ELEMENTS OF ENGINEERING SEISMOLOGY

The earthquake is a natural phenomenon occurring due to shaking of the earth caused by a
sudden movement of rock beneath its surface. The study of generation, propagation and
recording of seismic waves, also called elastic waves, in the earth, and the sources that produce
them is known as seismology. In Greek, seismo means shaking and logy stands for science, and
hence the study of shaking of earth pertains to the branch of science known as seismology.

Seismology is the study of earthquakes and seismic waves that move through and around the
earth. A seismologist is a scientist who studies earthquakes and seismic waves. One of the main
goals in seismic design is improving the understanding of earthquakes and their effects. This
activity comprises the range of disciplines from seismology and engineering seismology to
earthquake engineering. The following aspects must be considered to achieve this target.

Improve earthquake monitoring

 Improve understanding of earthquake occurrence
 Improve fundamental knowledge of earthquake effects
 Improve the seismic design of structures
 Start development of next generation performance-based codes

Earthquake engineering deals with the effects of earthquakes on people and their environment,
and with methods of reducing those effects. There are a number of natural phenomena like
earthquakes, cyclones, hurricanes, floods, etc., which are capable of causing loss of lives and
revenues as well as damage around the world every year. Hazards associated with earthquakes
are generally known as seismic hazards. The practice of earthquake engineering involves the
identification and mitigation of seismic hazards.

Causes and Sources of Earthquake

An earthquake, also known as a quake, tremor or temblor, is the result of a sudden release
of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves. In its most general sense, the word
earthquake is used to describe any seismic event — whether natural or caused by humans — that
generates seismic waves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also
by other events such as volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests.

The causes of earthquakes may be divided into three groups (i) surface causes, (ii)
volcanic causes and (iii) tectonic causes.

(i) Surface causes

Great explosions, landslides, slips on steep coasts, dashing of sea waves, avalanches,
railway trains, heavy trucks, landing of aircraft, rock fall, some large engineering projects cause
minor tremors. Some of them are man-made and others are natural.

(ii) Volcanic causes

Volcanic eruptions produce earthquakes. Earthquakes may precede, accompany and
frequently follow volcanic eruptions. They are caused by sudden violent displacements of lava
within or beneath the conduit of the volcano.

(iii) Tectonic causes

Structural disturbances resulting in the relative displacements of the parts of the
lithosphere is the main cause of this type of earthquake. Most of the disastrous earthquakes
belong to this category and occur in areas of great faults and fractures. Sudden yielding to strain
produced on the rocks of accumulating stress causes displacements especially along old fault
zones known as great transform faults.
Sources of Earthquake
Seismic sources can be broadly classified into two categories:

(a) Natural source, and

(b) Man-made source

These main sources are further divided into:

(a) The natural sources are further classified as

• Tectonic earthquake
• Volcanic earthquake
• Rock falls/collapse of cavity
• Micro-seism

(b) Man-made sources are:

• Controlled sources (explosives)

• Reservoir induced earthquake
• Mining induced earthquakes
• Cultural noise (industry, traffic, etc.)

Geological Fault
In geotechnical engineering a fault often forms a discontinuity that may have a large
influence on the mechanical behaviour (strength, deformation, etc.) of soil and rock masses in,
for example, tunnel, foundation, or slope construction. The level of a fault's activity can be
critical for (1) locating buildings, tanks, and pipelines and (2) assessing the seismic shaking and
tsunami hazard to infrastructure and people in the vicinity.

Different types of Faults

A close look at faults helps geologists to understand how the tectonic plates have moved
relative to one another.

Types of movement of crustal blocks that can occur along faults during an earthquake:

1. Where the crust is being pulled apart, normal faulting occurs, in which the overlying
(hanging-wall) block moves down with respect to the lower (foot wall) block.
 2. Where the crust is being compressed, reverse faulting occurs, in which the hanging-
wall block moves up and over the footwall block – reverse slip on a gently inclined plane is
referred to as thrust faulting.

3. Crustal blocks may also move sideways past each other, usually along nearly-vertical
faults. This ‘strike-slip’ movement is described as sinistral when the far side moves to the left,
and dextral, when the far side moves to the right.

4. An oblique slip involves various combinations of these basic movements, as in the

1855 Wairarapa Fault rupture, which included both reverse and dextral movement.

EFFECTS OF EARTHQUAKES
DAMAGE TO LIFELINES

Lifelines are those services that are vital to health and safety of communities and the
functioning of urban and industrial regions. These include electric power, gas, water, and
wastewater systems. Infrastructures, such as transportation systems (highways and railways),
bridges, ports and airports are also classified as lifelines. Damage to lifelines imposes
devastating economic effects on the community.

CONCERNS FOR STRUCTURAL EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING

1. Surface rupture. Rupture of the ground surface may be induced by intense and long
shaking as well as fault ruptures. These may generate deep cracks and large gaps (ranging
in size from a few meters to several kilometres). Damage by fault rupture is more
localized than the widespread damage caused by ground shaking.
2. Settlement and uplift. Fault ruptures may cause large vertical movements of the ground.
These movements in turn cause severe damage to the foundations of buildings, bridges,
footings and to underground networks. Settlement, tilting and sinking of buildings have
been observed in the aftermath of several earthquakes worldwide.

3. Liquefaction. Excessive build-up of pore water pressure during earthquakes may lead to
the loss of stiffness and strength of soils. The excessive pore water pressure causes
ejection of the soil through holes in the ground, thus creating sand boils.

4. Landslides. Landslides include several types of ground failure and movement, such as
rockfalls, deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows. These failures are generated by
the loss of shear strength in the soil. Landslides triggered by earthquakes sometimes
cause more destruction than the earthquakes themselves.
 THEORY OF PLATE TECTONICS

What would Wegener think?

Like any great theory, plate tectonics makes a tremendous amount of sense. The whole story fits
together so perfectly. Wegener had so much evidence that the continents had once been
joined. Seafloor spreading is a perfect mechanism for moving those continents. It's really too bad
that Alfred Wegener is not here to learn about the theory of plate tectonics. It seems certain that
he would be ecstatic!

Plate Tectonics Theory

The theory of plate tectonics is what brings together continental drift and seafloor spreading.
Plates are made of lithosphere topped with oceanic and/or continental crust. The plates are
moved around on Earth's surface by seafloor spreading. Convection in the mantle drives seafloor
spreading. Oceanic crust is created at mid-ocean ridges. The crust moves outward from the ridge
over time. The crust may eventually sink into the mantle and be destroyed. If a continent sits on a
plate with a mid-ocean ridge, the continent will be pushed along. 

Plate Boundaries
Two plates meet at a plate boundary. There are three types of plate boundaries since there are
three ways that plates can meet. Plates can move away from each other. They can move toward
each other. Finally, they can slide past each other. The three types of plate boundaries are
divergent, convergent, and transform. They are described in the following three concepts.
Most geological activity takes place at plate boundaries. This activity
includes volcanoes, earthquakes, and mountain building. The activity occurs as plates interact.
Giant slabs of lithosphere moving around can create a lot of activity! The features seen at a plate
boundary are determined by the direction of plate motion and by the type of crust found at the
boundary.

What the Theory Explains

The theory of plate tectonics explains most of the features of Earth’s surface. It explains
why earthquakes, volcanoes and mountain ranges are where they are. It explains where to find
some mineral resources. Plate tectonics is the key that unlocks many of the mysteries of our
amazing planet. Plate tectonics theory explains why:
 Earth's geography has changed over time and continues to change today.
 some places are prone to earthquakes while others are not.
  certain regions may have deadly, mild, or no volcanic eruptions.
 mountain ranges are located where they are.
 many ore deposits are located where they are.
 living and fossil species of plants and animals are found where they are.
 some continental margins have a lot of geological activity, and some have none.
Plate tectonic motions affect Earth’s rock cycle, climate, and the evolution of life.

How Plates Move

Figure 3. Mantle convection drives plate tectonics. Hot material rises at mid-ocean ridges and
sinks at deep sea trenches, which keeps the plates moving along the Earth’s surface.

If seafloor spreading drives the plates, what drives seafloor spreading? Picture two convection
cells side-by-side in the mantle, similar to the illustration in figure 3.

1. Hot mantle from the two adjacent cells rises at the ridge axis, creating new ocean crust.
2. The top limb of the convection cell moves horizontally away from the ridge crest, as does
the new seafloor.
3. The outer limbs of the convection cells plunge down into the deeper mantle, dragging
oceanic crust as well. This takes place at the deep-sea trenches.
4. The material sinks to the core and moves horizontally.
5. The material heats up and reaches the zone where it rises again.
 TOPIC NO. 2
ELEMENTS OF ENGINEERING
SEISMOLOGY
(CE Elect 502)

BY:
LOVELY JANE JOREN
MEA JESSECA BALGOS
REYNA AJINO
BSCE-5A

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. MA. ADELINE D. DIAZ
Professor