MATH - SCIENCE INTEGRATION

 CALCULATING FORCES OF MOTION 

 Calculating Speed and Velocity

The trouble with facts is that there are so

many of them.
{HYPERLINK
"/quotes/Samuel_McChord_Crothers/"}Samu
el McChord Crothers , The Gentle Reader

 Methods for calculating

 Links

 Methods for calculating

Whenever we work on solving any motion problems we will

be working with an equation that requires a step-by-step
method.

Careful attention needs to

be paid to writing out the
known and unknown
measurements, the SI units
involved, and the entering of
numbers into your
calculator. Double check all
work!
No need to ask the question "Do we have to show all of our
work?"
The unqualified answer to that question is YES !  
Numbers mean nothing in measurements and science
calculations if they are not labeled with some type of unit.  

Physics problems mean nothing without proof of your

answer and that comes with writing out the equation.  

So let's get to it!

 Procedure for Solving

SPEED and VELOCITY EQUATION:  

speed = distance          OR        v =  d  

               time                                t

Remember that the SI unit for speed and velocity is meters

per second (m/s).  Velocity answers also require a
direction.

The best way to learn the steps is to work through a

problem.

If you need to review solving one step equations, click on the

link below.



» See also: Solving One Step Division Problems 
 
o Speed of a Sailboat

Problem :  What is the speed of a sailboat that is

traveling 100 meters in 120 seconds?

Step 1 :  Write down the equation you need to v =  d 

solve the problem.         t

Step 2 :  Place the Known :  The sailboat traveled a

known information into distance of 100 meters and the
the equation. time it took to travel that
distance was 120 seconds.
Since meters per second is the
SI unit for speed, there is no
need for conversions in this
problem.
v =  100m  =
       120 s

Step 3 : Solve.  Carefully enter the

numbers into your calculator. SOLUTION : The
Remember that this is a division sailboat has a speed of
problem. Check to make sure that .83m/s.
your solution contains the correct
SI unit.

o
 One more example problem and then you will practice on
your own.

o
o
 
 Speed of a Cyclist

Problem :  If a cyclist in the Tour

de France traveled southwest a
distance of 12,250 meters in one
hour, what would the velocity of
the cyclist be?  

 Remember that the SI unit for

velocity is meters per second, but this problem has
the distance measure in meters and the time
measured in hours.  The 1 hour has to be converted
to seconds.  If you need to review conversions, click
here.  Also, this is a velocity problem and your
solution requires a direction.

Step 1 : Write down the equation needed for the v= d
problem.       t

Step 2 :  Enter all the known values v = 12,250 m =

into the equation, taking care to         3,200s
make all necessary conversions.

Step 3 : Use your calculator SOLUTION :  

 to solve the problem. Check 3.83 m/s southwest
to make sure that you
included the correct SI unit
and direction.

Yahoo.Problem solvingPhysics problem solving..

time, speed, distance?
The Tambora Volcano on the island of Sumbawa, Indonesia has been known to throw ash into the air w/
a speed of 625 m/s during an eruption.

a. How high could this volcanic plume have risen?

b. On Venus, where the acceleration due to gravity is slightly less than on earth, would this volcanic
plume rise higher or not as high as it does on earth?

 4 years ago
 Report Abuse

Sturm Vogel

Best Answer - Chosen by Voters

a. Use the following kinematics equation to solve this.

vf² = vi² + 2ad

d = (vf² - vi²) / 2a

= ((0 m/s)² - (625 m/s)²) / (2 x -9.8 m/s²)

= 1.99 x 10^4 m or 19.9 km

b. If gravity is weaker, then the plume would have risen higher.

Mr. L. drove the first half (distance wise) of a trip at 36 mi/hr. At what speed should he cover the
remaining half in order to average 45 mi/hr for the whole trip? When I did this problem, I got 54 but
apparently my math teacher says that's wrong. Please help, it's due tomorrow!!
 4 years ago
 Report Abuse
Additional Details
Yeah, that's exactly what I did but that's wrong.
4 years ago
spindle_1999, how would I explain those steps if I don't know what equation that would be? one of my
other friends turned his in early and got 60 as well, so I guess that's correct but I don't know how to
explain it.
4 years ago
 Elmyr
Best Answer - Chosen by Voters
x = speed for first half of trip

The fact that the distance is the same for both parts simplifies things

(x + 36) / 2 = 45
x + 36 = 90
x = 54

You're right, your teacher is wrong.

Are you sure the two parts of the trip were equal, i.e. each part is half the total?

Edit: if the halves of the trip represent time, not distance, then 54 is STILL right.

x = speed on second leg

t = total time

36t/2 = miles of first leg

xt/2 = miles of second leg
45t = total miles

36t/2 + xt/2 = 45t

36t + xt = 90t
xt = 54t
x = 54 mph
 4 years ago
 Report Abuse
100% 1 Vote
 1 person rated this as good

Not the right answer? Try Yahoo! Search

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Search Yahoo! for  Search
Other Answers (2)

 spindle_...
the answer should be 60 miles
let us see how
suppose we hv to trvel say 90 miles
so for 45 miles using 36 mi/hr we require 1.2 5hrs= 1 hr 15 min
so we hv to cover the remaining 45 miles in 45 minutes
so 45miles/45min = 45 x 60/45 /hr
= 60 miles/hr
the answer is 60 miles/hr i hv checked it for other values also
ok u want further help here it is
 let mr l drove for x hr then total distance coverd by L = 45x miles 
let with 36 mi/hr time taken to cover 45x/2 miles= t hr 
36t = 45x/2 or t= 45/72 x = 5/8 x
time remaining to cover next half distance = (x-t)
= x-5/8x= 3/8x 
so speed required = distance tobe covered/time 
= (45x/2)/(3/8x) = 45/2x* 8/3 x =60 miles
equation used speed = distance/time
ok i suppose now its clear
o 4 years ago
o Report Abuse
0% 0 Votes

 Skrumzee
I did this and I got 54. Maybe your Maths teacher is wrong LMAO. Or maybe for your answer you only
wrote 54, when it should've been 54mph or miles per hour.
o 4 years ago

Appendix C
Meteoroids and Orbital Debris 
Velocity and Acceleration Practice Problems

DIRECTIONS: Solve the following situation problems using equations for velocity
and acceleration.

1. What is the speed of a rocket that travels 9000 meters in 12.12 seconds?
2. What is the speed of a jet plane that travels 528 meters in 4 seconds?
3. After an impact involving a non-functioning satellite, a paint chip leaves the
surface 
of the satellite at a speed of 96 m/s. After 17 seconds, how far has the chip
landed?
4. The space shuttle Endeavor is launched to altitude of 500 km above the surface
of 
the earth. The shuttle travels at an average rate of 700 m/s. How long will it
take for 
Endeavor to reach its orbit?
5. How long will your trip take (in hours) if you travel 350 km at an average
speed of 
80 km/hr?
 6. How many seconds will it take for a satellite to travel 450 km at a rate of 120
m/s?
7. What is the speed of a walking person in m/s if the person travels 1000 m in 20 
minutes?
8. How far (in meters) will you travel in 3 minutes running at a rate of 6 m/s?
9. A trip to cape Canaveral, Florida takes 10 hours. The distance is 816 km. 
Calculate the average speed.
10.In 0.5 seconds, a projectile goes from 0 to 300 m/s. What is the acceleration of
the 
projectile?
11.A meteoroid changed velocity from 1.0 km/s to 1.8 km/s in 0.03 seconds. What
is
the acceleration of the meteoroid?
12.The space shuttle releases a space telescope into orbit around the earth. The 
telescope goes from being stationary to traveling at a speed of 1700 m/s in 25 
seconds. What is the acceleration of the satellite?
13.A dragster in a race accelerated from stop to 60 m/s by the time it reached the 
finish line. The  dragster moved in a straight line and traveled from the starting
line to
the finish line in 8.0 sec.   What was the acceleration of the dragster?

Meteoroids and Orbital Debris

Velocity and Acceleration Answer Sheet

1. d=vt   (distance = velocity multiplied by time)

          d=9000 m
           t=12.12 sec.
           solving for v,  v=d/t,

          v=742.57 m/sec.

     2.  d=vt

          d=528 m
           t=4 sec
           solving for v, v=d/t,

          v=132 m/sec.

    3.  d=vt

           v=96 m/sec.
           t=17 sec.

           d=1632 m

      4.  d=vt

           d=500,000 m
           v=700 m/sec.
           solving for t, t=d/v,

           t=714.3 sec.(11.9 min.)

     5.   d=vt

           d=350,000 m
           v=80,000 m/hr.
           solving for t, t=d/v

           t=4.375 hrs.

     6.  d=vt

           d=450,000 m
           v=120 m/sec
           solving for t, t=d/v,
           t=3750 sec.

     7.  d=vt  

          d=1000m
          t=20 min.(60 sec.) =1200 sec.
                            min
          solving for v, v=d/t,

         v=0.83 m/sec.

     8. d=vt

          v=6 m/sec

          t=3 min.(60 sec.)=180 sec.
                         min

          d=1080 m

      9.  d=vt

           d=816,000 m
           t=10 hrs.(60 min.)(60 sec.) = 36,000 sec.
                             hrs        min
           solving for v, v=d/t,

           v=22.67 m/sec.               or

           d=816,000 m
            t=10 hrs.
            solving for v, v=d/t,

            v=81.6 km/hr.

    10. a=v/t  (acceleration = velocity divided by time)

           t=0.5 sec.

           v=300 m/sec.

         a=600 m/sec.2

    11. a=v/t
          t=0.03 sec.
          v=0.8 km/sec.

          a=26.7 km/sec.2

    12. a=v/t

          t=25 sec.

          v=1700 m/sec.

          a=68 m/sec.2

    13.  a=v/t

           t=8 sec.

           v=60 m/sec.

           a=7.5 m/sec.2

peed Needed to Escape the Earth (Escape Velocity)

The Physics Factbook™
Edited by Glenn Elert -- Written by his students
An educational, Fair Use website

topic index | author index | special index

Result Standardized
Bibliographic Entry
(w/surrounding text) Result

Buffa, Anthony J and Wilson, Jerry D. College "Thus if a projectile or spacecraft could be given an
Physics, Fourth Edition. Upper Saddle River: initial upward speed of 11 km/s, it would leave the 11.0 km/s
Prentice Hall, 2000. earth and not return."

Mitton, Jacqueline. Cambridge Dictionary of

"The velocity of escape from the Earth's surface is
Astronomy. New York: Cambridge University 11.2 km/s
about 11.2 km/s."
Press, 2001: 143.

Angelo, Joseph A. Jr. The Facts on File Space

and Astronomy Handbook. New York: Facts on "Earth 11.2 km/s" 11.2 km/s
File, 2002: 269.

Atkins, P.W. The Second Law. New York: "The escape velocity is the speed an object must be 11.3 km/s
Scientific American, 1984: 138. given to escape from the Earth; it is 11.3 km/sec or
 25,300 mph."

"In the case of the earth, the escape velocity is

Jones, A. Innovations in Astronomy. Santa
11.2kps/6.9mps; the moon, 2.4kps/1.5mps; Mars, 11.2 km/s
Barbara: Helicon Publishing, 1999: 192.
5kps/3.1mps; and Jupiter, 59.6kps/37mps."

Space travel is something we may now take for granted, but there are many factors we first have to look into. One
thing we have to do is overcome the force of gravity holding us down.

We must be going at a very high speed, but how high? The escape velocity, as the minimum velocity that will allow a
small body to escape from another body, can be calculated using the formula v = sqrt(2Gm/r), where G is the
gravitational constant, r is the distance from the center of the body with a mass of m. This formula is derived using the
idea of conservation of energy, where the sum of the kinetic energy and the gravitational energy of an object equal
the energy at the maximum altitude.

(+K) + (-U) [Earth] = K + U = 0 [at Infinity]

Therefore

K = -U
½mv2 = GMm/r
v = sqrt(2GM/R)

For the earth, this velocity is 11.2 kilometers per second or 25,950 miles per hour.

Leo Tam -- 2005

Result Standardized
Bibliographic Entry
(w/surrounding text) Result

Physics Textbook, Chapter 13 -

Gravity and Orbits. Digital Physics "What is the minimum speed required to escape the Earth's
11.2 km/s
Textbook version 0.7.2. Kinetic gravity? v = sqrt2GM/R v = 11,200 m/s"
Books. 20 May 2005.

"On the surface of the Earth the escape velocity is about 11.2
Escape Velocity. Wikipedia. May 20,
kilometres per second. However, at 9000 km altitude in 7.1�11.2 km/s
2005.
"space", it is slightly less than 7.1 km/s."

Brown, Walt. References and Notes. "For Earth, from its surface, that speed is 11.2 km/sec (7.0
In the Beginning: Compelling mi/sec). For something at the surface of the Sun to escape the
Evidence for Creation and the Flood solar system, it is 617.2 km/sec (385.7 mi/sec). For something 11.2 km/s
(7th Edition). Center for Scientific 1 AU from the Sun to escape the solar system requires
Creation. May 18, 2005. 42.3 km/sec (26.4 mi/sec)."
 "The first artificial object to escape Earth, according to Robert
Cathart, Richard B. Verneshots and
R. Brownlee’s calculations, was emplaced on 27 August 1957;
Interplanetary Lithopanspermia: A
it was a circular steel mineshaft cover blown into space by the
Lava Lite - like Earth life Lift-off 11.12 km/s
Pascal-B underground nuclear device test explosion in Area
Mechanism. Glendale, California.
U3d of the USA’s Nevada Test Site! By the early-1960s ….
May 16, 2005.
[Earth escape velocity = 11.12 km/sec.]"

"From the surface of the Earth, escape velocity (ignoring air

What is Escape Velocity?
friction) is about 7 miles per second, or 25,000 miles per 11.2 km/s
PhysLink.com. 21 May 2005.
hour."

Haven't we all wanted to escape the earth at one time or another in our lives? Well, to do that, you would have to go
pretty quickly. The speed needed to escape the earth or "escape velocity" is about 11,200 meters per second or 7
miles per second. Think about when you throw something up into the air. It has to come back because of the earth's
gravitational pull, right? Well, yes, unless you throw it fast enough, which is highly unlikely no matter how fast you
think your "fastball" is. Most commonly, the things that escape the earth are rockets fired by space agencies to
explore space. With enough speed, a rocket can escape even the sun's gravity and go outside the solar system.

The first artificial object to escape the earths gravity was in August of 1957. The object was a mineshaft cover sent
into space by a nuclear device test explosion. It was sent out in Nevada. The earths rotation has a lot to do with the
escape speed. This is why Nevada was a likely test cite rather than the North or South poles. When the object is
closer to the equator, about 436 meters per second is added to the velocity. It doesn't seem like much when you look
at the total speed, but trust me, it helps.

The formula to find escape velocity is v = sqrt(2GM/r). M is the mass of the earth, G is the gravitational constant, r is
the earths radius, and v is escape velocity. Not as much to it as you thought, now is there?

1. The problem statement, all variables and given/known data

A spherical asteroid has a density of 2600 kg/m^3. I throw a ball at the speed on 20
m/s. If the ball is to travel in a circular orbit, what is the largest radius of the asteroid
possible to accomplish this?

2. Relevant equations
these are the equations I used..
escape velocity:
V(e)=sqrt(2GMm/r)
and
Density:
mass=Volume*Density
volume= 4/3(pi)r^3 (since the asteroid is spherical)
GM= 6.67*10^-11 (constant)

3. The attempt at a solution

m=4/3 pi r^3*2600
20^2=[2(6.7*10^-11)(4/3 pi r^3*2600)]/r
or simplified:
400=(1.453*10^-6)*r^2
or 
r= 16593 or 17000 (2 s.f)

My answer is wrong.. I have 4 tries left. I'm thinking that I messed up on the
GM(gravitational force) part, but I don't know how or why. Is it correct to use the
constant?

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 Oct8-10, 06:06 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density?
PLEASE HELP
PM                  #2

berkeman  Originally Posted by pinkybear 

1. The problem statement, all variables and
given/known data
 
  A spherical asteroid has a density of 2600 kg/m^3. I throw a
ball at the speed on 20 m/s. If the ball is to travel in a
circular orbit, what is the largest radius of the asteroid
possible to accomplish this?

Posts: 30,793
2. Relevant equations
these are the equations I used..
escape velocity:
V(e)=sqrt(2GMm/r)
and
Density:
mass=Volume*Density
volume= 4/3(pi)r^3 (since the asteroid is spherical)
GM= 6.67*10^-11 (constant)

3. The attempt at a solution

m=4/3 pi r^3*2600
20^2=[2(6.7*10^-11)(4/3 pi r^3*2600)]/r
or simplified:
400=(1.453*10^-6)*r^2
or 
r= 16593 or 17000 (2 s.f)

My answer is wrong.. I have 4 tries left. I'm thinking that I

messed up on the GM(gravitational force) part, but I don't
know how or why. Is it correct to use the constant?
I have to think about this some more, but to use the Escape
 Velocity equation, it would seem that you need the mass of the
ball (which seems to have gotten dropped in your calculation
later), and you are not given that anyway.

I think you need to use the circular motion equations and also
the gravitational attraction equation that you list, but I'm
having trouble seeing why there is a max radius of the sphere
that works for 20m/s radial speed...

 Oct8-10, 06:13 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #3

berkeman  Hey, I think I got it. 

Use the two equations I mention, and use r for the radius of the orbit of
  the ball, and R for the radius of the sphere. Equate the force due to
 
gravity to the force needed to keep the 20m/s ball moving in a uniform
circular orbit, and do the expansions (mass = density * volume, etc.),
to come up with an equation that relates R and r. Do you see a useful
characteristic of this equation?...

Posts: 30,793

 
 Oct8-10, 06:41 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #4

pinkybear  Originally Posted by berkeman 

Hey, I think I got it. 
Posts: 10

Use the two equations I mention, and use r for the radius of the orbit
of the ball, and R for the radius of the sphere. Equate the force due to
gravity to the force needed to keep the 20m/s ball moving in a
uniform circular orbit, and do the expansions (mass = density *
volume, etc.), to come up with an equation that relates R and r. Do
you see a useful characteristic of this equation?...
Sorry, I don't understand what you mean. Why do I need the radius of
the orbit of the ball? =(

 
 Oct8-10, 06:44 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #5

berkeman  Originally Posted by pinkybear 

Sorry, I don't understand what you mean. Why do I need the radius
of the orbit of the ball? =(
 
  The problem says that the ball travels in a circular orbit. It also says
that you are to find the biggest radius R of the sphere that is consistent
 with a circular orbit for the ball. There is a relationship between R and r
that you will find if you work with the equations I mentioned. That
relationship lets you solve the problem.

Posts: 30,793 Show us your work with Newton's Law of Gravitation equation and the
equation for the centripital force for Uniform Circular Motion....

 
 Oct8-10, 06:53 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #6

pinkybear  using
F=m*(v^2/r)
Posts: 10 and
F=GMm/r^2

i got
r=GM/v^2
M=4/3 pi r^3
r=sqrt((3*v^2)/(4*pi*G))

got r= 1.2*10^6

it's not the correct answer..

 Oct8-10, 06:59 PM Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
                 #7

berkeman  Originally Posted by pinkybear 

using
F=m*(v^2/r)
 
  and
F=GMm/r^2

i got
r=GM/v^2
M=4/3 pi r^3
Posts: 30,793
r=sqrt((3*v^2)/(4*pi*G))

got r= 1.2*10^6

it's not the correct answer..

did I understand the method correctly though?
Did you drop the density term? You wrote: "M=4/3 pi r^3"

And can you explain why you set r=R in your work above (I'm not
saying it's wrong...)?

 
 Oct8-10, 07:05 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #8

pinkybear  Originally Posted by berkeman 

Did you drop the density term? You wrote: "M=4/3 pi r^3"
Posts: 10

And can you explain why you set r=R in your work above (I'm not
saying it's wrong...)?
edited: oh wait, i think I get what you mean...
so I got sqrt((3*r*v^2)/(4*pi*G))=R <radius of asteroid
but what do I use for r?
r=R+a small number? which would equal R?

EDIT!!:omggggggg im so stupid ok.. lemme do it again!!

 
 Oct8-10, 07:11 Re: Calculating radius based on escape velocity and density? PLEASE HELP
PM                  #9

berkeman  Originally Posted by pinkybear 

edited: oh wait, i think I get what you mean...
so I got sqrt((3*r*v^2)/(4*pi*G))=R <radius of asteroid
 
  but what do I use for r?
r=R+a small number? which would equal R?
Sorry, could you show each of your steps again? I get a different
equation than you, and my equation (assuming it's right) implies what
to do with R and r to solve the problem.
Posts: 30,793
Start with:

F=mv2r=GMmr2

and express M as a funtion of R and the density, and simplify to a form

like this:

R=f(r)
Where f(r) has terms in it for velocity, density, and some constants...
Newton's Law of Universal Gravitation
As discussed earlier in Lesson 3, Isaac Newton compared the acceleration of the moon to the
acceleration of objects on earth. Believing that gravitational forces were responsible for each, Newton
was able to draw an important conclusion about the dependence of gravity upon distance. This
comparison led him to conclude that the force of gravitational attraction between the Earth and other
objects is inversely proportional to the distance separating the earth's center from the object's center.
But distance is not the only variable affecting the magnitude of a gravitational force. Consider
Newton's famous equation

Fnet = m • a
Newton knew that the force that caused the apple's acceleration (gravity) must be dependent upon
the mass of the apple. And since the force acting to cause the apple's downward acceleration also
causes the earth's upward acceleration (Newton's third law), that force must also depend upon the
mass of the earth. So for Newton, the force of gravity acting between the earth and any other object
is directly proportional to the mass of the earth, directly proportional to the mass of the object, and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance that separates the centers of the earth and the
object.

But Newton's law of universal gravitation extends gravity beyond earth. Newton's law of universal
gravitation is about the universality of gravity. Newton's place in the Gravity Hall of Fame is not due
to his discovery of gravity, but rather due to his discovery that gravitation is universal. ALL objects
attract each other with a force of gravitational attraction. Gravity is universal. This force of
gravitational attraction is directly dependent upon the masses of both objects and inversely
proportional to the square of the distance that separates their centers. Newton's conclusion about the
magnitude of gravitational forces is summarized symbolically as

Since the gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass of both interacting objects, more
massive objects will attract each other with a greater gravitational force. So as the mass of either
object increases, the force of gravitational attraction between them also increases. If the mass of one
of the objects is doubled, then the force of gravity between them is doubled. If the mass of one of the
objects is tripled, then the force of gravity between them is tripled. If the mass of both of the objects
is doubled, then the force of gravity between them is quadrupled; and so on.

Since gravitational force is inversely proportional to the square of the separation distance between the
two interacting objects, more separation distance will result in weaker gravitational forces. So as two
objects are separated from each other, the force of gravitational attraction between them also
decreases. If the separation distance between two objects is doubled (increased by a factor of 2), then
the force of gravitational attraction is decreased by a factor of 4 (2 raised to the second power). If the
separation distance between any two objects is tripled (increased by a factor of 3), then the force of
gravitational attraction is decreased by a factor of 9 (3 raised to the second power).

The proportionalities expressed by Newton's universal law of gravitation are represented graphically
by the following illustration. Observe how the force of gravity is directly proportional to the product of
the two masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance of separation.
 

Another means of representing the proportionalities is to express the relationships in the form of an
equation using a constant of proportionality. This equation is shown below.

The constant of proportionality (G) in the above equation is known as the universal gravitation
constant. The precise value of G was determined experimentally by Henry Cavendish in the century
after Newton's death. (This experiment will be discussed later in Lesson 3.) The value of G is found to
be

G = 6.673 x 10-11 N m2/kg2

The units on G may seem rather odd; nonetheless they are sensible. When the units on G are
substituted into the equation above and multiplied by m1• m2 units and divided by d2 units, the result
will be Newtons - the unit of force.

Knowing the value of G allows us to calculate the force of gravitational attraction between any two
objects of known mass and known separation distance. As a first example, consider the following
problem.

Sample Problem #1
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth (m = 5.98 x 1024 kg) and a 70-kg physics student if
the student is standing at sea level, a distance of 6.38 x 106 m from earth's center.
The solution of the problem involves substituting known values of G (6.673 x 10 -11 N m2/kg2), m1 (5.98
x 1024 kg), m2(70 kg) and d (6.38 x 106 m) into the universal gravitation equation and solving for F grav.
The solution is as follows:

Sample Problem #2
Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth (m = 5.98 x 1024 kg) and a 70-kg physics student if
the student is in an airplane at 40000 feet above earth's surface. This would place the student a distance of 6.39 x
106 m from earth's center.

The solution of the problem involves substituting known values of G (6.673 x 10 -11 N m2/kg2), m1 (5.98
x 1024 kg), m2(70 kg) and d (6.39 x 106 m) into the universal gravitation equation and solving for F grav.
The solution is as follows:

Two general conceptual comments can be made about the results of the two sample calculations
above. First, observe that the force of gravity acting upon the student (a.k.a. the student's weight) is
less on an airplane at 40 000 feet than at sea level. This illustrates the inverse relationship between
separation distance and the force of gravity (or in this case, the weight of the student). The student
weighs less at the higher altitude. However, a mere change of 40 000 feet further from the center of
the Earth is virtually negligible. This altitude change altered the student's weight changed by 2 N that
is much less than 1% of the original weight. A distance of 40 000 feet (from the earth's surface to a
high altitude airplane) is not very far when compared to a distance of 6.38 x 10 6 m (equivalent to
nearly 20 000 000 feet from the center of the earth to the surface of the earth). This alteration of
distance is like a drop in a bucket when compared to the large radius of the Earth. As shown in the
diagram below, distance of separation becomes much more influential when a significant variation is
made.
  

The second conceptual comment to be made about the above sample calculations is that the use of
Newton's universal gravitation equation to calculate the force of gravity (or weight) yields the same
result as when calculating it using the equation presented in Unit 2:

Fgrav = m•g = (70 kg)•(9.8 m/s2) = 686 N

Both equations accomplish the same result because (as we will study later in Lesson 3) the value of g
is equivalent to the ratio of (G•Mearth)/(Rearth)2.

 Newton's Law:
     Newton's Law of Gravity states that 'Every particle attracts every other particle with a force
that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the distance
between them.

Newton's Law of Gravity Formula:

Gravitational Force: 

Mass of Object 1: 

Mass of Object 2: 

Distance Between the Objects: 
where,
G = Universal Gravitational Constant = 6.6726 x 10-11N-m2/kg2
m1 = Mass of Object 1
m2 = Mass of Object 2
r = Distance Between the Objects.

Newton's Law of Gravity Examples:

Case 1: Determine the force of gravitational attraction between the earth 5.98 x 1024 kg and a 70
kg boy who is standing at sea level, a distance of 6.38 x 106 m from earth's center. 
 m1 = 5.98 x 1024 kg, m1 = 70 kg, r = 6.38 x 106 m, G = 6.6726 x 10-11N-m2/kg2
  Step 1: Substitute the values in the below Gravitational Force formula:

            
This example will guide you to calculate the Gravitational Force manually.

Case 2: Find the mass of one object if the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on each
particle is 2 x 10-8, the one mass is 25 kg and the objects are 1.2 meters apart
 F = 2 x 10-8, m2 = 25 kg, r = 1.2 m, G = 6.6726 x 10-11N-m2/kg2.
  Step 1: Substitute the values in the below Mass formula:

            
This example will guide you to calculate the Mass of the object manually. Kepler's Laws of
Planetary Motion: Back in the late 16th century, Johannes Kepler studied the motion of
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the planets around the sun. Amid his writings, three laws were formed. These laws are known
 
as Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion, or simply, Kepler’s Laws.
 
 
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The first law stated that the orbit of a planet regarding the Sun was an ellipse, having the
 
Sun’s center of mass as the focus.
Prof. Nikitin
 
Prompt, accurate,
The second law stated that a line joining a planet with the Sun sweeps out equal areas in
reliable service.
equal intervals of time.
 
 
The third law stated that the mean distance cubed over the period squared was the same for each planet. Therefore
 
(r3A/T2A) = (r3B/T2B)
 
[where r is the distance from the sun the planet and T is the amount of time relative to earth, for the planet to make
one orbit around the sun].
 
 
Kepler’s third law in particular is useful for finding out tons of data. For example, we can find out the
distance from the sun to a given planet, star, or comet. Also, we may calculate the period of
Tycho & Kepler
the planet, star, or comet if we already have its distance from the sun.
 
Question: Given that earth is 1.5 x 10 11 m away from the sun and a certain comet orbits the sun in 923 earth days,
find the average distance from the sun to the comet.
 
Solution:
Use Kepler’s Third Law:
(r3A/T2A) = (r3B/T2B) [Earth will be A and the comet will be B.]
 
Plug in known values.
 
(1.5 x 1011 m)3 /365d = r3B/923d
 
Get r3B by itself.
 
r3B = [(1.5 x 1011 m)3(923d)] / (365d)
 
r3B = 8.5 x 1033 m3
 
Take the cube root to solve for just r.
 
r B = 2.04 x 1011 m
 
This is the average distance between the sun and the comet, according to Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion.
 
2. The Law of Constant Acceleration
As was previously established in the time and energy theory (* except for the
identifying subscript added to the variable, a) the Law of constant acceleration is
expressed as,
 

where, ac, is the rate of constant acceleration, and v, is the resulting velocity over time
interval, t`.  Time, t`, is then defined as,
 

where, t` represents time relative to the moving object, t, represents time in the
stationary frame of reference, v, is the instantaneous velocity of the accelerating
object, and, c, is the speed of light.
 
(* The subscript is needed to distinguish between the previously mentioned, two
different aspects of acceleration.)
 
Specifically, the Law of constant acceleration states that the time interval
during which acceleration takes place is directly proportional to the resulting
velocity.  At first, this statement may seem contradictory because we are accustomed
to thinking that, t`, becomes smaller as, v, increases.  While it is true that, t`, becomes
smaller as a unit of time in relation to an increase in velocity, it is also true that the
interval, t`, increases to show the total amount of time that has passed during the
acceleration.  This concept is more easily understood if we revert for a moment to the
classical, albeit incorrect, formula for constant acceleration,
 

In equation 3, because of the inherited (from the slowing of time) asymptotical nature
of velocity, v, the rate of acceleration, a, cannot be constant.  In other words, as the
increase in velocity, v, grows smaller, time, t, continues to increase at the original
rate.  Once, t, is replaced with, t`, the increase in time is also asymptotical and the
formula correctly defines a constant acceleration.
In view of the preceding analysis, it is apparent that equation 3 is invalid as a
formula for showing constant acceleration.  From a practical standpoint, however, it is
used for most everyday applications, because the asymptotic nature of velocity is
insignificant at commonly experienced speeds.  From a purely technical standpoint,
however, equation 3, in its intended use, has very limited application.  Consider, for
example, an observer with a watch on his wrist.  Since the watch moves with the
observer, it essentially has zero velocity relative to the observer and therefore always
gives correct time relative to his frame of reference, even when he moves. But, the
moment the observer applies the time given by the watch to another object that is
moving relative to him, the time is no longer correct.  The only truly correct time in
such cases, is time t`.  In other words, the observer must convert time, t, given by the
watch, to time, t`, given by equation 2.
With a little thought, it becomes evident that equation 1, is always correct, and
equation 3 is nothing more than a special case of equation 1.  Whereas, equation 3
works satisfactorily at low velocities because the asymptotical nature of, v, is not yet
apparent, equation 1, on the other hand, works at low velocities because at such
velocities time, t`, essentially equals t.  Actually, t` = t, only when, v = 0.  At any
other velocity it is smaller than t.  In plain words, time, t`, is always correct at any
velocity, while time, t, is only correct at 0 velocity, and therefore equation 3 cannot be
a correct formula for constant acceleration.  It turns out, however, that in spite of this,
equation 3 has a very important role to play involving relative acceleration.  This role
will be covered shortly under the heading, Law of Relative Acceleration.
 
3. Defining Acceleration
As innocent looking as equation 1 is, it raises serious questions about the
proper definition of acceleration, and at the same time it provides us with yet another
tool for testing the validity of relativistic principles.
Experimenting with the equation brings to light an apparent contradiction
regarding the definition of acceleration.  Because of the asymptotical nature of
velocity, the higher the rate of acceleration the more apparent the contradiction
becomes.  For example, it will be found that if the rate of acceleration, ac, reaches the
extreme rate of .999c m/s, the velocity, v, reached in one second will not exceed .
7075c m/s.  Moreover, when the rate of acceleration is increased beyond the given
value, the achieved velocity will slowly reduce and never exceed .707c m/s regardless
of how much higher the rate of acceleration is.  The question then becomes, which of
the two values is the rate of acceleration?  If we go by the amount of energy used, we
could say it is the value we assigned to, ac.  On the other hand, we could also say that
the rate of acceleration is the velocity reached at the end of one second.  Either can be
construed as the correct answer, but for consistency, and to avoid confusion only one
should be used.  Another solution would be to clearly define which value is being
used in each particular case.  For the purpose of this paper, the value assigned to, ac, is
the rate of acceleration.
Although the case given above is extreme, the principle discussed is always
present at any rate of acceleration.  To actually achieve in velocity, the rate of
acceleration indicated by, ac, in terms of a given distance traveled per unit of time,
will always take more than a unit of that time.  This of course presents itself as a valid
test of relativistic principles, because equation 1 predicts how much time is required
for the resulting velocity to equal the rate of acceleration.
 
4. The Law of Relative Acceleration
 Whereas the classical formula, equation 3, is incorrect for constant
acceleration, it is correct for defining relative acceleration and is repeated here in
modified form as the Law of relative acceleration.  Thus, where, ar, is the rate of
relative acceleration, and v, is the resulting velocity over time interval, t, equation 4
shows the correct relationship between these three values for all objects undergoing
relative acceleration.
 

The use of equation 4 in this unintended application is supported by the following

logic:  Since velocity, v, is asymptotic, as previously noted, and time interval, t, isn’t,
it follows that the rate of acceleration, ar, given by equation 4 will drop over time as
the velocity increases.  In fact, as the velocity approaches c, the rate of acceleration
approaches zero.  Whereas, it is obvious that, ar, cannot be the rate of constant
acceleration, it is equally obvious that it is the rate of relative acceleration between the
accelerating object and an observer in the stationary frame of reference.  Moreover,
the fact that equation 4 uses stationary time, t, and not moving frame time, t`, gives it
a vital role to play involving both the rate of acceleration and the resultant velocity of
an object undergoing acceleration.  Without equation 4, we have no way of using
equation 1 in determining either the rate of constant acceleration, or the instantaneous
velocity of an object under observation.  The reason is simple.  To use either equation,
we need to be able to first determine the velocity or a change in velocity over an
interval of time.  Because, t`, and, v, are interdependent variables, equation 1 cannot
be used directly for this purpose.  However, since, v, has the same value in both,
equation 1, and equation 4, and since, t, is not interdependent on, v, we can determine,
v, using equation 4, and then substitute it into equation 1, along with t`, determined
from, t, to find constant acceleration, ac.  In fact, unlike the case with equation 1, in
the case with equation 4, the relative acceleration, ar, over a unit interval of time, t,
always equals the instantaneous velocity, v.
 
5. Alternate Forms of the Two Laws
There are many relationships that may be developed through the integration of
the two laws of acceleration.  Of these, perhaps the two most important are the
alternate forms of the laws themselves.  The alternate form for constant acceleration is
arrived at as follows:  From equation 4, we get,
 

 
the left side of which can be substituted in place of, v, into equation 1.  We can then
also substitute the right side of equation 2 in place of, t`, in equation 1, to arrive at,
 

which simplifies to,

 

This is not only an alternate form of the Law of Constant Acceleration, but also shows
clearly the relationship between constant acceleration and relative acceleration.  The
following corollary of equation 7, of course, is the alternate form of the Law of
Relative Acceleration:
 

Average Distance from the Sun

Mercury is the planet closest to the Sun, at an average distance from the Sun of about 58 million
kilometers. By comparison, Earth is about 150 million kilometers from the Sun, while Pluto averages
an enormous 5.9 billion kilometers away! If you were standing on Mercury, the Sun would appear
much larger than it does on Earth. And since the Sun-Mercury distance varies so much during
Mercury’s orbit, the Sun would appear larger at some times than at others. Indeed, even when
Mercury is farthest from the Sun, it is like having nearly 11 Suns in the sky.
 Compare the size of the Sun on Mercury. Check out our "Places in the Sun"simulation by clicking on
the image above.

Length of One Year

The length of one year for any planet is the time that it takes it to make one orbit around the Sun. For
Earth the length of one year is about 365 Earth days. It takes Mercury only 88 Earth days to orbit the
Sun. To see just how swiftly Mercury orbits the Sun compare it to Pluto, which takes over 248 Earth
years to make one orbit.

How long is a Mercurian year? In this animation you can watch the Sun rise and set on Mercury over
the course of a year. Pay attention to the "STATS" box in the lower left part of the screen. Click on the
image above.
Time for One Rotation About its Axis

Mercury rotates about its axis as it travels in its orbit about the Sun. The time for one complete
rotation (with respect to the stars) is about 59 Earth days – exactly 2/3 of the time it takes for
Mercury to complete one orbit around the Sun.

Take a Vector form

Field lines drawn for a point mass using 24 field lines

Gravity field surrounding Earth from a macroscopic perspective.

Gravity field lines representation is arbitrary as illustrated here represented in 30x30 grid to 0x0 grid and almost being
parallel and pointing straight down to the center of the Earth

Gravity in a room: the curvature of the Earth is negligible at this scale, and the force lines can be approximated as
being parallel and pointing straight down to the center of the Earth

Newton's law of universal gravitation can be written as a vector equation to account for the direction of the
gravitational force as well as its magnitude. In this formula, quantities in bold represent vectors.

where

F12 is the force applied on object 2 due to object 1,

G is the gravitational constant,
m1 and m2 are respectively the masses of objects 1 and 2,
|r12| = |r2 − r1| is the distance between objects 1 and 2, and

 is the unit vector from object 1 to 2.

It can be seen that the vector form of the equation is the same as
the scalar form given earlier, except that F is now a vector quantity, and the
right hand side is multiplied by the appropriate unit vector. Also, it can be seen
that F12 = −F21.

[edit]Gravitational field
The gravitational field is a vector field that describes the gravitational force
which would be applied on an object in any given point in space, per unit mass.
It is actually equal to the gravitational acceleration at that point.

It is a generalization of the vector form, which becomes particularly useful if

more than 2 objects are involved (such as a rocket between the Earth and the
Moon). For 2 objects (e.g. object 2 is a rocket, object 1 the Earth), we simply
write r instead of r12 and m instead of m2 and define the gravitational field g(r)
as:

so that we can write:

This formulation is dependent on the objects causing the field. The

field has units of acceleration; in SI, this is m/s2.

Gravitational fields are also conservative; that is, the work done by

gravity from one position to another is path-independent. This has the
consequence that there exists a gravitational potential field V(r) such
that

If m1 is a point mass or the mass of a sphere with homogeneous

mass distribution, the force field g(r) outside the sphere is
isotropic, i.e., depends only on the distance r from the center of
the sphere. In that case

[edit]Problems with Newton's theory

Newton's description of gravity is sufficiently accurate for
many practical purposes and is therefore widely used.
Deviations from it are small when the dimensionless
quantities φ/c2 and (v/c)2 are both much less than one,
where φ is the gravitational potential, v is the velocity of the
objects being studied, and c is the speed of light.[32] For
example, Newtonian gravity provides an accurate description
of the Earth/Sun system, since
 where rorbit is the radius of the Earth's orbit around the
Sun.

In situations where either dimensionless parameter is

large, then general relativity must be used to describe the
system. General relativity reduces to Newtonian gravity in
the limit of small potential and low velocities, so Newton's
law of gravitation is often said to be the low-gravity limit of
general relativity.

look at the "Orbit Rotation" animat How do you calculate perihelion or

aphelion of a planet?
by using the semi major axis, eccentricity, period, either perihelion or aphelion, etc.

 3 years ago
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IRev. Albert Einstein

Best Answer - Chosen by Voters

Rp = a*(1-e) 
Ra = a*(1+e)
where a = semi-major axis and e = eccentricity

ion to se Semi-major axis

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The semi-major axis of an ellipse

The major axis of an ellipse is its longest diameter, a line that runs through the center and both foci, its ends
being at the widest points of the shape. The semi-major axis is one half of the major axis, and thus runs from
the centre, through a focus, and to the edge of the ellipse; essentially, it is the measure of the radius of an orbit
taken at the orbit's two most distant points. For the special case of a circle, the semi-major axis is the radius.
One can think of the semi-major axis as an ellipse's long radius.
The length of the semi-major axis a of an ellipse is related to the semi-minor axis' length b through
the eccentricity e and the semi-latus rectum ℓ, as follows:

The semi-major axis of a hyperbola is, depending on the convention, plus or minus one half of
the distance between the two branches. Thus it is the distance from the center to either vertex
(turning point) of the hyperbola.

A parabola can be obtained as the limit of a sequence of ellipses where one focus is kept fixed as
the other is allowed to move arbitrarily far away in one direction, keeping ℓ fixed. Thus   and 
tend to infinity, a faster than b.

Contents
  [hide] 

1 Ellipse

2 Hyperbola

3 Astronomy

o 3.1 Orbital period

o 3.2 Average distance

o 3.3 Energy; calculation of semi-major axis from

state vectors

4 References

5 External links

[edit]Ellipse

The semi-major axis is the mean value of the smallest and largest distances from one focus to
the points on the ellipse. Now consider the equation in polar coordinates, with one focus at the
origin and the other on the positive x-axis,

The mean value of   and  , (for  ) is

 In an ellipse, the semimajor axis is the geometric mean of the distance from the center
to either focus and the distance from the center to either directrix.

[edit]Hyperbola

The semi-major axis of a hyperbola is, depending on the convention, plus or minus

one half of the distance between the two branches; if this is a in the x-direction the
equation is:

In terms of the semi-latus rectum and the eccentricity we have

The transverse axis of a hyperbola coincides with the semi-major axis.[1]

[edit]Astronomy

[edit]Orbital period
In astrodynamics the orbital period T of a small body orbiting a central body in
a circular or elliptical orbit is:

where:

a is the length of the orbit's semi-major axis

 is the standard gravitational parameter of the central body

Note that for all ellipses with a given semi-major axis, the orbital
period is the same, regardless of eccentricity.

The angular momentum H of a small body orbiting a central body

in a circular or elliptical orbit is:

where:

a and   are as defined above

e is the eccentricity of the orbit

In astronomy, the semi-major axis is one of the
most important orbital elements of an orbit, along
with its orbital period. For Solar System objects, the
semi-major axis is related to the period of the orbit
by Kepler's third law (originally empirically derived),

where T is the period and a is the semimajor

axis. This form turns out to be a simplification
of the general form for the two-body problem,
as determined by Newton:

where G is the gravitational constant,

and M is the mass of the central body,
and m is the mass of the orbiting body.
Typically, the central body's mass is so
much greater than the orbiting body's,
that m may be ignored. Making that
assumption and using typical astronomy
units results in the simpler form Kepler
discovered.

The orbiting body's path around

the barycentre and its path relative to its
primary are both ellipses. The semi-major
axis used in astronomy is always the
primary-to-secondary distance; thus, the
orbital parameters of the planets are given
in heliocentric terms. The difference
between the primocentric and "absolute"
orbits may best be illustrated by looking at
the Earth–Moon system. The mass ratio in
this case is 81.30059. The Earth–Moon
characteristic distance, the semi-major
axis of the geocentric lunar orbit, is
384,400 km. The barycentric lunar orbit,
on the other hand, has a semi-major axis
of 379,700 km, the Earth's counter-orbit
taking up the difference, 4,700 km. The
Moon's average barycentric orbital speed
is 1.010 km/s, whilst the Earth's is
0.012 km/s. The total of these speeds
gives the geocentric lunar average orbital
speed, 1.022 km/s; the same value may
be obtained by considering just the
geocentric semi-major axis value.

[edit]Average distance
It is often said that the semi-major axis is
the "average" distance between the
primary focus of the ellipse and the
orbiting body. This is not quite precise, as
it depends on what the average is taken
over.

 averaging the distance over

the eccentric anomaly (q.v.) indeed
results in the semi-major axis.

 averaging over the true anomaly (the

true orbital angle, measured at the
focus) results, oddly enough, in
the semi-minor
axis  .

 averaging over the mean

anomaly (the fraction of the orbital
period that has elapsed since
pericentre, expressed as an angle),
finally, gives the time-average
The time-average of the inverse of the
radius[clarification needed], r −1, is a −1.

[edit]Energy;
calculation of
semi-major axis from
state vectors
In astrodynamics semi-major
axis a can be calculated from orbital
state vectors:

for an elliptical orbit and,

depending on the convention, the
same or

for a hyperbolic trajectory

and

(specific orbital energy)

and

(standard
gravitational
parameter), where:

 v is orbital
velocity
from velocity
vector of an
orbiting object,
  is cartesian 
position
vector of an
orbiting object
in coordinates
of a reference
frame with
respect to
which the
elements of
the orbit are to
be calculated
(e.g.
geocentric
equatorial for
an orbit around
Earth, or
heliocentric
ecliptic for an
orbit around
the Sun),

 G is
the gravitation
al constant,

 M and m are
the masses of
the bodies.

 , is the
Energy of the
orbiting body.

Note that for a

given amount of
total mass, the
specific energy and
the semi-major axis
 are always the
same, regardless of
eccentricity or the
ratio of the masses.
Conversely, for a
given total mass
and semi-major
axis, the total
specific energy is
always the same.
This statement will
always be true
under any given
conditions.

[edit]Referenc
es

e these motions together. Click on the image above