 1: Estimation of fuel consumption

• The amount of fuel consumed by a certain
country/region is deduced as:
Fcons = Fproduction + Fimport - Fexport - Fint. bunker – Fstock change

• International bunkers accounts for fuel used by

international marine and aviation activities.
• Stock change accounts for imported fuel not used yet.

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 The Algorithm- ctd

Step 2: Converting into common energy units.

• The amount of fuel consumed is normally expressed
in different units (tons, m3,BTU, …). To unify the
approach the estimated amount of consumed fuel is
converted into one calorific value, namely terajoules
(TJ), using the conversion factors, as shown:
Selected Net Calorific Values
Refined Petroleum Products Factors (TJ/1000 tons)

Gasoline 44.80
Jet kerosene 44.59
Other kerosene 44.75
Shale oil 36.00
Diesel oil 43.33
Residual fuel oil 40.19
LPG 47.31 63
Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Ethane 47.49
 The Algorithm- ctd

Step 3: Multiplying by the carbon emission factor.

• The calorific value is converted into weight of carbon
used. The carbon content is related to the energy
content, for petrol it is usually less than that of diesel.
Carbon Emission Factors
Fuel Carbon emission factor (ton C/TJ)
Liquid fossil
Primary fuels
Crude oil 20.0
Orimulsion 22.0
Natural gas liquids 17.2
Secondary fuels/products
Gasoline 18.9
Jet karosene 19.5
Other karosene 19.6
Shale oil 20.0
Diesel oil 20.2
Residual fuel oil 21.1
DepartmentLPG
of Electrical and Computer Engineering 17.2 64
Ethane 16.8
 The Algorithm- ctd

Step 4: Converting burnt carbon into GHG

emissions.
• Assuming that all carbon is sued, and based on the
chemical reaction for carbon oxidation (C + O2 → CO2),
12 g of carbon yields 44 g of CO2.
• Therefore, the actual CO2 emissions from various
fuels are estimated by multiplying the burnt carbon by
44/12. The sum for all fuels gives the total national
emissions of CO2 from fuel combustion.

Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering 65

 Examples

1. In 2013, the total amount of fuel consumed in the

transport sector of an industrial nation was 13 million
tons of petrol and 7 million tons of diesel. Calculate
the corresponding CO2 emissions during that year.

2. According to the 2nd National GHG inventory of

Lebanon, the country’s transport sector has emitted
3930Gg of CO2 in 2005. Assuming that only petrol is
used, calculate the amount of fuel consumed by the
transport sector.

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 Assignment
Household or Vehicles Carbon Footprint
To conduct a study on the carbon foot print of either:
• Your household, or
• Your car(s).
And to submit the results in a form of short report including:
the mathematical model/equations used in the calculations,
the input data to the models, and the results obtained.
Main objectives:
• Getting acquainted with the concept of carbon footprint.
• Getting introduced to relevant calculators posted on the web.
• Extracting original or existing data/information from your properties, be it
house of cars.
• Assessing the consumption patterns and relevant sustainability issues.
The full assignment, not exceeding 10 pages, should be submitted
electronically (email attachment) by Monday March 25, 2019, at 12:00pm.

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 6. Mitigation Measures

• Despite great efforts over the last 50 years the private

car is still not used efficiently in terms of passenger-
Km/liter
• This situation is unlikely to change soon because
people still rely heavily on personal transport (to travel
for work or for other purposes "one" in each car).
• People still drive to city centers rather than taking
public mass transport.
• This leads to more fuel consumption, traffic jams and
time wasted, and excessive noise and air pollution.

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Emission reduction options: 3 major categories

– Improving the fuel quality, and the emission rate

per unit burnt fuel (g/l)
– Improving the technical status of the fleet and its
consumption rate, (g/km)
– Improving the traffic management so as to reduce
the trip duration.

Many of these strategies are proven to be of win-win

or no-regrets nature.

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 6.1. Technical Policy Options

• Technologies may include fitting emission control

devices to existing or new vehicles.
• Improving fuel quality, and gradual replacement
of leaded gasoline with unleaded, a step deemed
necessary, both to reduce lead emissions and to
facilitate the use of catalytic converters.
• The general technical status of the fleet should
be maintained through regular inspection and
maintenance programs.

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 6.2. Regulatory Options
• Priority is given to setting and implementing air quality standards.
• Automobile manufacturers are now required to manufacture engines
that meet existing standards for levels of emissions. Some local
authorities is requiring, since 2005, zero-emission levels (California).
• Enforcing environmental impact assessment (EIA) for major transport
projects such as highways, airports, train and bus stations,….
• A viable and efficient mass/public transport system. (The single most
valuable program)
• Adopting traffic management measures, such as computerized traffic
light signals and parking restrictions in inner cities.
• CO2 labelling; to help drivers choose new cars with low fuel
consumption, legislation have been imposed in many EU countries that
require Member States to post a label showing a car's fuel efficiency
and CO2 emissions.

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 6.3. Pricing Policy Options

• Increasing taxes on gasoline with preferential

treatment for unleaded fuel may encourage
the use of unleaded fuel and more efficient
vehicle use.
• Promote investment in modern fuel-efficient
cars.
• Reducing public transport fares, through
subsidy, paralleled by improving the
efficiency and reliability of public transport, is
another valuable measure especially for
internal city routings.

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 6.3. Pricing Policy Options- ctd

• Imposing penalty on excessive emissions: If the

average CO2 emissions of a manufacturer's fleet
exceed its limit value in any year from 2012, car
manufacturer has to pay an excess emissions
premium for each car registered. This premium
amounts to:
• €5 for the first g/km of exceedance
• €15 for the second g/km
• €25 for the third g/km
• €95 for each subsequent g/km.
• From 2019 onwards, the cost will be €95 from the first
gram of exceedance.

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 6.4. Educational Policy Options

• The objective is to develop public education

programs to increase public awareness
regarding the economic, social and health
impacts of transport emissions.
• GHG- related
• Public awareness campaigns are needed to
educate people as well as decision makers on
relevant matters.

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These options can be also classified as:

Short- term options

(already proven successful in many countries).
- Encouraging public transport by providing incentives, and by imposing
access restrictions in city centers.
- Developing a modern reliable transport system.
- Encouraging unleaded fuel through price differentials and emission
standards.

Medium- term options

- Encouraging the use of alternative less polluting fuels through tax
waivers and financial incentives. (natural gas)
- Simultaneously, promotion campaigns are needed.
- Technologies that lead to enhancement in fuel economy standards.

Long- term options

- Are more restricted to market- based measures such as imposing
additional consumption- related taxes.
- Advanced traffic management systems can lead to energy savings, and hence
emissions reduction, by up to 10% or more in urban regions.

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 Table 4.8: Summary of technology options ranking in
the transport sector (Lebanon)

Option Overall Score

Promoting mass transport 78.2

Improving technical status of the fleet 76.5

Switching to alternative fuels (NG) 73.75

Improving traffic management 69.3

Environmental standards and regulations 68.5

Urban planning and land use 62.5

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 7. Clean Technologies

This section is devoted to highlight major

clean technologies, namely
• catalytic converters and
• hybrid electric vehicles.

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 7.1. Three- way catalytic converters (catalyzers)

• Used to oxidize HC, CO, and NOx in the exhaust to less

damaging compounds such as water, nitrogen, and CO2.

• Consist of a ceramic structure coated with a nobel material

such as platinum which acts as a catalyst that permits the
oxidation reaction to occur quickly and at relatively lower
temperatures.

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 7.1. Three- way catalytic converters (catalyzers)

• The reduction reaction: to control NOx emissions. When NO or NO2 comes

in contact with platinum (catalyst) the catalyst captures the nitrogen atom thus
freeing the oxygen in the form of O2.
2NO O2 + N 2
or 2NO2 2O2 + N2

• The oxidation reaction: used for reducing the unburned CO and HC

emissions by burning them over the catalyst.

2CO+O2 2CO2
4HC+5O2 4CO2+2H2O

The key issue for the oxidation reaction is to connect a secondary air or oxygen
supply to the exhaust stream to ensure suitable oxidizing conditions regardless
of the engine's operating conditions.

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 From this figure it is
evident that the fuel-
to- air ratio that leads
to an optimum
conversion process is
very narrow with an
average value of
around 14.85:1

Figure 4.8: Optimum air to fuel ratio

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• One problem with catalyzers is that they deteriorate with
mileage due to production of lead compounds in the exhaust
which plug the beds and coat the active catalyst surface.

• To avoid this, cars fitted with catalyzers are required to run

on unleaded fuel only.

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 7.2. Electric Vehicles
• These vehicles are driven be electric motors supplied from various
clean resources such as wind and solar energy, nuclear energy...
• Electric vehicles, however, acquire storage batteries which are still of
low power-to-weight ratio as well as being expensive.

From the consumption point of view looking into the electric vehicles feasibility, it
was found that :
- In urban areas (slow 1st and 2nd gear), electric vehicles are more favorable
than IC engine vehicles (ICEV) since their rate of fuel consumption is less than
that of ICEV.
- For long journeys, EV are found to be more favorable when the electricity
energy source is coal (cheaper electricity, than gasoline). However, where
petroleum and natural gas are used for electricity generation ICEV are still
favored.
- EV offer a good solution for air pollution problem when the electricity used is
generated from a non- polluting source (hydropower, fuel cells,…)

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 Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEV)

• HEV’s: vehicles in which propulsion energy is made available from

two or more on-board energy storage and supply systems.
• The storage system may be batteries (or flywheel).
• HEV generally uses electric power when starting or driving slowly,
whereas during normal driving conditions, the fuel engine is used to
provide power to drive the wheels and to charge the batteries
simultaneously.
• Regenerative braking converts the kinetic energy of braking into
electricity used to charge the batteries.
• HEV have a lower consumption rate.
• The unit price of HEV is currently almost 25% more than the
equivalent petrol- driven vehicle.
• HEVs could overcome the distance limitation, lengthy recharging, and
slow acceleration.

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 Table 4.9: Fuel Consumption Rates

Driving mode Standard 1500 cc HEV

fuel car
City driving 7.6 l/100 km 4.9 l/100 km

Highway driving 6.5 l/100 km 4.4

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 8- Noise Pollution

• Noise is an unwanted by-product of motor

vehicles operation and is increasingly
regarded as a pollutant due to its magnitude
and its psychological and social implications
on human beings.
• Exposure to high levels of noise over an
extended period can have damaging effects
on the physical and mental health of humans.
(permanent hearing damage, interference with
sleep,...).

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 7.1 Physical Aspects of Sound

The sound we hear consists of very small fluctuations

(waveforms) that are traveling through an elastic
medium, which is commonly air, in the form of sine
waves and at a speed such that:
c

f
where:
 …..wavelength (m)
c .….sound velocity (= 344 m/s)
f .…..frequency (Hz)

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• Sound fluctuations may result from a vibrating
solid object and when they strike our ear drums
they cause them to vibrate.
• This vibration is transmitted through the middle
and inner parts of the ear to excite the nerve cells.
• That is, an ear is an energy converter of sound
into electro-chemical energy transmitted to the
brain.

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• A sound wave is an energy mechanism whose transmitting rate depends on the
amount of energy passing a certain reference point per unit-time, and at a right
angle. The intensity of a sound wave is :

I = P/A (W/m2)

Where: A ..….area over which power is distributed (m2)

P.……power (W)

• Human ear is highly sensitive to a wide range of intensities varying from

10-12 W/m2 up to 100 W/m2.
• For conversation I = 10-6 W/m2

In establishing sound measuring scales, 3 main factors are considered:

a. Sound levels.
b. Frequency.
c. Variation of sound with time.

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a .Sound Levels
• Due to its wide range, the intensity is expressed in Logarithmic scale, and
hence the total sound intensity is not the sum of the intensities of different
sounds that are heard, (sound wave that is twice as large does not sound twice
as loud).
• The original unit of sound pressure level was the Bel, in reference to
Alexander Bell, but that unit was too large and was substituted by a unit that
represents one tenth of its value, or decibel (dB).
• The sound intensity level is defined as: I
Li  10 log dB
I0
I……wave intensity (W/m2)
I 0 ……reference intensity = 10-12 W/m2 that represents the
lowest audible level that could be well heard.

On this scale, the sound intensity levels (Li) for :

10 6
- conversation speech : Li  10 log 12  10  6  60 dB
10
2
10
- threshold of pain : Li  10 log 12  10 14  140 dB
10

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** Sound levels can also be expressed in terms of sound pressure level Lp such that :
2
P P
SPL  L p  10 log    20 (dB)
log
 P0  P0
P ……amplitude of sound pressure level (N/m2).
P0……reference pressure value which represents the lowest intensity that human ear can
detect. (=20 Pascal = N/m2).

**Also, sound levels can be expressed in terms of sound power level Lw such that:
W(dB)
Lw  10 log
W0
W ……power (W)
W0……reference power (  10 12W)

Since the decibel scale is logarithmic then normal arithmetic rules for
addition are not applicable, instead sound intensities or pressures have to be
added.

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Ex: If two cars, each capable of producing 65 dB are turned
on at the same time, then the total sound intensity level is
calculated so that:

i.e., doubling the sound level has increased its intensity

level only 3 dB which is barely distinguished by human ear.
If, on the other hand, two sound sources have levels that
differ by 10 dB or more then the effect of the lower level
sound on the higher one is negligible.

Sound level, on its own, does not reflect the actual

response of human ear to various sounds. To indicate this
response more closely, the frequency of the noise wave
has to be accounted for.

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b. Frequency:

• In this prospect, the audible range for humans is

generally between 20 and 20000 Hz knowing that
sounds with higher frequencies are more annoying
than those with lower frequencies.

Below 500 Hz : Sounds are not heard well .

Over 12000 Hz : Sounds heard with less acquity
(less consistency).

Sound level scales that take into consideration the

above differences give better results than those which
treat all frequencies the same. Common sound scales
are:

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Scale A :

Most commonly used scales in most noise- level meters are

so called "A-weighted" scale because they give the closest
approximation to the human ear response, see Fig.4.7. It
has considerably reduced response at low frequencies so
that sound is given more time to be heard or recorded, and
a slightly increased response in high frequencies since high
sounds are recorded very quickly, like eyes and light
responses.

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Scale B : Noise level meters using scale B are generally used to
measure noises in the range of 60-70 dB. Their characteristic has a
flat-top with almost same response as that of scale C.

Scale C: mainly used to determine the real intensity of a sound

without any emphasis on frequency levels. In principle it is used in
association with high- level noises. Typical applications are acoustic
studies, architectural work, and music reproducing systems.

Modern noise-level meters are equipped with all 3 characteristics but

the mostly used scale is "A". (dBA). Noises generated from flying
planes are of higher intensities than those of land transportation and
are characterized by their sharp impacts. Therefore another scale (D)
is used to measure noise from such sources.

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 Figure 4.7: Common sound scales

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c. Time

• The third factor that affects the noise level impacts is the variation of noise
level with time. To account for this variation, several measures can be
considered some of which are:
• Equivalent noise level, Leq : represents the average energy level
reaching an observer over 24-hr interval, and sometimes over 8 hrs that
represent the working period.

• Day-night noise level, Ldn : also measured over 24 hr. The main
difference from Leq is that a 10-dB penalty is added to any noise occurring
during the night from 10 p.m. to 7 a.m. This penalty is added because people
are more sensitive to noises during night hours.

• Statistical noise level, LA: widely used measure that gives the
percentage of time during which certain noise levels are being exceeded
during a specified interval. Common levels include:

L90 ... noise level exceeded 90% of the time

L40 ... noise level exceeded 40% of the time
L10 ... noise level exceeded 10% of the time
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Samples of measurements :

- At a measuring point 65 m from the traffic lane it is pre-

estimated that:
L10 = 66 dB... for 3000 cars/hr traveling at speed of 90 Km/hr.
(level of 66 dB is exceeded only 10 % of time)
L10 = 66 dB ... for 2000 cars + 100 light trucks/hr at 90 mph.
L10 = 66 dB ... for 100 heavy trucks/hr at 90 mph.

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 Noise Pollution Level (NPL)

• Traffic noise is generally characterized by its non-

uniformity, i.e. by having significant variations in the
noise levels in relatively short periods of time.

• To account for these variations a widely used

parameter for determining the overall sound level from
transient sources (time changing) is the noise pollution
level (NPL) defined as:

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In measuring noise levels resulting from transportation sector, the
minimum sampling period needed for valid measurement may be
expressed as:
4000 120
t min  
q s

where: q ……vehicle flow rate (number of vehicles passing by the

reference point/hr)
s…….sampling rate (samples/min.)

This equation is valid for periods from 5-55 min. and for vehicle flow
rate greater than 100 vehicles/hr, and for s greater than 5.

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Table 4.10: Common noise levels
Frequency Sound Source dB (A) Response Criteria
20 x 103 Hz 150
Carrier deck jet operation 140 Painfully loud
130 Limits amplified speech
Jet takeoff (60 m) 120
Discotheque Maximum vocal effort
Auto horn (1 m)
12000 Hz Riveting machine 110
Jet takeoff (600 m)
Heavy truck (15 m) 90 Hearing damage (8 hr)
Pneumatic drill
80 Annoying
Freight train (15 m)
Freeway traffic (15 m) 70 Telephone use difficult
Intrusive
Air conditioning unit (6 m) 60
Light auto traffic (15 m)
50 Quiet
Living room
Bedroom, library 40
Soft whisper (5 m) 30 Very quiet
Broadcasting studio 20
10 Heard with difficulty
audible
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f = 20 Hz 0 Threshold of hearing 0
 8.2. Sound Propagation

Sound sources could be of point or line nature.

a. Point Source

When sound is originated from a point source through an unobstructed atmosphere,

it causes a spherical sound field whose intensity at a distance 'r' from the source is
expressed as:
W
I 
4r 2

W ……. sound power of the source [W]

4r 2…… surface area of the sphere

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1
 Hence, it is evident that I is inversely proportional to the square value of the distance 'r' and
therefore increasing the distance form the source to a value 'R' gives:
Ir R2
 2
IR r
where Ir and IR are the sound intensities at distances r and R respectively.
The sound intensity levels at r and R from the point source are, respectively:
Ir
Lr  10 log
I0
and IR
LR  10 log
I0
the reduction is: 2
I I I R R
Lr  LR  10 log r  10 log R  10 log r  10 log    20 log
Io Io IR r r
and therefore if the distance is doubled:
2r
Lr  L2 r  20 log  20  0.3  6dB
r
i.e. doubling the distance leads to a reduction of 6 dB in sound intensity.

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2
b. Line source:
A series of point sources uniformly distributed over a straight segment. The
sound propagation forms a cylindrical shape, where the area of the cylinder is 2rl.
If W is the sound power per unit length, then the sound power generated by an
incremental length 'dl' is 'W.dl' and the corresponding sound intensity is:
l
W .dl W
I  R
2  r  dl 2  r
r
That is, the intensity I is inversely proportional to the
radius of the cylinder and therefore:
Ir R

Applying the same reduction analysisI as r the point source with the
R that of

assumption that r and R represent the perpendicular distance form the line
source, then:
R
Lr  LR  10 log  10 log 2  3dB
r
i.e. doubling the distance from a line source reduces the sound intensity by 3 dB.

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3
 l

Figure 4.9: Noise line source

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4
 8.3 Noise Level Prediction

• There exists a wide range of methods of different degrees of complexity

ranging from handbook techniques (tables) for small roads up to computer
packages for complex highways traffic simulation.

The major input parameters for these methods are:

- Expected volume of traffic (vehicles/hour)
- Speed of traffic (Km/hr)
- Equivalent shortest distance from the measuring point to the
center of the road.

Other factors that must be taken into consideration are:

- Cars and small trucks must be treated separately since they have
different noise levels than those of heavy goods vehicles.
- In cars, noise comes normally from the tires/surface interaction, i.e. at
ground level, and this noise normally increases with speed.
- In heavy loads trucks, noise comes mainly from the engine and is
radiated from the elevated exhaust. Engine noise is almost
independent from speed, in fact it drops with speed increases.

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5
Noise levels from different roads and highways can be approximated
using the following empirical equation:

L  10  log q  10  log d  20  log u  20

where:
L is the estimated noise level (dBA)
d is the distance of the receiver from the centerline of traffic (ft)
q is the traffic flow rate (veh/hr)
u is the average speed of the measured traffic (mi/hr)

This equation has an empirical constant that depends on the system of units
used. It is based on the following assumptions:
i- The traffic flow is continuous and has a constant speed.
ii- There is no obstructions between the receiver and the traffic.
iii- The traffic density is higher than 1000 veh/hr.
iv- The road surface is relatively smooth. Rough surfaces can be accounted
for by an adding 5 dBA to the results obtained by this equation.
v- The traffic does not include heavy trucks. These can be accounted for by
adding 1 dBA for every 2.5% trucks in the flow.

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6
 8.4 Instrumentation

• Sound level meters are frequently used to measure sound levels in

various operating conditions.
• In these instruments, the propagated sound wave is detected by a
condenser microphone, or a transducer, where the incoming sound
pressure fluctuation is converted, without any distortion, into a
variable voltage.
• Since this voltage is usually of small magnitude, an amplifier is used
to boost the signal before having it analyzed.
• The weighting networks are then used to shape the signal in a
manner similar to that of human ear.
• The signal may then be amplified once more before being passed
into a rectifier and a filter.
• The modified signal is then passed to the read-out meter that
produces a deflection measured in dB proportional to the electrical
signal.

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7
Sound
fluctuati
Amplifier Weighting Amplifier Display
ons networks
RMS
( Analogue
rectifier
or Digital )
Microphone

Output
External
filter
connection

Fig.4.10: A block diagram of the sound level meter

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8
 8.5 Noise Measurement Procedure

The procedure set by international standards for

measurement of motor vehicles noises is as follows:

• The site is required to be flat and hard within 50m radius of

the vehicle.
• There should be no obstructions, reflecting surfaces, or
other noise sources in the same range.
• The microphone should be 1.2m above the ground and 15m
from the middle of the road or 10m from the near edge of
the road. These distances can vary from one country to
another.
• There should be no sound reflections within 15m from the
reception point.

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9
 The method consists of the following steps:

• Dividing the road scheme into segments so that noise levels

will not vary significantly within any one segment (less than
2dB).
• Calculating the noise level for each segment taking into
account traffic parameters such as mean speed, road
surface, traffic flow (one or 2 directions) composition of the
traffic,...
• Correcting the noise level at the reception point by taking
into consideration the background of the site such as noise
reflections from nearby buildings.
• Combining the results of all segments to give the estimated
noise level at the reception point.

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0
 8.6 Noise Control Measures

• Although traffic noise causes great annoyance to the

surrounding inhabitants, there are still no standards set for
maximum permissible sound levels in most countries.
• In general the main contributors to noise level from a
motor vehicle are:
- Engine noise including piston slap. Engine noises also result
from the vibrations caused by the impacts of pistons or piston
slaps.
- Exhaust noise especially when running the engine at high rpm.
- Tire/road interaction noise that is more significant at high
speeds and on rough surfaces in particular (9-13 dBA increase
when the speed is doubled). At wet surfaces noises from the
tires may be as loud as those coming from the engine.

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• There are 3 measures to keep noise levels within
set limits.
• In each of these measures, and due to the
logarithmic scale of sound levels, the most efficient
way to reduce noise levels is to start with the highest
source and having it reduced until it reaches the
value of the next highest source.
• The next step is to have both sources levels
reduced to a level of a third one and so on until an
acceptable level is reached.

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2
 a. Control at the source

These measures can be implemented at the design

stage by the manufacturers, and they include:
• Fitting sound absorbers in the vehicle to reduce
mechanical and engine noises and improving
tires design. Cooling fan design optimization
would also lead to a significant noise level
reduction.
• Improving the exhaust noise mufflers especially
for trucks and motorcycles.
• Improving the engine design so as to reduce its
noise and vibration.
• Improving the aerodynamics of the car body.

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3
 b. Control in the transmission path (usually provided by local authorities)

• Keeping the noise source (traffic) as far from the residential areas as
economically possible.
• Fitting noise barriers (walls) to partially reflect noise waves away from the
residents. Another solution is to have noise-insensitive complexes such as
factories and industrial plants located close to the road so as to form a barrier.
• In urban areas where one wall might not give sufficient noise reduction another
wall on the other side of the road is built (walled channel). The road itself
would become noisier but not its surroundings.
• Banning heavy-load trucks (and motorcycles) from operating in residential
areas during night hours, 21:00-7:00.
• Constructing tunnels and underground networks are probably the most efficient
measure to reduce the quantity of vehicles from the streets and hence
minimizing their noise.
• Elevating the roads, a measure that leads to significant noise level reduction in
the vicinity of the road, whereas depressing the road reduces noise levels at
distant points.

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4
 c. Control at the recipient

These measures are in principle similar to those implemented

by planners and local authorities, they include:

• Building houses away from the traffic and using some

insulation systems in the construction such as
doubleglazing.
• Building barriers close to the traffic or close to the
buildings. Planting trees can also lead to significant noise
reduction in addition to the natural beauty they offer.
• Control technical status of personal vehicles by enforcing
Inspection and Maintenance programs.

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 8. Induced Vibrations
Transportation systems, and highway traffic in particular, induces vibration in the
nearby buildings and their occupants due to 2 main mechanisms:

i- Low-frequency sound waves generated by the engines of the motor

vehicles and exhausts. These propagated waves, when reaching building
structures are coupled into them thus causing these structure to vibrate.
Dominant frequencies are in the range of 50-100Hz. Although these waves have
no proven damaging effect on the building structures, they are, however, a major
source of annoyance and disturbance to the occupants.

ii- Forces generated by the vehicle flow mainly over the irregularities in road
surfaces induce vibration of the ground which is transmitted to and felt in the
nearby buildings.

The most notable source of vibration is the underground transportation systems

that in many cases have their lines located almost in direct contact with the
foundations of buildings. In general the problem of induced vibrations is of
limited effects and has rarely caused relocation of a planned transportation
rooting.

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