T.T.Level 4 Mechanical PDF

TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAM
LEVEL 04– Mechanical
Course Duration
Five (5) Days
No. 1
LEVEL 04– MECHANICAL
Day 1 – Filtration and Thin film evaporator
• Filtration theory
• Type of filters
• Types of Strainers
• Polymer filter
• Band filter
• Cartridge filter
• Thin Film Evaporator

• Theory of Thin Film Evaporation
• Types of Thin Film Evaporators
• Thin Film Evaporators accessories
• Preventive and corrective maintenance
• Thin Film Evaporators operation and Troubleshooting
No. 2
Day 2 – Extruder Operation & Troubleshooting
• Extruders
• Process of extrusion
• Different types of extrusion
• Extruder operation and Troubleshooting
• Preventive, corrective and overhauling maintenance of
extruder
• Palletizers
• Process of Palletizers
• Different types of Palletizers
• Palletizers operation and Troubleshooting
Palletizers
No. 3
Day 3 – Furnace & Boiler Operation, Optimization &
Maintenance (Advanced)
• Principles of Operation of heaters, furnaces and incinerator

• Control of heaters and furnaces
• Fuel Types & system
• Ignition systems, burners
• Preventive and corrective maintenance & inspection of
heaters, furnaces and incinerator
No. 4
Day 4 – Turbines (Advance)
• Theory of turbine
• Types of turbine
• Basics of BFW and Steam property
• Accessories and auxiliaries of turbine
• Ejector system
• Oil system
• Surface Condenser
• Turbine operation and Troubleshooting
turbines
No. 5
Day 5 – Cooling Tower & Chiller Operation &
Troubleshooting Maintenance
• Cooling Tower
• Chiller/ refrigeration package
• Cooling Tower and Chiller/ refrigeration package Preventive
and corrective maintenance
• Troubleshooting
No. 6
Day One
Filtration And Thin Film Evaporator
No. 7
DEFINITION
Filtration: It may be define as a process of separation of

solids from a fluid by passing the same through a porous
medium that retains the solids but allows the fluid to pass
through.
Clarification: When solid are present in very low

concentration, i.e., not exceeding 1.0% w/v, the process of
its separation from liquid is called clarification.
No. 8
TERMS USED IN FILTRATION
Slurry • Suspension
be filtered
to
Filter • Porous
medium
medi used to
um retain solid
• Accumulate
Filter
d solids on
cake
the filter
• Clear liquid
Filtrate passing through
the filter
No. 9
PROCESS OF FILTRATION
Pores of filter
Filter medium
medium are Slurry is
(filter paper) is
smaller than placed over
placed on a
size of the filter
support
particles to be medium
(mesh)
separate.
Due to
pressure
So solids are difference
Gravity is
trapped on the across the
acting over the
surface of the filter, fluid
liquid medium
filter medium flows through
the filter
medium
No. 10
APPLICATIONS OF FILTRATION
• Production of sterile products:

HEPA filters or laminar air bench
Membrane filters.
• Production of bulk drugs
• Production of liquid dosage
• Effluents and waste water treatment
11
No. 11
MECHANISM OF FILTRATION
The mechanism whereby particles are retained by a filter is significant

only in initial stages of filtration.
• Similar to sieving, i.e., particles of larger size can’t pass
Straining
through smaller pore size of filter medium.
• Solids having the momentum move along the path of

Impingement streaming flow and strike (impinge) the filter medium.
Thus the solids are retained on the filter medium.
• Particles become entwined (entangled) in the masses of

fibres (of cloths with fine hairy surface or porous felt) due
Entanglement
to smaller size of particles than the pore size. Thus solids
are retained within filter medium.
• Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of

Attractive forces attractive force between particles and filter medium, as
in case of electrostatic filtration.
12
No. 12
TYPES OF FILTRATION
Surface/ screen filtration Depth filtration

It is a screening action by which In this slurry penetrates to a point
pores or holes of medium prevent the where the diameter of solid particles is
passage of solids. greater than that of the tortuous void or
Mechanism involved : straining and channel.
impingement Mechanism : Entanglement
For this, plates with holes or woven The solids are retained with a
sieves are used. gradient density structure by physical
Efficacy is defined in terms of mean restriction or by adsorption properties
or maximum pore size. of medium.
13
No. 13
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SURFACE AND DEPTH
FILTRATION
Surface filtration Depth filtration

The size of particles retained is much
The size of particles retained is slightly smaller than the mean pore size of
higher than the mean pore size of medium.
medium. Mechanical strength of filter medium is
Mechanical strength of filter medium is high.
less, unless it is made of stainless It has high capacity.
steel. The size of particles retained is less
It has low capacity. predictable.
The size of particles retained is more Equipment is cheaper because ancillary
predictable. equipment is not required.
Equipment is expensive because Ex. Ceramic filters and sintered filters.
ancillary equipment such as edge
clamps is required.
Ex. Cellulose membrane filter.
No. 14
THEORIES OF FILTRATION
The flow of liquid through a filter follows the basic rules that govern
the flow of any liquid through the medium offering resistance.
The rate of flow may be expressed as-
The rate of filtration may be expressed as volume (litres) per unit time
(dv/dt).
Driving force = pressure upstream – pressure downstream
Resistance is not constant.
It increases with an increase in the deposition of solids on the filter
medium.
Therefore filtration is not a steady state.
Rate = driving force / resistance
No. 15
 The rate of flow will be greatest at the beginning of
filtration process, since the resistance is minimum.
 After forming of filter cake, its surface acts as filter
medium and solids continuously deposit adding to
thickness of the cake.
Powder or granule bed visualized as a bundle of capillaries

Upstream pressure, P1 Downstrea
m pressure,
P2
Viscosity
Surface area Length (L) Flow rate: m3
/ unit time
Fig.: Filtration process parameters.
 Resistance to flow is related to several factors given in
fig.
Resistance to movement={pressure upstream-

pressure downstream}/ length of capillaries
No. 16
POISEULLIE’S EQUATION
Poiseullie considered that filtration is similar to the

streamline flow of liquid under pressure through
capillaries.
Poiseullie’s Equation is-
Where, V = rate of flow, m3/s (l/s)

ΔP= Pressure difference across the filter, Pa
r = radius of capillary in the filter bed, m
L = thickness of filter cake (capillary length),
m
𝝶 = viscosity of filtrate, Pa.s
If the cake is composed of bulky mass of particles and
the liquid flows through the interstice, then flow of liquids
through these may be expressed by this equation.
No. 17
DARCY’S EQUATION
Poiseullie's law assumes that the capillaries found in the

filter are highly irregular and non-uniform.
Therefore, if the length of capillary is taken as the
thickness of bed, a correction factor for radius is applied
so that the rate is closely approximated and simplified.
The factors influencing the rate of filtration has been
incorporated into an equation by Darcy, which is:
Where, K = permeability coefficient of cake, m2

A = surface area of porous bed (filter
medium), m2
Other terms are same as previous equation
K depends on characteristics of cake, such as porosity,
specific surface area and compressibility.
No. 18
Permeability may be defined quantitatively as the
flow rate of a liquid of unit viscosity across a unit
area of cake having unit thickness under a pressure
gradient of unity.
This equation is valid for liquids flowing through
sand, glass beds and various porous media.
This model is applied to filter beds or cakes and
other types of depth filter.
This equation is further modified by including
characteristics of K by Kozeny-Carman.
19
No. 19
KOZENY-CARMAN (K-C) EQUATION
Kozeny-Carman equation is widely used for filtration.
Where,
𝝴 = porosity of cake (bed)
S = specific surface area of particles comprising the cake
m 2 / m3
K = Kozeny constant (usually taken as 5)
Other terms are same as previous equations
Limitations:
It does not consider the fact that depth of granular bed
is lesser than the actual path traversed by the fluid.
The actual path is not same through out the bed, but it
is sinuous or tortuous.
No. 20
FACTORS INFLUENCING
FILTRATION
Properties of Properties of Properties of

Objectives Temperature
solid liquids solid in slurry
•Particle shape •Density •Rate of •Whether the •Temperature
•Particle size •Viscosity formation of solid or liquid of suspension
•Particle charge filter cake or both are to
•corrosiveness especially in be collected
•Density early stage of
•Particle size filtration
distribution
•Rigidity or
compressibility
of solid under
pressure
•Tendency of
particle to
flocculate or
adhere
together
No. 21
SURFACE AREA OF FILTER
MEDIUM
Rate can be increased either using large filter or

connecting a number of small units in parallel.
Filter press works on principle of connecting units in
parallel.
Inversely proportional to specific surface of filter

Rate of bed (According to K-C equation)
filtration Directly proportional to surface area of filter
medium (According to Darcy’s equation)
22
No. 22
PRESSURE DROP ACROSS
THE FILTER MEDIUM
According to K-C equation the rate of filtration is

proportional to the overall pressure drop across both
the filter medium and filter cake.
The pressure drop can be achieved in a number of
ways:
• A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head of slurry above

the filter medium.
Gravity • The pressure developed will depend on the density of the slurry
• The pressure below the filter medium may be reduced below atmospheric
Vacuum
(Reducing
pressure by connecting the filtrate receiver to a vacuum pump and creating a
pressure pressure difference across the filter.
)
• The simplest method being to pump the slurry into the filter under
Pressure pressure.
• The gravitational force could be replaced by centrifugal force in

Centrifug particle separation
al force
23
No. 23
VISCOSITY OF FILTRATE
According to K-C equation rate of filtration is inversely

proportional to the viscosity of the fluid.
Reason behind this is an increase in the viscosity of the
filtrate will increase the resistance of flow.
This problem can be overcome by two methods:
The rate of filtration may be increased by raising the
temperature of the liquid, which lowers its viscosity.
However, it is not practicable if thermolabile materials are
involved or if the filtrate is volatile.
Dilution is another alternative but the rate must be
doubled.
24
No. 24
FILTER MEDIA
The surface upon which solids are deposited in a filter is

called the “Filter medium”
Properties of ideal filter medium:
It should-
• be capable of delivering a clear filtrate at a suitable
production rate.
• have sufficient mechanical strength.
• be inert.
• retain the solids without plugging at the start of
filtration.
• Not absorb dissolve material.
• Sterile filtration imposes a special requirement since
the pore size must not exceed the dimension of
bacteria or spores.
25
No. 25
MATERIAL USED AS FILTER
MEDIA
Woven material
• Made up of wool, silk, metal or synthetic fibres (rayon, nylon etc.).

• These include a- wire screening and b- fabrics of cotton, wool, nylon.
• Wire screening e.g. stainless steel is durable, resistance to plugging
and easily cleaned.
• Cotton is a common filter ,however, Nylon is superior for
pharmaceutical use, since it is unaffected by mold, fungus or bacteria
and has negligible absorption properties .
• The choice of fibre depends on chemical
Perforated sheet metal
• Stainless steel plates have pores which act as channels as in case of
meta filters.
Bed of granular solid built up on supporting medium
• In some processes, a bed of graded solids may be formed to reduce resistance of

flow.
• Ex. Of granular solids are gravel, sand, asbestos, paper pulp and keiselgur.
• Choice of solids depends on size of solids in process.
No. 26
Prefabricated porous solid units
• Used for its convenience and effectiveness.

• Sintered glass, sintered metal, earthenware and porous
plastics are used for fabrication.
Membrane filter media
• These are cartridge units and are economical and available

in pore size of 100 μm to even less than 0.2 μm.
• Can be either surface cartridges or depth type cartridges.
• Surface cartridges
• These are corrugated and resin treated papers and used in
hydraulic lines.
• Ceramic cartridges and porcelain filter candles are
examples.
• Can be reuse after cleaning.
• Depth type cartridges:
• Made up of cotton, asbestos or cellulose.
• These are disposable items, since cleaning is not feasible.
No. 27
FILTER AIDS
The objective of filter aid is to prevent the medium from

becoming blocked and to form an open, porous cake,
hence, reducing the resistance to flow of the filtrate.
Filter aid forms a surface deposit which screens out the
solids and also prevents the plugging of supporting filter
medium.
Characteristics of filter aids:

Chemically inert and free from impurities.
Low specific gravity, so remain suspended in liquids.
Porous rather than dense, so that pervious cake can be
formed.
Recoverable.
Disadvantages:
Remove the coloured substances by absorbing them.
Sometimes active principles such as alkaloids are
absorbed on filter aid.
Rarely, filters are source of contamination such as
soluble iron salts, which can provoke degradation of
sensitive ingredient.
28
No. 28
HANDLING OF FILTER AIDS
Filter aids may be used in either or both two ways:

Pre- coating technique: by forming a pre-coat over the filter
medium by filtering a suspension of the filter aid .
Body- mix technique: A small proportion of the filter aid (0.1-
0.5 %) is added to the slurry to be filtered. This slurry is
recirculated through the filter until a clear filtrate is obtained,
filtration then proceeds to completion.
Different flow rates can be achieved depending on grade of
aid-
Low flow rate: fine grade filter aids- mainly used for clarity
Fast flow rate: coarse grade filter aids- acceptable filtrate.
Examples of filter aids
Diatomite (Keiselgur) , obtained from natural siliceous
deposits.
Perlite , it is an aluminium silicate. Cellulose, Asbestos,
charcoal, talc, bentonite , fullers earth etc.
29
No. 29
CLASSIFICATION OF
FILTRATION EQUIPMENTS
Based on application of external

force:
filters
Pressure Vacuum Centrifugal

filters filters filters
Plate and
frame filter Meta filter Filter leaf centrifuges
press
No. 30
BASED ON OPERATION OF
FILTRATION
Filters
Continuous Discontinuous
filtration filtration
Discharge and filtrate are Discharge of filtered solid is

intermittent.
separated steadily and
uninterrupted Filtrate is removed continuously.
Operation should be stopped to collect
solid.
31
No. 31
BASED ON NATURE OF
FILTRATION
Filters
Cake filters Clarifying filters Cross- flow filters
Feed of suspension
flows under
Remove large Remove small
pressure at fairly
amount of solid amounts of solids
high velocity across
the filter medium
32
No. 32
LABORATORY SCALE
FILTRATION
• Filter paper and funnel
• Buchner funnel and filter paper
• Sintered glass filter
• Seitz filter
• Membrane filter
33
No. 33
SELECTION OF FILTERS DEPENDS
UPON BELOW LISTED FACTORS
Equipment and
Material related
process related
Properties of fluid- viscosity
Flow rate
Nature of solids- size, shape, distribution
and packing characteristics of particles
Should be absolute in sense, limit to
size of particles passing through the
Conc. Of solid in suspension filter should be known.
Quantity of material to be handle Should be sterilisable by heat,

radiation or gas
Whether it is necessary to wash the
solid
Whether any form of pretreatment will Should be economical.

be helpful.
No. 34
PLATE AND FRAME FILTER
PRESS
Principle:
Mechanism is surface filtration.
The slurry enters the frame by pressure and flows
through filter medium.
The filtrate is collected on the plates and send to
outlet.
A number of frames and plates are used so that
surface area increases and consequently large
volumes of slurry can be processed simultaneously
with or without washing.
35
No. 35
DIAGRAM
36
No. 36
ASSEMBLY OF PLATE AND
FRAME FILTER
37
No. 37
CONSTRUCTION
The Filter press is made of two types of units, plate and

frames.
Usually made of aluminium alloy.
Sometimes, these are also lacquered for protection
against corrosive chemicals and made suitable for steam
sterilization.
Frame
It contains a open space inside wherein the slurry
reservoir is maintained for filtration and an inlet to receive
the slurry.
It is indicated by two dots in description.
Slurry
inlet
Handle to rest on
rod
No. 38
Frames of different thickness are available.
It is selected based on the thickness of cake formed
during filtration.
Optimum thickness of frame should be chosen.
Plate
The plate has a studded or grooved surface to support
the filter cloth and an outlet.
It is indicated by one dot in description.
Through channel
Filtrate outlet
No. 39
Plate supports the filter medium, receiving the filtrate and outlet.
The filter medium usually cloth is interposed between plate and
frame.
Plate, filter medium, frame, filter medium and plate are arranged
in sequence and clamed to a supporting structure.
It is normally described by dots as 1.2.1.2.1 so on.
A number of plates and frames are employed so that the
filtration area is as large as necessary.
Number of filtration units are operated in parallel.
Channels for slurry inlet and filtrate outlet can be arranged by
fitting eyes to the plates and frames, these join together to form
a channel.
In some types only one inlet channel is formed, while each plate
is having individual outlets controlled by valves.
No. 40
WORKING
Working can be divided into two steps-

1. Filtration operation
2. Washing of cake (if desirable)
Filtration operation
Frame- marked by 2
dots
Plate – marked by 1 dot
Plate and frame filter press, principle of filtration

operation
No. 41
Slurry enters the frame The thickness of the
from the feed channel The solid forms a filter cake is half of the frame
and passes through the cake and remain in the thickness, because on
filter medium on the frame each side of frame
surface of the plate filtration occurs
The filtrate drains

As filtration proceeds, Thus two filter cakes
between the projections
the resistance of the are formed , which
of the surface of the
cake increases and meet eventually in the
plate and escape from
filtration rate decrease centre of the frame
the outlet
At a certain point
process is stopped and
press is emptied and
cycle is restarted
No. 42
WASHING OPERATION
When washing of cake is also required modified plate and frame filter
is used.
For this purpose an additional channel is included called as washing
plate and are identified by 3 dots.
In the half of the washing plate, there is a connection from wash water
cannel to the surface of plate.
The sequence of arrangement of plates and frames can be
represented by dots as 1.2.3.2.1.2.3.2.1 so on (between 1 and 1,
2.3.2 must be arranged.
No. 43
PROCEDURE FOR WASHING
THE PRESS
• Filtration proceeds in the ordinary way until the frames are filled
Step 1 with cake.
• To wash the filter cake, the outlets of washing plates are closed.
Step 2
• Wash water is pumped in the washing channel.

• The water enters through the inlets on the surface of washing
Step 3 plate.
• Water passes through the filter cloth and enters frame which
contains the cake.
Step 4 • Then water washes the cake, passes through the filter cloth
and enters the plate down the surface.
Step 5 • Finally washed water escapes through the outlet of that plate.
No. 44
DIAGRAMMATIC PROCEDURE
45
No. 45
THINGS TO BE NOTED
Water – wash is efficient only if the frames are full

with filter cake.
If the solid do not fill the frame completely, the wash
water causes the cake to break (on the washing
plate side of the frame), then washing will be less
effective.
Hence it is essential to allow the frames become
completely filled with washing cake.
This helps not only in emptying the frames but also
helps in washing the cake correctly.
No. 46
SPECIAL PROVISIONS AND
USES
Special provisions:
Any possible contamination can be observed by passing
the filtrate through a glass tube or sight glass from the
outlet on each plate.
This permits the inspection of quality of filtrate. The
filtrate goes through the control valves to an outlet
channel.
The filtration process from each plate can be seen.

In the event of broken cloth, the faulty plate can be
isolated and filtration can be continued with one plate
less.
Uses:
Sterile filtrate can by obtain by using asbestos and
cellulose filter sheet (for this, whole filter press and filter
medium have been sterilized previously).
Filtration of viscous liquid can also be done by
incorporating heating/cooling coils in the press.
No. 47
ADVANTAGES
• Construction of filter press is very simple and a variety

of materials can be used.
• Cast iron – for handling common substances.
• Bronze - for smaller units.
• Stainless steel – contamination can be avoided.
• Hard rubber and plastic- used where metals must be
avoided.
• Wood- for lightness though it must be kept wet.
• Provide large filtration area in relatively small floor
space.
• The capacity being variable according to thickness of
frames and number used.
• Sturdy construction permits the use of considerable
pressure difference. (2000 Kilopascals normally
used)
• Efficient washing of cake is possible.
• Operation and maintenance is easy.
• It produce dry cake in form of slab.
No. 48
DISADVANTAGES
• It is a batch filter, so it is a time consuming.
• The filter press is an expensive filter, the emptying
time, the labour involved, and the wear and tear on the
cloths resulting in high costs.
• Operation is critical, as the frames should be full,
otherwise washing is inefficient and the cake is difficult
to remove.
• The filter press is used for slurries containing less
about 5 % solids
• In view of the high labour costs , it is most suitable for
expensive materials e.g. the removal of precipitated
proteins from insulin liquors.
49
No. 49
CHAMBER PRESS
Principle
The slurry enters the frame by pressure and flows
through the filter cloth.
The filtrate is collected on the plates and send to the
outlet.
A number of head plates are used, so that the
surface area can be increases and consequently
large volumes of slurry can be processed
simultaneously.
50
No. 50
DIAGRAM
51
No. 51
CONSTRUCTION
It consist of heavy fixed head plate made of cast iron and

mounted on suitable frame.
Extending from the head plate, two horizontal bars support on
both ends.
The bar supports the plate by lugs.
At the center of the each plate, a hole is provided for introducing
the feed.
The holes of the all plate are connected on the head of the
press.
Over each press plate, a sheet of filter cloth with a hole cut in
the centre and is placed.
The filter cloth is fastened by means of rings called grommets
and either screwed together or locked.
These draw down the cloth, so that it is shaped round the plate.
All such plates are arranged and a heavy follower plate is placed
behind and tighten.
The cloth serves as a gasket between the adjacent plates.
No. 52
WORKING
Runs down the

The slurry is pumped corrugations on the
through the hole The slurry passes face of the plates and
connected at the through the cloth escape through the
centre. holes cored in the
bottom of each plate
The space between

The external outlet
the plates is the The filtrate passes
usually discharges into
volume available for through the outlet
an open launder.
the formation of cake
When sufficient cake is

The plates are
accumulated in the Then, the plates are
dismantled and the
chamber , the closing reassembled.
cake is discharged
screw is released
53
No. 53
USES, ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Uses:
used for clarification of syrups and filtrating of injection
solutions.
Advantages:
Provide large filtering area in relatively small floor space.
A number of head plates can be increased or decreased
as per need.
Operation and maintenance are straight forward (no
moving part).
Filter cloths are easily renewable.
Disadvantages:
Not adaptable for washing of cake.
The wear of cloth is severe.
The filtrate is usually not clear.
No. 54
FILTER LEAF
Principle:
It is an apparatus consisting of a longitudinal drainage
screen covered with a filter cloth.
The mechanism is surface filtration and acts as sieve or
strainer.
Vacuum or pressure can be applied to increase the rate of
filtration.
Construction:
The leaf filter is consisting of a frame enclosing a drainage
screen or grooved plate.
The frame may be any shape circular, square or
rectangular.
The whole unite being covered with filter cloth.
The outlet for the filtrate connects to the inside of the
frame through suction.
No. 55
DIAGRAM
No. 56
WORKING AND USES
Working:
Use: Finally
Air is passed
Use for the filtration of slurry which
Vacuum
do not contain
The slurry
high solidtoreverse
filtrate enters
flow in
content,
The filter 5%,
about leaf i.e. dilute suspensions. the drainage
system is passes direction
is immersed canal and
connected to through the which
in the slurry goes through
the outlet filter cloth facilitates
the outlet
removal of
into receiver
cake
No. 57
ADVANTAGES
Simplest form of filter used for batch process.

A number of units can be connected in parallel to
increase the surface area of filtration.
Pressure difference can be obtained either with
vacuum or using pressure up to the order of 800
kilopascals.
Labour costs for operating the filter leaf are fairly
moderate.
The efficiency of washing is high.
The slurry can be filtered from any vessel.
The cake can be washed simply by immersing the
filter in a vessel of Water.
58
No. 58
SWEETLAND FILTER (VARIANT OF
FILTER LEAF)
An alternative method is to enclose the filter leaf in a

special vessel into which the slurry is pumped under
pressure.
A number of leaves are connected to a common outlet, to
provide a large area for filtration.
No. 59
METAFILTER
Principle:
In this, metal rings contain semicircular projections,
which are arranged as a nest to form channels on
the edges.
This channel offers resistance (strainer) to the flow
of solids (coarse particles).
The clear liquid is collected into receiver from the
top.
No. 60
CONSTRUCTION
Metafilter consists of a series of metal rings.

These are threaded so that a channel is formed on the
edges.
It contains a grooved drainage column on which a series
of metal rings are packed.
These rings are usually made up of stainless steel and
have dimensions of about 15.0 mm internal diameter and
22.0 mm external diameter.
Each metal ring has a number of semicircular projections
(0.8 mm in thickness) on one side of surface.
The projections are arranged as a nest to form channels
on the edges.
These rings are tightened on the drainage column with a
nut.
Metafilters are also known as edge filters.
61
No. 61
DIAGRAM
No. 62
WORKING
Slurry is pumped Slurry passes

The clear liquid
under pressure through the
rises up and
Filters are placed or occasionally channels formed
collected from
in a vessel by applying on the edges
the outlet into
reduced pressure between the
receiver
to the outlet side rings
 For separation of fine particles, a bed of suitable

materials such kieselguhr is first built up.
 The pack of rings serves essentially as a base on which
the true filter medium is supported.
63
No. 63
USES
• Metafilters can be used for-

Clarification of syrups
Filtration of injection solutions
Clarification of insulin liquors
Filtration of viscous liquids can be achieved by
applying pressure.
64
No. 64
ADVANTAGES
 Can be used under high pressures, without any danger of
bursting the filter medium.
 Running cost are low, as separate filter medium is not used.
 Can be constructed from a material that can provide excellent
resistance to corrosion and avoid contamination of sensitive
products.
 It is extremely versatile filter because fine as well as large both
type of particles can be separated.
 Removal of cake can be carried out by simply back- flushing
with water.
 Change over from one batch to another or one product to
another is easy.
 Sterile products can be handled.
65
No. 65
CARTRIDGE FILTER
Principle:
 It is a thin porous membrane in which pre filter

and membrane filter are combined in a single
unit.
 The filtration action is mainly sieve like and
particles are retained on the surface.
 Construction:
 It has cylindrical configuration made with
disposable or changeable filter media.
 Made up of either plastic or metal.
 Consist of two membrane filters (sieve like)
made of polypropylene: pre filter and actual filter
for filtration.
 A protective layer surrounds them.
 The cartridge are housed in a holder and a
number of cartridges can be placed in a same
housing.
 The housing is closed with the lid.
 Housing has provisions for slurry inlet and
outlets.
66
No. 66
DIAGRAM
67
No. 67
WORKING AND USES
Working:
Uses:
Particularly useful for preparation of particulate free
solutions for parenterals and ophthalmic uses.
This filter holder will process 1000 – 15000 litres of sterile
solution per hour.
It passes
Slurry is The clear
through Moves up
pumped liquid
cartridge to collect
into passes
filter unit through
cartridge through
by outlet
holder the centre
straining
No. 68
ADVANTAGES AND
DISADVANTAGES
Advantages:
Autoclaving can be done for sterile operations due to
stainless steel construction.
Cartridge with self cleaning devices are advantageous.
Rapid disassembling as well as reusing of filter medium
is possible.
Cartridge are not brittle, when they are dry.
Used as in-line continuous filtration, which reduces
handling of solutions. It minimize chances of
contaminations.
Disadvantages:
A number of manufactures provide the components,
which are generally not interchangeable between
suppliers.
Cost of disposable elements offsets the labour saving in
terms of assembly and cleaning of cartridge clarifiers.
No. 69
ROTARY DRUM FILTER
Principle:
Slurry filtered through sieve like mechanism on the
rotation drum surface, under the condition of vacuum.
In addition compression, drying (using hot air), and
removing the filter cake (using knife) are possible.
Construction:
It consist of a metal cylinder mounted horizontally.
The drum may be up to 3 meters in diameter and 3.5
meters in length and gives surface area of 20 meter
square.
The curved surface being a perforated plate, supporting
a filter cloth.
Internally, it is divided into several sectors and a
separate connection is made between each sector and a
special rotary valve.
70
No. 70
DIAGRAM
No. 71
WORKING
The drum is dipped into the slurry and vacuum applied to

the outlet, which is connected to the filtrate receiver.
When the cake has formed, the cake drained or partially
dried by vacuum.
The drum is sprayed with water to wash the cake.

Retaining the vacuum connection drains the cake and
produces partial dryness then, removed by a doctor knife.
When the solids of the slurry are too much that the filter
cloth becomes blocked with the particles, a pre-coat filter
may be used.
A pre-coat of filter aid is deposited on the drum prior to
the filtration process.
72
No. 72
USES
The rotary filter for continuous operation on large

quantities of slurry.
Suitable for slurry contains considerable amounts of

solids in the range 15-30%.
Examples of pharmaceutical application include

the collection of calcium carbonate, magnesium
carbonate, and starch.
The separation of the mycelium from the

fermentation liquor in the manufacture of antibiotics.
73
No. 73
ADVANTAGES
The rotary filter is automatic and is continuous in
operation, so that the labour costs are very low.
The filter has a large capacity , so it is suitable for the
filtration of highly concentrated solutions.
Variation of the speed of rotation enables the cake
thickness to be controlled.
Pre-coat of filter aid could used to accelerate the filtration
rate.
Filter has large surface area.
74
No. 74
DISADVANTAGES
The rotary filter is a complex piece of equipment , with
many moving parts and is very expensive,.
In addition to the filter itself, some accessories are
connected ,e.g., a vacuum pump, vacuum receivers ,
slurry pumps and agitators are required .
The cake tends to crack due to the air drawn through by
the vacuum system, so that washing and drying are not
efficient.
Being a vacuum filter, the pressure difference is limited to
1 bar and hot filtrates may boil.
It is suitable only for straight- forward slurries
75
No. 75
PRESSURE AND SAND FILTER
Principle:
Depth filtration
Mechanism is impingement and entanglement of solids on
account of low pressure differential.
The slurry enters the sand bed and the clear liquid is
collected from the bottom outlet.
No. 76
CONSTRUCTION
It is a closed system and consists of cylindrical tank with a

bottom containing a number of brass strainers.
These are mounted on false bottom or connected to a
modified embedded in concrete.
The strainers have narrow slots sawed in them.

Above this 6-12 m depth sand layer is placed, which acts
as a filter medium.
Baffles are arranged at the point of feed inlet, in order to

prevent the disturbance of sand by direct stream.
Provisions is made at the bottom for collecting the filtrate.
77
No. 77
WORKING
Filtration is
The feed is The feed is
achieved by
introduced from passed smoothly
straining
the top at at a uniform rate
mechanism
pressure through onto the sand
through sand
the baffles. medium
medium
Then, the feed is

passed through
the strainer, so
The filtrate is
The precipitate that further
collected fro
is discarded filtration takes
bottom
place and
particles are
retained
78
No. 78
When the precipitate clogs the sand (indicated by
reduced filtration rate), back washing permits the
regeneration of the filter bed.
During this operation, water moves up through the

sand bed and moves out from the inlet.
Uses:
Used for filtration of boiler feed or water for similar

purposes.
Mainly used when solids are little and large volume

of feed is to be handled.
They are applicable only to the separation of
precipitates that can be removed from the sand.
79
No. 79
DISADVANTAGES
Feed containing precipitates that are gelatinous or form a
coat on sand can’t be filtered through the sand, because
back washing does not permit regeneration.
Feed containing finely divided solids can’t be separate by
this.
Can’t remove bacteria. In such cases, coagulants such as
ferrous sulphate, are added to feed before filtration.
80
No. 80
STREAMLINE FILTER
Principle:
It consists of column of filter elements held tightly
together, so that the slurry enters from the side of the
column and passes through vary narrow channels
between the elements.
The filters employ paper discs.
The filter act as a strainer to retain solids.
81
No. 81
ASSEMBLY
It consists of specially treated filter paper discs arranged

in the form of a compressed pack on an upright rod or
spigot.
In assembling the filter, the two parts of the filter can be
unscrewed.
The required quantity of rings are placed on the spigot
portion and two parts are then screwed together to give a
compact stack of filter elements.
The extent of compression on the disc may be varied
depending on the size of particles to be removed.
For small scale filtration, ebonite material made spigots
are used.
The spigot is hollow and grooves run down the length.
From hollow centre of the spigot, vacuum is applied.
No. 82
WORKING
The clear liquid passes

through the grooves, After the last quantity
Filter is immersed in sucked through the of liquid is filtered,
the liquid to be filtered hollow centre of spigot wash water may be
and filtrate passes to used
the receiver
The entire solid

From the hollow centre
residue is left at the
of spigot vacuum is
edge and width of the
applied
pack
The roughness of the

Further, liquid also
paper surfaces offer
passes between the
narrow passage ways
surface of the paper
through which clear
discs
liquid flows
Cleaning of streamline filter is attempted by connecting

the spigot to the water tap.
The water is passed in opposite direction.
The residue is washed away from the edges of the stack.
If solid residue is required, air may be blown, so that solid
is peeled of, which may be collected.
No. 83
USES AND ADVANTAGES
Uses:
It removes suspended matter, trace of fines and even
submicron size colloidal matter from large volumes of the
slurry.
The two parts of spigots are screwed tightly and fine
precipitates can be separated for achieving high grade
polishing.
Oily, aqueous and alcoholic solutions which do not
soften the fibre of the pack can also be filtered.
Heat resistant porcelain filters are used for strongly acidic
or hot strong alkaline solutions.
Advantages:
Instead of vacuum, pressure may be applied.
In this case, the container (in which assembly is
immersed) must be sealed and should be able to
withstand applied pressure.
No. 84
TYPES OF STRAINERS
Strainers or filters are devices used for separating solid from

liquids and catching dirt and debris. They act as a filter trapping
large particles. By doing so, the particles would not continue to
the system and will have expensive pipeline equipment such as
pumps, engines, valves, heat exchangers, nozzles and others
protected from harmful flow contamination. Since they would be
dealing mostly with liquids, they are made from copper and
aluminium which are known for their corrosion resistant property.
Strainers are applied both in residential and industrial facilities.
They come in various designs and sizes and can even be
customized according to the requirement of the application. This
device can be bought in hardware. Custom designed strainers
can be requested to manufacturers.
The various types of strainers work in different ways. Some can
totally block the flow of liquid or filter particle while allowing the
fluid to continue running. The function can be controlled through
a handle. By constant use, the strainer will clog with materials
that reached it and held back. In order to keep the system
running, the materials in the strainer need to be cleared
periodically
No. 85
TYPES OF STRAINERS
Conical Strainers
Cone strainers, or temporary strainers, are
a cost effective mean for temporary
straining for start-up applications. The
strainer is designed in a conical shape,
which slightly resembles the form of a
witch’s hat. It is prudent to state that cone
strainers should not be used as a
permanent straining solution.
No. 86
TYPES OF STRAINERS
Tee Strainers
Industrially fabricated tee strainers help to
mechanically eliminate undesirable debris
from gas, liquids and streamlines. Tee
strainers use a perforated, stainless steel wire
mesh element to protect pumps, meters,
control valves, steam tramps, and other crucial
equipment in pipelines. Tee strainers of
varying sizes and materials can be designed
for: refineries, water, petrochemical, oil, gas,
plumbing, and irrigation industries.
No. 87
TYPES OF STRAINERS
Flat Perforated Strainers

When a conical or truncated conical strainer
cannot be installed, a flat perforated strainer is
the best available option. As a result of their
simple design, flat strainers are typically
inexpensive in comparison to other strainers.
Yet, they have the tendency to reduce pipeline
flow up to fifty percent, which can result on
pressure drops and rapid pipe clogging.
No. 88
TYPES OF STRAINERS
Basket strainers
Similar to the aforementioned strainers, basket strainers
are excellent at providing strainers for commercial and
industrial industries that work with energy and
petrochemicals. Industrial basket strainers maintain the
security of piping systems by protecting the pump,
compressor, metal and additional vital components. These
strainers must be designed to be secure, and have sound
mechanical integrity and performance. Two popular
versions are the duplex basket strainer and the simplex
basket strainer. Duplex strainers are used if the operator
cannot shut down the system for routine maintenance.
Simplex strainers need to be regularly maintained and
cleaned; they also come in a variety of sizes and
materials.
• Individually designed to meet your requirements.

• Available in all materials including fiberglass and PVC.
• Baskets designed for full line pressure.
• Easy installation and basket maintenance.
• Retention from 5 microns.
• Can be fully automated.
• Economical.
No. 89
BAND FILTER
No. 90
CARTRIDGE FILTER
Cartridge filters are the machines which is used in filtration

purpose by uses the filtration technology of removing solid
matter and suspended impurities from a fluid stream by
passing it through a variety micro porous filters, ultrafiltration
units, green sand cartridge filters, activated carbon cartridge
filters, diatomaceous earth and multimedia cartridge filters.
DESCRIPTION
Cartridge filters are defined as fabric or polymer-based filters

designed primarily to remove particulate material from fluids.
Cartridge filters use a variety of media to remove

contaminants, depending on your application. The filter media
in our cartridge filters encompass a wide range from sand,
anthracite and quartz to conditioned media for iron and
manganese removal, and activated carbon.
Cartridge filters range in style from particulate and high purity
water cartridge filters, to activated carbon filters, vent
cartridge filters and replacement cartridge filters for laboratory
usage. Our cartridge filters are available in a wide variety of
sizes, capabilities, and specific end caps.
No. 91
CARTRIDGE FILTER
No. 92
THEORY OF THIN FILM
EVAPORATION
Thin-film evaporation is applied in heat exchangers called thin-film

or thin-layer vaporators. Actually thin-layer evaporators may be
considered as heat and mass exchangers, since molecules from
liquid phase are transferred to gas phase during process
of vaporization and the movement of molecules from gas phase to
liquid phase is probable during process of condensation. This kind
of devices are commonly applied in chemical, pharmaceutical and
food industries since 1950.
Vertical thin-layer evaporator is characterized by small pressure

drop and short residence time of the phases in the apparatus,
which means also that there is short contact time of the liquid
with hot surface of the evaporator wall. These features of the
evaporator cause that it is applied for the concentration of heat
sensitive liquid solutions especially with high viscosity.
Because of low value of pressure drop during gas flow inside the
evaporator the boiling temperature of liquid, which is evaporated,
depends only on its composition and does not depend on liquid
position in the evaporator, which is of great importance in case of
evaporation at low pressure.
No. 93
THIN FILM EVAPORATION
No. 94
TYPES OF THIN FILM
EVAPORATORS
• Different Types Of Rotor To Suit A Wide Range Of

Different Applications
• Vertical Or Horizontal Construction
• Cylindrical Or Conical Design
• Counter Or Co-current Working Principle
THIN FILM EVAPORATORS ACCESSORIES
• Quartz crystals
• Test Glasses
• Cleaners
• Evaporation Boats & Filaments
• Liners
• Aluminium Protective Foil
• Chemicals for CVD processes
No. 95
PREVENTIVE AND
CORRECTIVE MAINTENANCE
No. 96
PREVENTIVE AND
PROCESS CHAMBER CLEANING
The chamber and internal shielding should be cleaned regularly
to remove contaminants and particulates which can affect
vacuum integrity and process performance.
The user should review the system periodically and perform
duties as required to set up a scheduled preventative
maintenance procedure.
Care should be taken to assure that cleaning agents and cleaning

procedures do not form a negative reaction with the materials
used in the deposition chamber.
Refer to supplier book for handling instructions. Run-off from

deposition component cleaning may be poisonous and requires
appropriate disposal.
As part of the preventative maintenance of the system, all heater

bulbs and their connections should be inspected periodically.
Actual maintenance intervals may vary depending on tool use.

The schedules and procedures in this document are based on
projected normal usage and are intended as supplemental
information and are to be used as reference ONLY. Where
applicable, the individual component manuals should be
reviewed for vendor recommended service intervals and
procedures. Not all components listed in this schedule may be
included on your system.
No. 97
PREVENTIVE AND
Any personnel performing preventative maintenance functions

must be properly trained on all aspects of the tools operation and
safety requirements. Engineering schematics should be
referenced for proper assembly.
No. 98
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 99
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 100
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 101
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 102
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 103
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 104
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 105
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 106
PREVENTIVE AND
No. 107
THIN FILM EVAPORATORS
OPERATION AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
CRYOPUMP WITH LOAD LOCK CHAMBER
1) Verify all connections to the system are made. Power, water, process
gas, vent gas, and vacuum connections to mechanical pump should be
checked.
2) Verify that the cryo pump is cold and ready for use (<20K). If not, refer to
Cryo Regeneration procedure. (Refer to the On-Board manual for On-
Board cryo pump regeneration procedure.)
3) Verify that both the process chamber and the load lock chamber are at
atmosphere. If not, refer to the Chamber Vent procedure.
4) Open the load lock isolation valve.
5) If operating the system for the first time, open the capacitance
manometer isolation valve (if installed) and any gas isolation valves.
6) Start the system roughing pump and verify that the foreline pressure is
less than 1 Torr.
7) Open the roughing valve.
8) Open load lock gate valve, if applicable. (System roughs through the
load lock turbo pump.)
9) Rough the system to approximately 500 Torr as read by the process
chamber convection gauge. (Refer to gauge controller manual for
convection gauge operating instructions.)
10) Turn on the load lock turbo pump.
11) When the convection gauge in the process chamber is below 200
mTorr, close the load lock isolation valve (wait for it to close completely)
and open the hivac gate valve to the cryo pump.
12) Wait for 10 seconds and when the pressure on the convection gauge is
<1.0e-3 Torr, turn on the ion gauge. (Refer to gauge controller manual for
operating instructions.)
At this point the vacuum system is under vacuum and ready for use. Refer
to individual component manuals for operation of gas flow equipment and
gauging equipment.
No. 108
OPERATION AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
CRYOPUMP WITHOUT LOAD LOCK CHAMBER
1) Verify all connections to system are made. Power, water,

process gas, vent gas, and vacuum connections to mechanical
pump should be checked.
2) Verify that the cryo pump is cold and ready for use (<20K). If
not, refer to the Cryo pump Regeneration procedure. (Refer to
the On-Board manual for On- Board cryo pump regeneration
procedure.)
3) If operating the system for the first time, open the
capacitance manometer isolation valve (if installed) and any gas
isolation valves.
4) Start the system roughing pump and verify that the foreline
pressure is less than 1 Torr.
5) Open the roughing valve.
6) Rough the system to approximately 200 mTorr as read by the
process chamber convection gauge. (Refer to gauge controller
manual for convection gauge operating instructions.)
7) Close roughing valve.
8) Open the hivac gate valve to the cryo pump.
9) When the process chamber convection gauge is below 1.0e-
3 mTorr turn on the ion gauge. (Refer to gauge controller
manual for operating instructions.)
10) Turn off roughing pump.
At this point the vacuum system is under vacuum and ready for
use. Refer to individual component manuals for operation of gas
flow equipment and gauging equipment.
No. 109
OPERATION AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
TURBO PUMP VENT

1) Verify that all source and heater supplies are turned off.
2) Turn off the ion gauge filament.
3) Turn off all gas flow.
4) Turn off the turbo pump.
5) Close turbo backing valve.
6) Turn off the mechanical pump.
7) Open the vent valve, if applicable.
8) Wait until the system reaches atmospheric pressure.
The convectron gauge can be used as an estimation,
however this may have some degree of error.
At this point the vacuum system is at atmosphere. The
chamber door can now be opened. (Refer to individual
component manuals to make sure all equipment is in a
safe mode.)
No. 110
OPERATION AND
TROUBLESHOOTING
LOAD LOCK VENT
3) Close the roughing valve.
4) Open the turbo vent valve.
6) Close the turbo vent valve.
At this point the vacuum system is at atmosphere. The
load lock door can now be opened.
Refer to manufacturers’ manuals to make sure all
equipment is in a safe mode.
TURBO WITHOUT LOAD LOCK VENT
2) Verify that all gas valves are closed and all source and
heater supplies are off.
3) Verify that the heater is <80ºC.
5) Close the foreline valve.
6) Ensure the pump speed is < 80°C. If applicable, open
the turbo vent valve.
8) Close the turbo vent valve.
At this point the vacuum system is at atmosphere. The top
plate can now be opened. Refer
to manufacturers’ manuals to make sure all equipment is in
a safe mode.
No. 111
Day Two
Extruder Operation
and Troubleshooting
No. 112
TOPICS
Introduction Extrusion Defects

The Extrusion Process Extrusion Equipment
Extrusion Practice The Drawing Process
Hot Extrusion Drawing Practice
Cold Extrusion Defects and Residual Stresses
Impact Extrusion Drawing Equipment
Hydrostatic Extrusion
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No. 113
INTRODUCTION
Extrusion – It is a process where a billet is forced through
a die.
Parts have constant cross-section
Typical Products of Extrusion – Sliding Doors, tubing
having various cross-sections, structural and
architectural shapes and door and window frames.
Drawing – It is a process where a cross-section of solid
rod, wire, or tubing is reduced or changed in shape by
pulling it through a die.
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No. 114
EXTRUSIONS
Fig : Extrusions and examples of products made by

sectioning off extrusions.
No. 115
THE EXTRUSION PROCESS
Types of Extrusion :
Direct Extrusion (or) Forward Extrusion – Billet is placed
in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a
hydraulically-driven ram or pressing stem.
Indirect Extrusion – Die moves towards the billet.
Hydrostatic Extrusion – The billet is smaller in diameter

that the chamber, which is filled with a fluid, and the
pressure is transmitted to the billet by a ram.
Extrusion Ratio = Ao/Af

Ao – cross-sectional area of the billet
Af - cross-sectional area of extruded product
No. 116
DIRECT EXTRUSION
Fig : Schematic illustration of direct extrusion process.
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No. 117
TYPES OF EXTRUSION
Fig : Types of Extrusion (a) indirect (b) hydrostatic (c)

lateral
No. 118
PROCESS VARIABLES IN
DIRECT EXTRUSION
Fig : Process variables in direct extrusion. The die angle,

reduction in cross-section, extrusion speed, billet temperature,
and lubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
Fig : Method of determining the circumscribing-circle diameter

(CCD) of an extruded cross-section.
No. 119
Extrusion Force :
F = AokIn(Ao/Af)
k-extrusion constant
Ao, Af billet and extruded product areas
Fig : Extrusion constant k for various metals at different

temperatures
No. 120
TYPES OF METAL FLO
W IN EXTRUDING WITH SQUARE DIES.
Fig : Types of metal flow in extruding with square dies. (a)

Flow pattern obtained at low friction, or in indirect extrusion.
(b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet-chamber
interfaces, (c) Pattern obtained at high friction, or with
cooling of the outer regions of the billet in the chamber.
This type of pattern, observed in metals whose strength
increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to
defect known as pipe, or extrusion defect.
No. 121
HOT EXTRUSION
Extrusion is carried out at elevated temperatures – for
metals and alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at
room temperature, or in order to reduce the forces
required.
No. 122
DIE DESIGN AND DIE MATERIALS
Fig : (a) An extruded 6063-T6 aluminum ladder lock for

aluminum extension ladders. This parts is 8mm thick
and is sawed from the extrusion, (b)-(d) Components of
various dies for extruding intricate hollow shapes.
No. 123
CROSS-SECTIONS
TO BE EXTRUDED
Fig : Poor and good examples of cross-sections to be

extruded. Note the importance of eliminating sharp corners
and of keeping section thickness uniform.
No. 124
COLD EXTRUSION
Combination of operations, such as direct and indirect
extrusion and forging.
Advantages :
• Improved mechanical properties
• Good control of dimensional tolerances
• Improved surface finish
• Elimination of the need for billet heating;
Fig : Two examples of cold extrusion. Thin arrows indicate

the direction of metal flow during extrusion.
No. 125
IMPACT EXTRUSION
Similar to indirect extrusion
Punch descends rapidly on the blank, which is extruded
backward
Fig : Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion

process. The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a
stripper plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
No. 126
EXAMPLES OF IMPACT EXTRUSION
Fig : (a) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion. These parts may
also be made by casting, by forging, or by machining; the choice of process
depends on the dimensions and the materials involved and on the properties
desires. Economic considerations are also important in final process selection. (b)
and (c) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube by the Hooker process.
No. 127
HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
The pressure required for extrusion is supplied through

and incompressible fluid medium surrounding the billet
Usually carried at room temperature, typically using
vegetable oils as the fluid
Brittle materials are extruded generally by this method
It increases ductility of the material
It has complex nature of the tooling
No. 128
EXTRUSION DEFECTS
1. Surface cracking.
2. Pipe.
3. Internal Cracking
Fig : (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel

bars. Unless the products are inspected, such internal defects
may remain undetected, and later cause failure of the part in
service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of
wire, and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic
zones in extrusion. The tendency toward chevron cracking
increases if the two plastic zones do not meet. Note that the
plastic zone can be made larger either by decreasing the die
angel or by increasing the reduction in cross-section (or both).
No. 129
DRAWING PROCESS
In this process the cross section of a round rod or wire is

typically reduced or changed by pulling it through a die
Die angle has great influence on the drawing force and the
quality of the drawn product
Drawing FORCE :
F = Yavg Af In (Ao/Af) ; Yavg – average true stress of
the material in the die gap
Fig : Process variables in wire drawing. The die angle, the

reduction in cross-sectional area per pass, the speed of
drawing, the temperature, and the lubrication all affect the
drawing force, F.
No. 130
TUBE DRAWING OPERATIONS
Fig : Examples of tube-drawing operations, with and without

internal mandrel. Note that a variety of diameters and wall
thickness can be produced from the same initial tube stock
(which had been made by other processes).
No. 131
DIE DESIGN
Characteristic features of a typical die design for drawing
Fig : Terminology of a
typical die used for
drawing round rod or
wire.
Fig : Tungsten-
carbide die
insert in a steel
casing.
Diamond dies,
used in drawing
thin wire, are
encased in a
similar manner.
No. 132
DIE MATERIALS
Commonly used materials are Tool Steels and Carbides

Diamond dies are used for fine wire.
For improved wear resistance, steel dies may be chromium
plated, and carbide dies may be coated with titanium nitride
For Hot drawing, cast-steel dies are used
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No. 133
LUBRICATION
Proper lubrication is essential in drawing, in order to improve die life,
reduce drawing forces and temperature, and improve surface finish.
Types of Lubrication
Wet drawing : Dies and Rods are completely immersed in lubricant
Dry drawing : Surface of the rod to be drawn is coated with a lubricant
Coating : Rod or Wire is coated with a soft metal that acts as a solid
lubricant
Ultrasonic Vibration of the dies and mandrels.
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No. 134
DEFECTS AND RESIDUAL STRESSES
Typical defects are

center cracking
seams
Fig : Schematic illustration of roll straightening of a

drawn round rod.
No. 135
DRAWING EQUIPMENT
Fig : Two views of multistage wire-drawing machine that is

typically used in the making of copper wire for electrical
wiring.
No. 136
EXTRUSION SIMULATION AND
OPTIMIZATION OF PROFILE DIE DESIGN
Introduction
Extrusion describes the process by which a polymer melt
is pushed across a metal die, which continuously shapes
the melt into the desired form.
Polymer pellets
Dopants
Feeding
Dryer
Hopper
Breaker
plate
Cooling Haul-off
Die
Gear
pum
p
Cutter
Extruder Calibrator
Measurement
A Schematic of Profile Extrusion Line at FNAL
No. 137
QUALITY FACTORS
Extrudate swell
rearrangement of the velocity profile as the polymer

leaves the die
Draw down
Cooling
Insufficient mixing in the extruder
Uneven die body temperatures and raw material variations
Non-uniform viscosity in the die
Non-uniform swelling
Non-uniform draw down
No. 138
OBJECTIVES
Investigate the swell phenomenon and mass flow

balance affected by different parameters like die
lengths, flow rates, exponent in viscosity function etc.
Simulate the flow and heat transfer of molten polymer
inside the die and in the free-flow region after the die
exit, and compute pressure, temperature, velocity,
stress and strain rate distributions over the entire
simulation domain.
An attempt to develop a possible strategy for effective die

design in profile extrusion
Investigate the die swell behavior of the polymer and to

predict the optimum die profile-shape and dimensions,
including the pin(s) profile, to obtain the required
dimensions and quality of the extrudates.
No. 139
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Using Finite Element based CFD code Polyflow

Using the method of Inverse Extrusion
To fully understand the extrusion processes and the
influence of various parameters on the quality of the
final product.
Integrate the simulation results and the experimental
data to obtain more precise extrudate shape.
LITERATURE REVIEW
The text book “Dynamics of Polymeric Liquids” by
R.B.Bird gives a detailed overview of non-Newtonian
fluid dynamics, which is important to understand the flow
of polymers.
The text book “Extrusion Dies” by Walter Michaeli gives
an extensive representation of extrusion processes and
guidelines for the design of dies.
The text book “Plastics Extrusion Technology Handbook”
by Levis gives a clear representation of the rheology of
materials and the technology of extrusion processes.
No. 140
Woei-Shyong Lee and Sherry Hsueh-Yu Ho have
investigated the die swell behavior of a polymer melt
using finite element method and simulated flow of
Newtonian fluid and designed a profile extrusion die
with a geometry of a quarter ring profile
Louis G. Reifschneider has designed a coat hanger
extrusion die using a parametric based three-
dimensional polymer flow simulation algorithm, where
the shape of the manifold and land are modified to
minimize the velocity variation across the die exit.
W.A. Gifford has demonstrated through an actual example

how the efficient use of 3-D CFD algorithms and
automatic finite element mesh generators can be used to
eliminate much of the “cut and try” from profile die design.
No. 141
FLOWCHART FOR NUMERICAL
IMULATION USING POLYFLOW
1. Draw the geometry in Pro-E (or)

other CAD software and export to
GAMBIT
2. Draw the geometry in GAMBIT

(or) import from other CAD
software and mesh it.
3. Specify Polymer
properties in Polydata
Modify 4. Specify boundary conditions

the mesh in Polydata
5. Specify remeshing
Change the technique and solver
remeshing method in Polydata
techniques
6. Specify the evolution
and/or solver
parameters in Polydata
methods
Modify the 7. Polyflow solves the conservation

N equations using the specified data
evolution o
parameters and boundary conditions
8.Is the
Y solution
e converged?
s
Stop
No. 142
General Assumptions
 
The flow is steady   0
 t 
and incompressible v  0
Body forces and Inertia effects are negligible in

comparison with viscous and pressure forces.
Specific heat at constant pressure, Cp, and thermal

conductivity, k, are constant
No. 143
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Inlet: Fully developed inlet velocity corresponding to actual mass flow
rate of 50 kg/hr and uniform inlet temperature (473 K or 200 C).
Die, spider and pin walls: No slip at the die walls

(Vn =Vs = 0; normal and streamline
velocities, respectively), and uniform
die wall temperature 473 K.
Symmetry planes: Shear stress Fs = 0, normal

velocity Vn = 0 and normal heat flux qn =0.
Free surface: Zero pressure and traction/shear at boundary (Fn

= 0, Fs = 0, and Vn =0), and convection heat transfer from the
free surface to surrounding room-temperature air.
Kinematic balance equation

v .n  0 on δΩfree
Outlet: Normal stress Fn =0, Tangential

Velocity Vs = 0, Pressure = 0.0
(reference pressure) and
normal heat flux qn =0.
All domains: Viscous dissipation was

neglected for all flow conditions (after
verification).
No. 144
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Inlet: Fully developed inlet velocity corresponding to actual

mass flow rate of 50 kg/hr and uniform inlet temperature (473
K or 200 C).
Die, spider and pin walls: No slip at the die walls (Vn =Vs = 0;
normal and streamline velocities, respectively), and uniform die
wall temperature 473 K.
Symmetry planes: Shear stress Fs = 0, normal velocity Vn = 0

and normal heat flux qn =0.
Free surface: Zero pressure and traction/shear at boundary
(Fn = 0, Fs = 0, and Vn =0), and convection heat transfer from
the free surface to surrounding room- temperature air.


v .n  0 on
δΩfree
Outlet: Normal stress Fn =0, Tangential Velocity

Vs = 0, Pressure = 0.0 (reference
pressure) and normal heat flux qn =0.
All domains: Viscous dissipation was neglected for all flow

conditions (after verification).
No. 145
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Die, spider and pin walls: No slip at the die walls (Vn
=Vs = 0; normal and streamline velocities, respectively),
and uniform die wall temperature 473 K.
Free surface: Zero pressure and traction/shear at

boundary
(Fn = 0, Fs = 0, and Vn =0),
and convection heat transfer from the free
surface to surrounding room- temperature air.
Kinematic balance
equation
 
Outlet: Normal stress Fn =0,

Tangential Velocity Vs = 0,
Pressure = 0.0 (reference
pressure) and normal
heat flux qn =0.
All domains: Viscous dissipation was neglected for all

flow conditions (after verification).
No. 146
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS
Symmetry planes: Shear stress Fs = 0, normal

velocity Vn = 0 and normal heat flux qn =0.

boundary (Fn = 0, Fs = 0, and Vn =0), And
convection heat transfer from the free surface to
surrounding room-temperature air.

Outlet: Normal stress Fn =0,

Tangential Velocity Vs = 0,
Pressure = 0.0 (reference
pressure) and normal
heat flux qn =0.
All domains: Viscous dissipation was neglected for

all flow conditions (after verification).
No. 147
BOUNDARY CONDITIONS

boundary (Fn = 0, Fs = 0, and Vn =0), and convection
heat transfer from the free surface to surrounding
room-temperature air.

Outlet: Normal stress Fn =0, Tangential Velocity

Vs = 0, Pressure = 0.0 (reference pressure) and
normal heat flux qn =0.
All domains: Viscous dissipation was neglected

for all flow conditions (after verification).
No. 148
Styron viscosity data,
with and without Scintillator dopants
106
η – Styron 663
ηd– Doped Styron 663
105
Viscosity (Pa-s)
180 0C
200 0C
220 0C
104
103
102
10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103
Shear Rate (1/s)
No. 149
RECTANGULAR PROFILE
DIE WITH ONE HOLE
0.11
1.0
2.0
Required extrudate is a rectangular cross

section of 1 cm  2 cm with a circular hole
of 1.1 mm diameter at its center
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN CM
No. 150
SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS OF DIE SWELL
AND INVERSE EXTRUSION CAPABILITIES
OF POLYFLOW
Percentage Differences
P1(0,y) P5(x,0) P2(0,y) P4(x,0) P3(x) P3(y)
Reference 0 0 0 0 0 0
Inertia terms not included -0.007% -0.001% -0.002% -0.001% -0.001% 0.002%
Exponent in Carreau - 0.252 0.003% 0.001% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000%

Yasuda model, n 0.28271 1.495% -1.765% 0.646% 0.380% 0.465% 0.358%
0.3522 3.692% -4.583% 1.619% 0.979% 1.138% 0.864%
0.453 8.439% -11.776% 3.935% 2.521% 2.686% 1.995%
0.5286 11.354% -17.410% 5.718% 3.806% 3.876% 2.843%
Zero shear 1.20E+05 0.007% 0.002% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% -0.001%


rate viscosity, 0 (Pa-s) 1.34E+05 0.006% 0.002% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% -0.001%
2.00E+05 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000%
2.40E+05 0.001% 0.002% -0.001% -0.001% 0.000% 0.001%
2.80E+05 0.000% 0.002% -0.001% -0.001% -0.001% 0.001%
3
Flow rate (m /s) 1.54E-05 0.640% 0.017% 0.232% 0.190% 0.245% 0.095%
2.15E-05 0.207% 0.014% 0.073% 0.060% 0.079% 0.030%
2.58E-05 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000%
3.04E-05 -0.189% -0.010% -0.069% -0.058% -0.074% -0.029%
3.61E-05 -0.352% -0.016% -0.128% -0.105% -0.136% -0.054%
Transition 2 -2.757% 0.104% -1.025% -0.701% -0.932% -0.406%

Parameter, a 0.5 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000%
Time constant,  2.31685 0.914% 0.020% 0.329% 0.269% 0.346% 0.133%

4.6337 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000% 0.000%
7.53 -0.507% -0.030% -0.182% -0.148% -0.193% -0.075%
9.2674 -0.693% -0.042% -0.249% -0.203% -0.262% -0.102%
Inverse Extrusion -0.18% 1.82% 0.17% 0.04% 0.3% 0.61%
P2 (0,y) P3 (x,y)
P1 (0,y)
P5 (x,0)
P4 (x,0)
No. 151
Full domain of the extrusion die
Melt flow
direction
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No. 152
.....
Half domain of the
extrusion die
Section 3
Melt
flow Section 2
direction
Die lip
Section 1
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No. 153
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SIMULATION DOMAIN
WITH BOUNDARY
CONDITIONS
1. Inlet (Fully Developed Flow)

2. Wall (Vn = 0, Vs = 0)
3. Symmetry (Vn = 0, Fs = 0)
4. Free Surface (Fs = 0, Fn = 0, V.n = 0)
5. Outlet (Fn = 0, Vs = 0)
No. 154
Finite element 3-D domain and
die-lip mesh
Melt flow
direction
Die Lip
30,872 elements
Skewness < 0.33
No. 155
EXPLODED VIEW OF THE
EXTRUSION DIE
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No. 156
BLUE PRINTS
Preland
Pin
Dieland
No. 157
RECTANGULAR PROFILE DIE
WITH TEN HOLES 0.11
0.5
10.0
Required extrudate is a rectangular cross section

of 0.5 cm  10 cm with ten equally spaced
centerline circular holes of 1.1 mm diameter.
ALL DIMENSIONS ARE IN CM
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No. 158
Full domain of the extrusion die
Melt flow
direction
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No. 159
Half domain of the extrusion die
Melt Pump Adapter,

Adapter 1 and Adapter 2
Spider
Die land
Free
Melt flow Surface
direction
Die lip
No. 160
Simulation domain with
boundary conditions
Melt flow
direction
3
1. Inlet (Fully Developed Flow)
2. Wall (Vn = 0, Vs = 0) 5
3. Symmetry (Vn = 0, Fs = 0)
4. Free Surface (Fs = 0, Fn = 0, V.n = 0)
5. Outlet (Fn = 0, Vs = 0)
No. 161
Finite element 3-D domain and
half of extrudate profile mesh
19,479 elements
Skewness < 0.5
Melt flow
direction
No. 162
Half domain of the extrusion die
(without free surface) and
division of outlet into 10 areas
out1
out2
out3
out4
out5
d2 out7
out6
out8
out9
out10
d0
d1
Melt flow
direction
No. 163
CONCLUSIONS
•The optimum dimensions of the die to attain more

balanced flow at the exit were obtained.
•The effect of inertia terms is found to be negligible for
polymer flows at low Reynolds number.
•The exponent of the Carreau-Yasuda model, or the slope
of the viscosity vs shear rate curve, has a significant effect
on the die swell.
•The flow in the die appeared to be smooth with no re-
circulation regions.
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE

IMPROVEMENTS
 Polymer viscoelastic properties Include flow, cooling,
solidification and vacuuming in and after the calibrator
 Radiation effects for free surface flow
 Pulling force at the end of the free surface
 Pressure of the compressed air
 Non-uniform mesh
No. 164
PALLETIZERS
Many people new to the packaging industry ask “What is a

Palletizer?” From the book The Science of Palletizing, a palletizer
is defined as a machine that assembles products in a
predetermined pattern to form layers and sequentially deposits
the layers onto a pallet to build a unit load. Simply put, a palletizer
is a machine that takes a product, for example cases of beer, from
a conveyor at the end of a production line and places it onto a
pallet so that the pallet load of beer cases can be transported to a
grocery store.
There are two general categories of palletizers: conventional and

robotic.
Conventional palletizers build a pallet load by orientating product

in a predefined pattern by creating rows which are pushed onto a
layer forming area. Once a complete layer is created it is placed
onto the pallet layer by layer until a full pallet load is created and
removed from the machine.
Robotic palletizers build a pallet load by picking the product from

a conveyor and placing it directly onto the pallet. Building the
predefined pattern right on the pallet, again layer by layer, until
the full pallet load is created and removed from the machine.
No. 165
PALLETIZERS
No. 166
Day Three
Furnace & Boiler Operation,

Optimization & Maintenance
No. 167
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF
HEATERS & FURNACES
What is Heater ?
Heater is basically a heat exchanger used to heat a
fluid. In Heaters heat is directly supplied from fuel gas,
fuel oil.
Heaters can heat gas or liquid fluid. The fluid can be a
thermic fluid which in turn exchanges heat with
process liquid
Heaters can be operated with natural draft or forced

draft. (ie. Air blowers supply air for combustion)
What is the Furnace ?

A typical furnace consists primarily of a large box, or
shell and a stack. During operation, heat is produced
by combustion inside the shell. The exhaust gases are
routed to the atmosphere through the stack-In some
furnaces, the heat is provided by burners that are
located in the floor of the shell. This type of furnace is
a floor- fired furnace.
Some furnaces are wall fired, while others may use
both wall and floor burners.
Tubes carry the process fluid through the furnace. The
process fluid enters the furnace in the tubes near the
stack, passes through the tubes, and leaves near the
bottom of the furnace by the burners.
The tubes in the example furnace are grouped into two
major areas. The area that is closer to the stack is
called the convection section. The area that is closer to
the burners is called the radiant section.
No. 168
HEATERS & FURNACES
A charge heater can be used to heat up a fluid to

high temperature before feeding to reactor. This
is necessary in case of exothermic reactions.
They produce heat by the combustion of gases.
2. The fluid is heated at the convection zone and
then through the radiation zone before heading
towards the process header.
3. Heat transfers by the three modes of convection
, conduction and radiation
4. Boiler is also a heater where water is converted
into steam.
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No. 169
HEATERS & FURNACES
Heater classification:
Arbour type.
Tubes can be mounted vertically at the radiation
section and horizontally at the convection section.
Tubes, tube supports, tube guides, tube hangers
metallurgies are chosen according to specification.
(to withstand the heater operating temperature)
Burner arrangements as well as burner types and
burner-tip size are chosen according to burner duty
to meet required hat.
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No. 170
HEATERS & FURNACES
Heater classification:
Stacks, stack dampers & ducting are arranged in such
a way that heaters are operated safely and efficiently
Also safe disposal of flue gases is achieved as per RC
required criteria. (regulation)
Refractory linings are provided throughout heater shells
to contain the heat.
Some heaters are floor-fired, some are wall-fired, while
others may use both wall and floor burners.
Instrumentation and other auxiliary systems are provided
to operate heaters safely.
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No. 171
Fired Heater
(for thermic fluid )
Heater
Surge
drum
Circulating
pump
Exchange
D
rs
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No. 172
FIRED HEATERS
S tack
D am pe r
A rc h
C o nv e c tio n
Tube s
S ho ck
B ank
R adiant
Tube s
R efrac to ry
Lining
Fire box
Burners
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No. 173
FIRED HEATERS
Process Fluid entering

Convection Section and out from
Radiation Section
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No. 174
HEATERS & FURNACES
Radiation chamber (Fire box):

This is the area where the burning takes place. The
radiant heat is transferred to tubes on the wall of the
chamber. The product / material to be heated flows
through these tubes.
Convection chamber:
This is where the flue gases give up part of their heat to
the product as it flows through the tubes in the convection
chamber.
Operation
All of the parts and systems associated with a furnace are used
to accomplish one basic task: heating a process fluid. In order
to get a better understanding of how this is done, it is helpful to
break the furnace operation down into three basic actions.
In the first action, air and fuel are introduced into the furnace and
then mixed together by the burners. The mixture is ignited at the
burners. As the fuel burns, a chemical reaction occurs, and heat
is produced.
In the second action, heat released by the chemical reaction

created by burning fuel is transferred to the process fluid. The
fluid flows through the tubes inside the furnace and receives heat
by conduction, convection, and radiation heat transfer.
No. 175
HEATERS & FURNACES
Premix gas burner

Burner Tip/Nozzle
Air
Secondary Air
Fuel Gas Discharge

Orifice
Primary Air Inspirator
Primary Air Air
Gas Pilot Gas
No. 176
Burner assembly: This is where the fuel and
combustion air are mixed and prepared for combustion.
Burner assembly consist of;
a.Pilot burner: It is used to establish a pilot flame before the
Main burner is lighted.
b.Igniter : It is used to create electric spark to ignite the pilot
gas
c.Fuel gas burner: This is the main burner where flame is
established using the pilot flame.
d.Sight port : It is used to see the condition of flame from
the grade level.
How combustion takes place?
Fuel gas and air are mixed both the fuel and the
air treated to ensure that combustion will takes place as
required.
Requirements for combustion:
Fuel must be made suitable for combustion
Combustion air must quickly mix with fuel (gas / oil)
Size of the flame to suit the firing chamber
Ignition of the fuel should take place quickly
Combustion should be total (no smoke)
Air register / Louvers:
Usually shaped like a flat cylindrical box which has
guide vanes around the circumference. The vanes are
used to adjust the amount of air required for
combustion. They also direct the air stream in a pattern
so that it is able to mix with the fuel.
No. 177
HEATERS & FURNACES
Primary and Secondary air:

The air needed to burn the vapour and
gaseous particles in the ignition zone is called
primary air.
The air needed to complete the combustion (all
carbon particles) is called secondary air.
Stack:
To remove the flue gases to the atmosphere
with out affecting the atmosphere
(environment)
Damper:
To control the movement of air through the
furnace which is in need for combustion.
Damper is actuated by air operated cylinders.
Dampers is usually made of metallic plates
and also used for isolation purposes. They
offer very low pressure drop.
Air path  Using the damper the total air flow
to the heater can be controlled. This is useful
to regulate combustion in the furnace.
Flue gas path  The damper in the Chimney
is used to control the pressure in the furnace.
No. 178
HEATERS & FURNACES
Heater tubes:
The pipe inside the heaters, where the material to be
heated is passing / flowing.
These tubes are arranged in such a way that heat flux
is within the design. In some heaters radiant tubes are
arranged vertically and convection tubes are arranged
horizontally.
Normally radiant tubes are plain and convection tubes
are studded type.
Tube metallurgy is usually chosen in such a way that
it can withstand the required operating temperature.
No. 179
HEATERS & FURNACES
Refractory:
To prevent heat loss from the heater`s walls, floor, and
roof.
Refractory will protect other accessories like tube
support, hangers & guides from over heating.
Air blower or FD fan (only on Boilers and FD-
Heaters)
forces air into the heaters to support and complete the
Types of Heaters
Natural draft heater
Forced draft heater (blower)
Draft:
It is a sort of driving force behind the combustion air
supply.
Natural draft is caused by the difference in the mass
of flue gas and atmospheric air.
Forced draft is caused by the fan blower
No. 180
HEATERS & FURNACES
Natural Draft Heater
Cold heat
Transfer
media
Convection
section
RADIATION
ZONE Hot heat
Transfer
Air Air media
Fuel Gas
Vertical Cylindrical Heater

Stack
Damper
TI Damper DGC (Draft Gage Conn.)
Tube Sheet
Inlet from Process Convection Section
Bridge wall Temperature
Tube Pulling Door
Cross Over Tube
Arch
Actual Radiant
Tube Length
Tube Guides
Refractory
Peep Door
Shell Dia.
Radiant Section Cast Burner

Heating Tube Block
Outlet
Peep Doors
Access Door
Burner Sheet 23
No. 181
HEATERS &
FURNACES
Radiant section
Bare Tubes
Burners
Refractory
Peep doors / Sight doors
Man ways / Access doors
Explosion door
Crossover Tubes
Tubes:
Bare tubes are arranged inside the heaters either
horizontally or vertically in radiation section.
There are tubes in the convection section. These are either
finned or shaded tubes.
The Heat transfer fluid or the Process fluid circulates in
these tubes.
Tube connections:
Tubes can be connected in series or parallel.
Tube bends:
Also called return bends are used to connect the tubes in
series.
No. 182
HEATERS & FURNACES
Sight doors: (viewing doors)

The sight doors are provided on the Heater shell in both
the convection and radiation sections. These are used for
inspection.
In radiation section the flame pattern, flame condition,
flame impingement on tubes are monitored regularly
through these sight doors.
In convection section soot deposit on the finned or studded
surfaces,or any damage to the refractory is monitored.
Explosion doors:
It is provided in the radiation section of heater box. This
door opens when fire box is over pressurized.
During the normal operation this door remains closed.
Man-ways/ Access doors
It is provided in the radiation and convection sections of

the heater.
It is primarily used during shutdowns for entering the
furnace for inspection purpose.
It is kept closed during the normal operation.
Flue gas duct:

Duct carries gas from the radiation to convection and
also to chimney.
No. 183
HEATERS & FURNACES
Instruments
Thermocouple
1. To measure and control the process fluid stream

temperatures.
2. To measure the skin temperature of tubes.
3. To measure the fire box and stack temperatures
Instruments
Flow meters
To measure and control the process fluid flow into
the heaters.
1. To measure the fuel gas flow to the heaters.
2. To measure air supplied to the heater.
Draft gauges
Measure the draft (negative pressure) at the
convection & radiation sections to ensure natural
draft heaters are operated with negative pressure.
No. 184
HEATERS & FURNACES
Analyzers:
Two types of analyzers are installed in the heater
Oxygen analyzer
It is used to measure the oxygen content in the
furnace. It gives an indication of the excess air
supplied to the heater.
Less oxygen than specified limits in flue gas is an
indication of less than specified excess air.
If the oxygen value in Flue gas is high, it means that
more than required air is being supplied to the
furnace. This increases fuel consumption.
NOx / SOx analyzers

Sulfur & N2 in fuel gas results in SOX & NOX
in flue gas.
1. It is used to measure the NOx (Nitrogen oxides) and
Sulfur dioxide (Sulfur dioxide) content in the flue
gases.
2. It is important to meet the Royal Commission
emission norms for environment protection.
Sometimes there are no online-instruments. Instead
samples will be collected and analyzed in the
Laboratory.
No. 185
Fuel used in Heaters:
The number of burners differ from one heater to another.
Natural Gas (methane) is used as a fuel
The reaction for complete combustion without any excess
air
CH4 + 2O2 CO2 + 2H2O + HEAT
Exothermic Reaction
Fuel
Natural Gas (methane) and fuel oil (slop oil ) is used as

fuel in most burners. Vacuum system vent gases (sour
gas) also incinerated (burnt) in this heater.
Each burner assembly has a pilot and a main gas burner.

Sometimes in every sixth burner in the six-assembly is an
oil burner & vent gas (sour gas) burner .
Separate Burner Management System is working to

control the heater operation
No. 186
CONTROL OF HEATERS AND
FURNACES
Furnace conditions are monitored from C.R and
instrument panel at the furnace.
1) Air Flow :The variables draft & excess air
should be correct. Draft is determined by measuring
pressure at different spots in furnace, ie at the arch of
radiation-section or at the base (fire box). It may be
measured in stack,( below the damper). Units are( inches
of water), and should be negative. Positive pressure
means poor performance. Excess Air is determined by
flue gas analysis. Control is by damper & air registers.
Working within targets saves fuel.
2) Fuel Flow: This variable has to be controlled. Too much

fuel means some will be unburned (wasted). Too little
means risk of flameouts and therefore possible explosion.
Fuel pressure needed for proper fuel flow is controlled by
control valves. It is measured in psig.
3) Flue Gas Temp. This is measured with thermocouples in
radiation, convection sections and stack. Higher than
normal temperatures is an indication of fire in the
convection section or operation above normal firing rate.
This may damage tube supports or overheat tubes and
refractory
4) Process Fluid System: Inlet temp., outlet temp. and flow
have to be monitored. Flow rate is measured in barrels/hr.
Tube metal temp. or skin temp. should be monitored.

Overheated tube could lead to rupture and other problems
No. 187
FURNACES
1. Air leaks: Misleading draft & excess air

reading (inspect inside furnace from peep-
door. Should be clear .If hazy it means
flame is not getting enough air.
2. Tube bulging: means sign of overheating
and could lead to ruptures.
3. Hot spots: Silver or bright or glowing
sections is a sign of overheated tube section
4. Bent or broken supports and hangers. Sign
of overheating
5. Dark spots in refractory is a sign of air leak,
while glowing areas mean uneven heating.
6. Flameouts: It is important to check burners
conditions and flame. Flameouts mean
unburned fuel which might lead to explosion.
7. Burner adjustment: poor flame pattern is a
result of changes in firing rates or type of
fuel or sudden wind changes. It is adjusted
by air and fuel. Flame should be still, not
erratic or sparky in which case corrected by
air registers. clogged burner tips should be
cleaned. Impingement should be corrected
by adjusting air registers
No. 188
Flame should not be lifted from burners. It is adjusted
by fuel pressure.
With oil-fuel burners adjusting flame is done by
adjusting atomizing steam.
Hazy furnace means improper burning of oil. Smoke
may be noticed from stack.
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No. 189
CONTROL OF HEATERS AND FURNACES
Adjusting fuel flow to burners controls process fluid outlet

temp. Deviation from set point triggers control action. If temp.
is too low controller signals control valve to open more
allowing more fuel and increasing temp. bringing it back to set
point. If temp. is too high the opposite happens.
Control valves also regulate flow rate of process fluid
Temperature Indicators of
Four- Pass Process Fluid
No. 190
FURNACES
•Control functions
•Feedforward
•Cascade
•Ratio
•Override
•Real 26/2704 Applications
No. 191
•Predicts process changes
•Ideal in interactive processes
•Compensates for transport delays
Applications :
•Water Treatment
•Conveyor furnaces
•Boiler drum level
•General process control
Remote Input Feedforward FF Value

Scaling
SP
PV Control OP
PID PID OP +
Loop
No. 192
•Immediate compensation for flow changes
•Prevents dangerous over-dosing
•Auto-selection of PID parameters
Setpoint
Chlorine
PID Loop
Feedforward
+
26/2704
FT AT
Flow Meter Dosing Pump
No. 193
CASCADE CONTROLLER
•Compensation for process delays
•Accurate control of furnace load
Applications :
•Vacuum furnaces
•Autoclaves
•Batch reaction vessels
•Heat exchangers
•Boiler drum level
Master SP
Master PV Master PID OP Scale to

Loop slave span
*Remote Input Feedforwar

d
Feedforward
Slave PV Select WSP Control OP
Slave PID
Loop
No. 194
CASCADE APPLICATION
•Boiler drum level control
•Inlet flow compensation
•Steam demand compensation
Steam Flow to Plant

F
T
Steam Drum Level Feedforward
SP Master
L
Loop
T
P only
Slave Flow
Loop SP
26/2704 PI only
FT
Feedwater Inlet Flow
No. 195
RATIO CONTROLLER
•Combustion control Applications :
•Chemical dosing •Gas fired furnaces
•On-line mixing •Glass forehearths
•Incinerators
•Water treatment
•Brick manufacture
Ratio Trim
Ratio SP +
Lead PV
X
Control
Main SP Output
Main PV Main PID
Loop
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No. 196
RATIO APPLICATION
•Maintains constant ratio
•Start up in manual
•Bumpless transfer into auto
Lead PV
FT
FT Ratio SP
X
WSP
Main PV Main Control OP
PID Loop
26/2704
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No. 197
OVERRIDE CONTROLLER
•Controls both heater and product temperature

•Provides overheating protection
•Limits temperature gradients across product
•Temperature control with pressure override
Applications :
•Vacuum furnaces
•Autoclaves
Main SP
•Batch reactors (glass lined)
Main PV
Main PID
Loop
Output Control Output

Override SP
Selection
Override PV
Override PID
Loop
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No. 198
OVERRIDE APPLICATION
•Accurate load control
•Limits heater temperature
•Minimises heat up time
Heaters Load SP
Load
PID Loop Heat OP
Min
Heater SP
OP Select
Heater
Load PID Loop
Vacuum
Furnace 26/2704
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No. 199
CREEP TEST FURNACE
Application requirements Why 26/2704?
•Accurate 3 zone control •3 Control loops
•Simple operation •3 isolated TC inputs
•Measurement of creepage •Interface to LVDT transducer
•Interface to a PC •Internal SP wiring
Heaters Load
Setpoint
Top TC _ Top Heat OP
PID Loop
Centre TC _ Centre Heat OP

PID loop
Bottom TC _ Bottom Heat OP

PID loop
LVDT Sensor Creep
Creep Furnace Alarms
measurement
20Kg
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No. 200
VACUUM BRAZING FURNACE
•Guaranteed dwell time •3 TC inputs
•Minimum process time •Cascade with SP feedforward
•Stable temperature control •Program wait function
•Interface to a PLC •Program digital inputs
Load TC
Furnace SP SP
Feedforward
Furnace TC _ Furnace
+
PID
Heater SP
Loa Heater TC _ Heater
d PID
Heat OP
26/2704
Vacuum Furnace
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No. 201
BRICK DYING OVEN
•Temp & humidity control •2 Control loops
•Valve position control •2 Synchronised SP profiles
•Simple program operation •BCD program selection
•Run & reset digital inputs
VP
Oven %RH _ Humidity VP Output

PID
Run
Reset
BCD Select
Oven Temp _ Temp VP Output

PID
Hot AirHot Air
VP
Drying Oven
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No. 202
SOFT DRINK PASTEURISATION
•Ensure product temp >91.5 C •Cascade with SP feedforward
•Start up in local mode •Cascade tracking function
•Simple operation
Steam RTD _ Steam Heat OP

Product PID
Steam
T Steam SP
Product SP SP FF+
T
Master OP
Product RTD _ Product
PID
Pasteurising Heat
26/2704
Exchanger
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No. 203
GLASS ANNEALING
•Accurate & stable control •Input precision - 0.25uV
•Long SP programs(300 •2 Synchronised SP profiles
days) •Power failure recovery
•Variable deviation alarm modes
•Heat/cool overlap •Analogue OP scaling
Alarm SP Deviation
Alarm
Error
Furnace SP
_ Furnace Working OP
Furnace TC
PID
Loa
Heat
Hot AirOP
d Output
Cool OP scaling
26/2704
Glass Furnace
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No. 204
PLANT GROWTH CHAMBER
•Control of temp, %RH & CO2 •3 Control loops
•Synchronised programs •3 Synchronised SP profiles
•Simulation of day/night •Real time clock
•Simple 4th SP(light) profile •Toolkit functions
Temp Control OP
Chamber _
RTD PID Loop
Temp SP
Chamber _ Humidity Control OP

%RH
Time PID loop
%RH SP
Toolkit Light SP
Blocks
C02 SP
Chamber _ C02 Control OP
C02 PID loop
Plant Growth
Chamber 26/2704
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No. 205
GAS BURNER RATIO CONTROL
•Efficient combustion •Controls both gas & air flows
•Manual override •Ratio control function
•Flow compensation factor •Maths calculations
•Logic operations
Gas SP Manual
FT Gas flow _ Gas

Gas X
PID Loop Gas VP
Output
Gas comp Ratio SP
X
Air comp Manual
Air Air SP
Gas Burner
FT Air flow X _ Air Air VP Output
PID Loop
Hot Air
26/2704
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No. 206
HIGH POWER HEATING SYSTEM
•Multi-stage outputs •Alarms on output power
•Main control OP to thyristor •Maths calculations
•Other OP’s to contactors
•Linear control transfer
User SP(66.6%)
Alarm
User SP(33.3%
Alarm )
Analogue
TY Maths
OP
Load Load Load Furnace SP
1 2 3
Furnace
Hot Air temp _ PID
Loop Control
Output
Heating System 26/2704
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No. 207
FLOW CONTROL WITH
PRESSURE OVERRIDE

•Control of liquid flow •Standard override feature
•Pressure override •Bumpless transfer
Liquid
Flow SP
FT
Flow
PID Loop
Pump
Min
Pressure
OP Select
SP
Pressure
PT
PID Loop
26/2704
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No. 208
CAPACITOR HEAT TREATMENT

•Programs > 20 segments •SP Programmer functions
•Simple programming •Easy to use
•Comms to Wonderware •iTools OPC connection
Program
events
Oven SP
Oven Temp
_ Oven Working OP
PID
Load
26/2704
Oven
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No. 209
HIGH TEMPERATURE VACUUM
FURNACE

•Power ramp start up •Controlled power ramp
•Power ramp down •Auto transfer to closed loop
•Pyrometer input •Reduces total system cost
•Eliminate TC extraction
Pyrometer input
Furnace PV _ Furnace
PID Working OP
Furnace SP
Load
Output
Select
Power Ramp
Vacuum Furnace 26/2704
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No. 210
GLASS POT FURNACE
•Temperature control •2 Internal setpoints & clock
•Standby setpoint •Setpoint ramp
•Gas/air ratio control •Custom linearisation
•Uses no flow meters •Interface to potentiometer
Furnace _ Furnace VP Output

Temp PID
Furnace SP
SP1 Real time
SP2 clock
Glass VP
Air Pot Position Custom Fan output
Lin Block
Fan
Gas
Glass Pot furnace 26/2704
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No. 211
START-UP & SHUT DOWN OPERATING
PROCEDURES
PREPERATION: General Inspection

• Make sure that general status is proper.
• Tags are lifted
• Proper housekeeping
• Inside inspection. No tube bulging. No rupture. Tubes
in position. Supports in good condition
• Refractory in good condition.
• Tightly close all openings.
• Check damper and air registers. should be left wide
open for purging.
• Check fuel supply and lie-up valves
Start-Up Preparation. (continued)
Check valves and lines for leak or damage.

Close isolation valves & pilot burners valves & remove
blinds in fuel & process fluid lines.
Drain knock-out drums in fuel lines to avoid moisture in
fuel.
Check for clogged strainers.
Thoroughly purge out any combustibles with steam or air.
No. 212
Establish Flow:
Line-up valves of process fluid lines establish flow before
burners are lit to avoid tube damage by starting fluid pump
or compressor. Then flow is verified by checking
appropriate instrumentation.
Lighting Burners:
Most explosions occur during lighting burners. Follow
carefully the procedure BMS ( burner management system
Burner Management System (BMS):

This system is meant to start and stop any heater in a
safe manner. (without causing any fire / explosion or
damage of heater)
The sequence is started;
1. Check the tightness (no passing) test on gas control
valves (pilot & main gas line)
2. Light the pilot by operating spark plugs (viewing the
flame visually if UV scanner is not available) and
confirm by UV scanner (flame eye) and then,
3. Allowing to light the main gas burners while the pilot
gas burner is on line.
If a heater is provided with oil burners, then it can be

lighted along with main gas burners.
No. 213
PROCEDURES
ESD (emergency shutdown):

To protect heaters from unsafe condition /
operation, a separate ESD-system , has been
provided.
ESD-system will activate if any of the following
conditions are met;
1. Fuel gas pressure low low (pilot & main gas)
2. No flame at the burner (flame eye)
3. Fuel gas coalescer (knock out) vessel liquid
level high.
4. Heater feed flow low.
Fuel used in Boilers
Natural Gas (methane) only used as a fuel
Boilers has been provided with air blowers
(Forced Draught fans) to supply air to support
and complete combustion.
BMS of the boiler is same like heater but air
purging sequence is by running blower.
No. 214
PROCEDURES
OPERATING VARIABLES
FLOW:
1) The heat transfer fluid flows in the tubes of the heater.

2) The flow meters are provided for monitoring the flow to the
heater.
3) It is important to have equal amount of fluid flow through
all the tubes in the heater.
4) If the flow is less than the minimum flow required then
tubes will get over heated.
FIRED HEATERS
PRESSURE (draft):
1) Pressure in the furnace is very critical.
2) It is monitored using pressure gauges/transmitters
located in the radiation zone of the Heater.
3) The pressure can be varied and controlled by using the
damper provided in the stack.
4) A higher pressure than normal is unsafe as it can
disturb the flame, flue gases may start leaking through
furnace joints, flame may come out of the sight doors.
5) A lower pressure than normal is not a problem in
operation. However it will lead to entry of air from the
joints in the furnaces, which can increase the fuel gas
consumption in the furnace.
No. 215
PROCEDURES
Combustion air flow:

1) The combustion- air flow is very critical for the
proper furnace operation.
2) It is monitored using flow meters in the air path.
3) Amount of excess air can be monitored from the
Oxygen analyzer readings.
4) Less than normal combustion- air flow leads to
incomplete combustion. This will lead to soot
formation. This soot deposits on the tubes reduces
the heat transfer.
5) Combustion- air flow higher than normal will
ensure complete combustion; but leads to excess
fuel consumption in the heater and ultimately
higher cost.
Heat Loss:
a) Through flue gas to stack
b) Radiation loss from furnace
c) Very high excess air in the furnace
d) Fouled tubes in convection section.
Process absorption x 100
Fuel efficiency =
Fuel fired
No. 216
SAFE OPERATION OF HEATERS
Flame impingement
Flame touches or leaning towards the tube (flame
impingement) leads to localized overheating of tube
surface.
Reason for bad flame
Burner tips become plugged due to dirt
Insufficient air to complete combustion
Improper air adjustment at burner air registers.
Bad flame can cause the followings:
Temperature of tube metal increases
Tube metallurgy weakens and end up in failure
Fouling or coke layer built-up inside the tube wall
Any heater startup should be executed according to a
sequence of steps.
1. Make sure that all heater related equipments (all pipe
work, control valves, instrumentation & fire fighting
facilities) are ready.
2. Good house keeping at & around the heaters (no
flammable items like wood etc..)
3. Fluid circulation through the tubes established.
4. Fuel system ( fuel gas, fuel oil ) is ready to use. Do
gas proving steps to ensure that TSO valves
(installed in pilot and main gas lines) are not passing.
5. Burners are purged and ready. Atomizing steam for
oil fired burners is ready.
6. Make sure all fuel gas burners valves are shut (pilot &
main)
7. Confirm stack damper still open
No. 217
Heater startup:
7. Start purging operation by opening the damper fully and
allow the draft in such a way that maximum air flow is
allowed through the firing box. For boilers there is a
blower available to do the purging as per sequence
(Burner Management system).
8. When sufficiently purged (say 30 minutes) check the fire
box for any explosive mixture. If nothing reported then
proceed to light pilot burners.
9. Pilot lighting commenced as per logic of the heater and
sequence. Burners lit will be confirmed by flame eye
sensors.
10. Once all pilots are lit then adjust the air registers to check
the flame stability.
Heater startup:
11. Light main gas burners – panel (only from pilot)
12. Light any oil burner available - panel
13. Adjust the temperature as required by process - panel
14. Check all instruments condition and switch in to
automatic control system.
15. Monitor the heater operation by checking the flame
pattern, flame colour, O2 draft gauge reading, vibration
and tube colour. If everything is satisfactory then we can
assume heater startup is completed.
16. Burners are lit in a staggered pattern, to provide good
distribution of heat
No. 218
FIRED HEATERS
Heater shut down:

Any heater shut-down must be planned and
procedure steps must be followed.
1. Reduce heater firing and heater load (fluid
circulation)
2. Stop any oil fired burners and shut the supply
valve.
3. Stop main gas burners and shut the supply valve
4. Stop any off gas / pilot gas burners any and shut
the supply valve.
5. Shut main fuel gas vessel and de-pressurize the
remaining gas to flare.
6. Blank off the fuel gas lines.
Heater shut down:
Any heater shutdown must be planned and
procedure steps must be followed.
7. Cool down the firing box by opening damper and all
inspection doors.
8. Blank off snuffing steam (and air blower supply line)
9. Depend of the maintenance activity individual
sections like Heater box or tubes or stack duct can
be prepared
No. 219
FIRED HEATERS
Heater Inspection / monitoring:
1. Check the flames for any abnormality-hazy
flame, long smoky flame.
2. Check the draft by the gauges
3. Check the tubes for any hot spot / change in
colour of tube support, tube guide and hangers
4. Check refractory condition (damages) Look for
dark spots in refractory Sign of air leaking.
5. Check any vibration / noise in & around the
heater.
6. Check any gas / oil leaks around the flames of
fuel line
7. Check the damper opening from the local
indicator
8. Check FD fan condition if available (only in
boilers and some heaters.)
Fire Caching Process

Fluid from Hot Spot
No. 220
1. START UP
1.1 Basic Requirements for Initial Start-

up/ Pre-commissioning
• Chemical Cleaning (BFW/Steam
System)
• Cleaning Pipes
• Test Run Blower
• Leak Test
• Function Test Instrumentation
• Test Safety Equipment
• Drying out of the Refractory Lining, ref.
to the „Drying-out Diagram“
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No. 221
DRYING-OUT DIAGRAM (INITIAL
START-UP)
No. 222
1.2 Preparations for Start-up
(Normal Start-up)
• Close all Valves to the Burners and Main
Entrance Valve of Fuel Gas
• Purge Fuel Gas Lines to Burners with
Nitrogen (O2-Content < 1 Vol-%)
• Leak Test of Fuel Gas Lines with Nitrogen/
Fuel Gas at 3 barg (dP < 0.5 bar/5
minutes)
• Line out Decoking Way to Decoking
System/ Furnace Fire Box
• Fill BFW System and TLX and Steam
Drum (Ref. to Manufacturer`s Instructions)
No. 223
1.2 Preparations for Start-up (continued)
• Start Flue Gas Draft Fan and adjust
Vacuum
• (0.5 – 1.0 mbar, closed Damper/
reduced Speed)
• Pressurize Fuel Gas Header up to Main
Block Valve
For Liquid-Feed-Crackers only
• Warm up the Cracked Gas Transfer
Line to the Oil Fractionation with PGO
(Start-up Line)
• Activate Heat Tracing for Quench Oil
Piping
No. 224
1.3 Start-up of Fuel Gas System and Ignition of Burners
• All Burner Hand Valves (Pilot Burners as well) must
be
• closed
• Feed in Fuel Gas up to the Shut-off Valves (A-Valves)
• Set Flue Gas Pressure Control to approx. -0.3 mbar
• Open the Shut-off Valves (Override Pressure-low
Switches of Feedstock System)
• Prior to Ignition of Burners make sure - there is no
Explosive Atmosphere in the Firebox
Burner Hand Valves closed (Side-Wall Burners)
No. 225
1.3 Start-up of Fuel Gas System and Ignition of
Burners (continued)
• Start-up the Pilot Gas System
• Ignite all Pilot Burners
• Start-up the Fuel Gas System
• Ignite the Floor Burners by the Pilot Burners
And the Side Wall Burners
(Cross-over Temp. > 760°C) according to
the „Burner Ignition Sequence“
First Floor Burner (Start-Up-Burner)
No. 226
BURNER IGNITION SEQUENCE (FLOOR
BURNERS AND SIDEWALL BURNERS)
Burner ignition sequence for each furnace

cell.
The numbers inside the symbol designate
the ignition step.
One fire box is shown as representative.
No. 227
1.4 Heating-up and Connecting the Furnace to
the Process
• Cool the Process Coils by Process Steam after Heating-
up to 250°C Cross-over Temperature
• First Steam Production in the TLE´s, watch Level of
Steam Drum
• Line out the Furnace to the Primary Fractionation once
the Outlet-Temperature of the TLE´s exceeds 120°C (Key
Interlocking System)
• Operate the PFO-Quench once the Outlet-Temperature of
the TLE´s will reach 230°C
• Increase the Coil Outlet Temperature with a rate of
30°C/h (15°C/h) for Initial Start-up
respectively with 50°C/h for Normal Start-up, Ref. to the
„Furnace Start-up Procedure“
No. 228
1.5 Start-up of HP-Steam System
• HP- Steam Generation starts when Process
Steam in TLE´s exceeds its Dew Point
• Block Valve to HP-Steam Header is still
closed
• Vent N2 from the Steam Drum
• (up to 4 barg Steam Pressure)
• Blow down the TLE´s and Steam Drum to
remove Deposits
• (at approx. 4 - 6 barg Steam Pressure)
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No. 229
1.5 Start-up of HP-Steam System (continued)
• Route the HP-Steam to the Silencer
• With increasing Coil Outlet Temperature and
increasing Process Steam Flow the HP-
Steam Generation/ Pressure will increase
• Put the BFW-Injection to the HP-Steam in
Service at approx. 450°C HP-Steam
Superheating Temperature, put on Auto-
Control at 520°C
• When the HP-Steam Pressure will reach the
Pressure of the HP-Steam System (approx.
120 barg), switch over from the Silencer to the
HP-Steam Header
No. 230
1.6 Stand-by Conditions
• Furnace at 800°C Coil Outlet Temperature
• Furnace operated with Process Steam
• Furnace producing HP-Steam
• Furnace ready for Feed-in of
Hydrocarbons
No. 231
1.7 HC Feed-In
• Starting from Stand-by Condition
• With Feed-in of HC increase the Heat Duty by
igniting more Burners according to the Ignition
Sequence
• With increasing Feed Rate rise the Coil Outlet
Temperature up to the Feed-specific Cracking
Temperature, ref. to the „Start-up Procedure“
• Adjust the Process Steam/ Feed Ratio to the
Feed-specific Value (Typical Figures):
• Ethane 0.3
• LPG 0.4
• Naphtha 0.5
• AGO 0.7
No. 232
1.8 Changing of Feedstock
• Bring Furnace to Stand-by Conditions (COT
800°C)
• Perform the Feed Change slowly to avoid
bigger Temperature Changes (Spalling of
Coke)
• Follow the Normal Shut-down Procedure,
ref. to the „Shut-down Procedure“, reduce
present
• Feed slowly to Zero and simultaneously
adjust the Process Steam to Stand-by
Conditions
• Bring the Furnace on load with the new
Feedstock, ref. to the Procedure for „HC
Feed-in“
• For C2/C3 and LPG Feed Stock DMDS has
to be injected to limit the Formation of Coke
and CO
No. 233
2. NORMAL OPERATION
2.1 Adjustment of Optimal Operating
Conditions
•Most important Operating Values with a
given Feed:
•Load of Furnace with Feed and Process
Steam
•Coil Outlet Temperature (COT)
•Adjustment of Furnace Firing:
•Draft at approx. -0.5 mbar
•Air Shutters at Burners adjusted that
O2 Content of Flue Gas downstream
of the Fan will be 2–3 Vol-%
Side-Wall Burners in
Normal Operation
No. 234
2.1 Adjustment of Optimal Operating
Conditions (continued)
•Equal Temperature Profiles along the
Radiant Coils:
• Different Temperature Profile can occur
with different Degree of Coking
• Coke Deposits in the Tubes can cause
higher
• Tube Wall Temperature and bigger
• Pressure Drop along the Tube
•Pressure Ratio´s outlet/inlet at the Laval
Nozzles:
• shall be less than 0.90
• shall be equal for all Nozzles
Radiant Coils in Normal Operation
No. 235
2.2 Checks at the Furnace
• Overall Feed and Process Steam Flow to the
Furnace
• Coil Outlet Temperature
• Process Temperatures same on each Furnace
Side for same Feedstock
• Tube Wall Temperatures in the Radiant Section
by Pyrometer
• (Increase due to Coke Formation)
• Transfer Line Exchanger (TLE) – Outlet
Temperature
• (Increase due to Coke Formation)
No. 236
2.2 Checks at the Furnace (continued)
•Pressure at the Laval Nozzles
•(Pressure upstream of the Nozzles depends
on the Load of the Furnace, increasing
Pressure downstream of the Laval Nozzles
indicates increasing Coke Formation in the
Radiant Coils; Pressure Ratio outlet/inlet must
not exceed 0.90)
•Furnace Outlet Pressure
•(Increasing Pressure upstream of TLE´s with
constant Load of the Plant and constant
Suction Pressure of the Cracked Gas
Compressor indicates an increasing Coke
Formation in the TLE´s)
No. 237
Fuel Gas
(With sudden Change of Fuel Gas Composition

changing the Heating Value the COT is being kept
constant by regulating the Fuel Gas Pressure.
The Air Shutters of the Burners and the Draft of the
Furnace have to be adjusted to guarantee a
complete Combustion, and not to exceed the O2
Surplus in the Flue Gas)
No. 238
2.2 Checks at the Furnace (continued)
Pressure Inside the Furnace
(Flue Gas Pressure inside the Furnace shall
be in between -0.5 mbarg and -1.0 mbarg)
O2 Content in Flue Gas
(High O2 Content upstream the Stack can
be caused by Untightness of the Furnace.
Positive Pressure in the Fire Box can not be
excluded, hence open carefully the sight
holes!)
Flue Gas Analysis
(too small O2 Content or increasing CO
Content, check the Draft and open the Air
Shutters further, if applicable)
No. 239
Cracked Gas Analyzers
(Automatic Sampling Point downstream of
TLE´s, one Gas chromatograph for Hydrogen
and one for Hydrocarbons; Sampling Point for
CO2 Analysis in the Decoking Line)
Checks at the Steam Drum
(local Level Indicators have to be checked and
blown out at least once per day; a Sample of
the BFW once per Shift, Blow-down to be
adjusted not exceeding max. Value of
Conductivity)
No. 240
3. NORMAL SHUTDOWN
3.1 Normal Shut-down/ Disconnecting of the
Furnace
from the Process Same Steps as for Start-up, only in
reverse Sequence, ref. to the „Furnace Shut-down
Procedure“
If the Furnace had been in Duty for more than 10
Days or after intense Coke Formation, the Furnace
has to be decoked prior to Shut-down
Once the HP-Steam can not be superheated, the
Furnace must be disconnected from the HP Steam
System
When switching the Furnace from the Primary
Fractionation to the Decoking Line, the Pressure in
the Furnace must always be kept above the Pressure
in the Primary Fractionation
No. 241
Steam Cracker Furnace
Energy Improvements
Cracking furnaces are the most important

process units within ethylene plants.
Here the thermal cracking reactions take
place and the product yield of the entire
plant is defined.
No. 242
STEAM CRACKING TO OLEFINS
Endothermic, non-catalytic process to

produce light olefins/diolefins
• Ethylene, propylene, butylenes,
butadiene
Molecules “crack”, large → small

• C2H6 → C2H4 +H2
• C3H8 → C2H4 +CH4
• C3H8 → C3H6 +H2
• Many others……
Must heat feed to very high temperature to

adequately “crack”
• The lighter the feed the higher the
temperature
Very energy intensive process; furnace

fuel accounts for ~60% of plants energy
use
No. 243
FURNACE OVERVIEW
1. Convection Section
• Preheats and vaporizes the
feed by absorbing excess
heat
• Combines the hydrocarbon
with dilution steam
2. Radiant
• Cracks the feed into
products at short
residence times 1. Convection
Section
• Contains the burners

Flue Gas
• 1500+ °F 3. Heat Recovery ID Fan

Feed
3. Heat Recovery
2. Radiant
• Arrests the cracking Section
reaction by cooling the

effluent
• High pressure steam
generated Gas Burners
No. 244
CHALLENGES IN STEAM CRACKING
–
DILUTION STEAM
Reduces partial pressure of hydrocarbon,

resulting in higher C2= yields
Helps keep free radicals from recombining into

undesirable compounds, e.g. coke, methane,
hydrogen
Requires additional firing
Dilution
Steam
Feed
Cracked Products
Fuel
Furnace
No. 245
CHALLENGES IN STEAM CRACKING -
COKE FORMATION
Coke is a undesirable byproduct of steam cracking
formed from complete dehydrogenation of
hydrocarbon molecules
Thickness of coke layer increases with run length

• Reduces heat transfer to process stream
After a period of being online furnaces “Decoke”

with steam+air due to
• High pressure drop
• High tube wall temperatures
Furnace tube
1.2
1
Coke layer
hydrocarbon + steam
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
1 2
time
No. 246
STEAM CRACKER FURNACE
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Overall energy efficiency of furnace
depends on
• Run length or % of time furnace is online
(more decokes lead to lower efficiency)
• Amount of dilution steam (more steam
leads to lower efficiency)
• Furnace design
• Furnace condition
Very challenging to balance

energy efficiency and
production
down
online
Furnace status
time
No. 247
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IMPROVEMENT –
HOW DID WE DO IT?
Multi-disciplinary team identified monitoring,

procedural and maintenance improvements
• Team met weekly to review performance and
create run-plan
• Improved procedures resulted in greater
attention to details
• Maintenance improvements executed as
planned
Gaps closed over 1-2 year period
No capital spending required

Execute Review
Run-plan Performance
Create
Run-plan
No. 248
FURNACE ENERGY EFFICIENCY
IMPROVEMENTS
Overall energy efficiency improvement of

2.4%
• Significant improvements in run length
• Significant improvements in S/HC
Energy Savings of
660,000 MBTU/yr
or more than 38,000 T/CO2 per year
Site remains dedicated to

further improvements
in energy efficiency
Energy Efficiency
last year this year next year future
No. 249
FUEL TYPES & SUPPLY
Solid Liquid Gaseous AgroWaste
Coal HSD Nat. Gas Baggase
Lignite LDO BioGas Pith
Charcoal Fur. Oil Rice Husk
LSHS Paddy Straw
Coconut shell
Ground nut shell
MSW/RDF
No. 250
Fuels
Assuming that no cheap source of waste
fuel or combustible by-product of the plant
is available, the choice of fuel is usually
one of the fossil fuels, coal, oil, or natural
gas, or a combination of these.
For a given set of conditions coal-fired
boilers are the most expensive and gas-
fired the least expensive .
The fuel or fuels selected will dictate the
configuration of the boiler heating surfaces
from gas-side fouling considerations.
Natural gas is a clean fuel and is normally

free of compounds such as those of sulfur,
(which could cause corrosion and deposits).
 This enables compact heating surface
arrangements, with perhaps no on-
load cleaning facilities to be used,
giving minimum cost.
No. 251
Coal is usually the most problematical of the
fossil fuels as far as boiler design is concerned.
 The properties of the fuel, notably the volatile
and ash contents together with the fusion
characteristics of the ash, influence:
 The size of the furnace.
 Tube spacing and tube arrangement
required to avoid slagging and to reduce
the effects of fouling of the tubes.
Fuel oils can vary from clean premium fuels,

which are almost equivalent to natural gas to
the very heavy residual fuels with relatively high
ash, asphaltenes, vanadium and sulfur
contents.
 The impurities in residual oils can:
 Result in heavy deposits on the boiler-

heated surfaces if the necessary
provision is not made in their design.
 Expose the surfaces in contact with the
gases to high- and low-temperature
corrosion.
No. 252
Space constraints
Site space and access limitations can impose
restrictions on the number and type of boilers
that can be utilized and to some extent the type
of fuel to be used.
Boilers fired with natural gas only require the

minimum space to accommodate the complete
system.
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No. 253
IGNITION SYSTEM
• Turns the engine on and off
• Creates a timed spark and distributes it to
the cylinders
• Spark is distributed to the spark plugs
• Jumps the gap and ignites air-fuel
mixture
• Timing of the spark varies with engine
speed
• Amount of time for fuel to burn in the
cylinder is constant
Modern vehicles have computer-controlled ignition

systems
– Main ignition system categories
• Distributor ignition (DI)
• Electronic ignition (EI) (i.e., distributorless, direct
ignition, or coil over plug)
– All ignition types use battery, switch, coil, switching
device, and spark plugs
– Circuits
• Primary circuit: low-voltage (battery)
• Secondary circuit: high-voltage (spark)
No. 254
PRIMARY CIRCUIT
Primary ignition system components
• Battery and charging system
• Ignition switch and coil primary windings
• Switching device
• Distributor cam lobes or crank/cam sensor
• Ground return path
Battery voltage converted to high voltage by
ignition coil
• Spark jumps across gap at end of spark
plug
• Spark timing is critical to power output
No. 255
IGNITION SWITCH
Multiposition switch
• Powers the ignition circuit on and off
• Operates the steering wheel lock and
a buzzer or light
No. 256
IGNITION COIL
Heart of the ignition system
• Has a low-voltage primary winding and
high-voltage secondary winding
Magnetic field
• Collapses when current flow is interrupted
in primary winding
Magnetic lines of force
• Cut across the secondary windings and
create high voltage and low amperage
No. 257
SECONDARY IGNITION PARTS
Secondary circuit
• Delivers high voltage from coil to spark plugs
Distributor ignition (DI) system components
• Cam
• Distributor cap and rotor
• DI systems: electricity flows from coil to distributor
cap and rotor
• Distributor rotates at one-half crankshaft speed
• Spark plug cables are inserted in the distributor cap
following engine firing order
Spark Plugs
Spark ignites compressed air-fuel mixture
– Length of threaded area called reach
– Heat range indicates how fast heat travels away
from the center electrode
• Determined by how far ceramic insulator
extends into combustion chamber
– Spark plugs have a tapered seat or flat seat with a
gasket to seal against cylinder head
– There is controversy over long-life spark plugs
• Precious metals are used to prolong life
No. 258
SPARK PLUGS (CONT'D.)
Resistor plugs and wires

• Resistance added to secondary ignition system
with spark plugs or spark plug cables
• Resistor inside spark plug raises firing voltage
required by the output coil
Spark plug cable
• Resistor cables are very fragile
• Secondary wiring must be well insulated
• Leak in insulation will cause a spark to short to
ground
Electronic Ignitions
Trigger mechanism
– Controls current flow in primary coil winding
Nonelectric ignition systems
– Used mechanical contact points
• Alternately energized and then opened primary
ignition circuit
– Contact points require periodic replacement
• Experience wear to rubbing block that rides
against the distributor cam
No. 259
ELECTRONIC IGNITION
OPERATION
Transistor triggers buildup and collapse of magnetic field

• Housed in an ignition module or in PCM
Transistor
• Electronic switch or relay
• Power transistor: controlled by driver transistor
• Components: emitter, collector, and base
• Switches when a small amount of current is applied to
its base
No. 260
ELECTRONIC IGNITION
VARIATIONS
Common electronic trigger: permanent magnet (PM)

AC generator pickup
• Works like an alternator
• Pickup coil: wrapped around iron pole piece
• Trigger wheel: attached to distributor shaft
• Low magnetic reluctance
• Reluctor tooth moves away from pole piece
and magnetic field becomes weaker
• Ignition module: alternating signal from PM
generator is converted to DC
Hall-Effect Pickups
Most popular electronic ignition triggering device
– Has a stationary sensor and rotating trigger wheel
– Signal is a rise in voltage followed by a drop
– Components: permanent magnet, Hall element, and cupped
metal ring
– Creates a small analog voltage signal strengthened by an
amplifier
• Converted to square wave by Schmidt trigger
– Generate rpm signals and are very accurate
– Used as a crankshaft position sensor
No. 261
MAGNETORESISTIVE SENSORS
Create a square wave digital signal

• Includes two MR pickups phased a small
distance from each other
• Creates its own five-volt reference signal
• Permanent magnet is sandwiched between two
sideways magnetic reluctance pickups
• One pickup gets the signal sooner than the
other
• Differential signal switches a Schmidt trigger
Optical Sensors
A beam of light controls primary circuit

– Sensor shines beam on one side of slotted disc
– Disc interrupts the light: voltage stops
Automotive engine use
– Called crank angle sensors
– Computer determines crankshaft position, cylinder
identification, and rpm from openings
No. 262
IGNITION MODULES
Newer ignition modules functions

• Turn primary current on and off
• Limit current
• Vary dwell
Current limiting system
• Has variable resistance within an ignition
module
• Ignition module turns current flow off as
soon as coil primary winding is saturated
Ignition Timing
Ignition is timed
– So it occurs just before piston reaches top of
compression stroke
Ignition timing variation
– Computer determines best ignition timing setting
• Advanced or retarded in response to engine
speed and load changes, altitude, and engine
temperature
– Intake manifold vacuum senses engine load
No. 263
DETONATION SENSOR
Controls maximum spark advance

• Piezoelectric crystal detects the frequency
of spark knock
• PCM retards timing in steps until vibration
stops
• Advances timing until knocking occurs
• Checks if outside air temperature is high
to prevent detonation
Distributorless Ignition
Advantages of EI
– Reduced cost and lower maintenance
• No rotor, distributor cap, or spark plug cables
Crankshaft position sensor
– Determines engine speed and crankshaft position
Camshaft position sensor
– Gives information for sequencing fuel injection
system and coil firing
No. 264
Furnace Inspection
During a furnace inspection, it is a good idea to check places

where air may leak into the furnace. Air leaks can reduce the
efficiency of the furnace and give misleading draft and excess air
readings.
The inside of the furnace should also be checked and the

operators who make these checks must follow the necessary
safety guidelines. To avoid getting burned, it is important to wear
a face shield, and to stand to one side when peephole doors are
opened.
Inside the furnace, the firebox should be relatively clear. If it is

extremely hazy, the burners may not be getting enough air.
The condition of the tubes should also be checked. Bulges in the

tubes are warning signs of overheating, and they could lead to
tube ruptures.
Shiny sections, bright and glowing sections, or silver streaks

could be indications of hot spots, which are overheated areas
of a tube.
No. 265
MAINTENANCE & INSPECTION OF
HEATERS AND FURNACES
Catastrophic downtime can be prevented

partially through advanced boiler/burner
computer software programs and controls
that monitor and store operating information,
then supply a printout or transmit the data to
remote locations for evaluation.
Although new controls certainly maximize

boiler safety and efficiency, the boiler room
log still is one of the best means to record
data that can be applied to preventive
maintenance.
The boiler room log sheet is used by careful
boiler operators to evaluate performance and
to help spot trends that may affect the
boiler’s operating pressure (steam boiler),
operating temperature (hot water boiler),
stack temperature, and water-level controls.
Routine sections of the logbook should

contain individual instructions on daily,
weekly, monthly, and yearly operating and
maintenance procedures.
No. 266
You should insist on factual record keeping.
For example, if your boiler is capable of firing
dual fuels (i.e., natural gas and No.2 fuel oil), and
your primary fuel is natural gas, you should fire
the boiler with oil one day each month to ensure
that the oil system is functioning. Then record the
data. Don’t ignore your backup fuel system.
A regular inspection schedule is critical and

should cover four areas:
 Boiler
 Burner
 Controls
 System
Preventive maintenance is the most widely used

means of minimizing common problems in boilers.
 Unfortunately, most maintenance programs

do not properly address the needs of the
boiler and its related systems.
 Statistics indicate about two-thirds of all boiler

failures and nearly all unscheduled
shutdowns are caused by poor maintenance
and operation.
No. 267
Scale and soot can cost
Although each element of the maintenance
program is important, an annual boiler cleaning
can assure you of a higher return in fuel savings
and is an excellent deterrent against downtime.
In the course of one year, soot, non-combustible

materials, mineral scales, and other deposits
can form within the boiler.
 These particles are great insulators that
inhibit heat exchange and cause the boiler
to lose heat transfer, thus efficiency.
Annual Cleaning
An annual cleaning should follow the
recommendations of the equipment
manufacturer.
All major components should be properly

inspected, cleaned, adjusted, and repaired.
Here are some general recommendations

that should be included in your annual
cleaning program:
No. 268
1) Inspect the fireside:
The dirtier the fireside of the boiler, the

greater the loss of efficiency.
After the boiler has been allowed to cool,

open the fireside.
Check the boiler tube and furnace area for

any deposits of soot and non-combustible
materials. Then clean as necessary.
2) Check the Refractory:
Most boilers will require some minor

refractory patching.
Visual inspection of the refractory can be

done during scheduled shutdown.
Areas showing cracking or erosion should be

carefully repaired and built up according to
the instructions of the refractory supplier.
No. 269
3) Inspect the Waterside:
This inspection should begin as soon as the boiler

has cooled to a temperature of approximately
120F.
First, drain the boiler.
Remember, adequate drains in the boiler room

floor are required to allow proper drainage from the
boiler to the sewer.
The water should be cool in order to avoid
accidental scalding.
The best time to look at the results of the last

chemical treatment for the past year is when the
waterside of the boiler is open. If the job was
done right, no scale, mud, or other sediments will
be visible on the tubes or at the bottom of the
pressure vessel.
Small amounts of sediment, if found, should be

washed out.
In the event of a complete failure of your water

treatment program, some drastic measures may
have to be taken.
No. 270
Remove all manway and handhole plates,
inspection plugs from the water column tees and
crosses, and float assemblies from the water
column and thoroughly wash all the waterside
surfaces.
This procedure also should include the cleaning

of equalization lines and/or other related piping.
Before closing the unit, replace worn gaskets as

required.
If the boiler is not going to be used for a period of

time, the inside should be dried with a heater or fan.
If the boiler is to be placed in wet storage, chemical

treatment should be added to inhibit corrosion and
the unit should be filled to the top of the shell.
No. 271
4) Inspect the Burner:
While the boiler is open, inspect the burner
components.
All moving parts should be free and non-binding.
The shutter, damper, oil nozzles and/or diffuser

should be maintained in like-new condition.
5) Inspect the Controls:

Any controls used to monitor the water level of the
boiler should be inspected for mechanical operation
before reinstallation in their respective chambers.
The controls should be inspected for both

mechanical and electrical operation after they are
reinstalled and mounted, but before the boiler is
started.
No. 272
6) Other Measures:
Check the fluid levels on all hydraulic valves. If
any leakage is apparent take corrective action.
Check the oil preheater by removing the heating

element and inspect it for sludge or scale.
Check the filter elements and clean or replace

as needed.
With self- cleaning filters, make certain that
any impurities are flushed or discharged from
the filter body.
Check the gauge glass for possible replacement.
If internal erosion at the water level is noted,
install new glass and rubber gaskets.
If your boiler unattended, the gauge glass
mounting should be a safety-style device that
includes stop-checks in case of glass breakage.
Remove the safety valves and have them

reconditioned.
No. 273
Boiler feed pumps and strainers should be
checked and replaced or reconditioned, if
necessary.
Sometimes a review of the condensate
return system or chemical feed arrangement
will reveal the cause of a short-lived pump.
Along with maintaining your boiler, there is

support equipment that should be serviced. This
includes:
Feed-water equipment
Chemical feed system
Oil and/or circulating pumps
The header valve
Electrical connections
Condensate receivers should be emptied and

washed out internally.
Make an internal inspection. If the receiver

has a mounted makeup valve, it should be
overhauled and checked for proper
operation.
No. 274
Analyze Combustion
If there is no load, and you have the capability to
generate a false load, a combustion analysis can
be performed at this time.
But if no such provisions exist, combustion analysis

must be performed before the unit is put into
operation.
Performing a combustion analysis is critical

because your fuel cost often represent your
greatest operating expense.
Some heating plants perform a monthly or quarterly

combustion analysis.
They use these data to maximize fuel savings, and

as a basis for comparison with future tests.
Based on accurate measurements of these

combustion byproducts, the burner can be adjusted
to its optimum fuel efficiency.
No. 275
Deaerator Maintenance
Deaerator maintenance often is overshadowed
by higher priorities such as boiler care.
While the importance of boiler maintenance is

widely recognized, deaerator maintenance is not.
A properly maintained deaerator will:

Minimize chemical costs.
Preheat the feed-water.
Ensure the proper flow of boiler makeup
water at all times.
Make optimum use of condensate returns.
Minimize scrubbing steam.
Minimize vent losses.
Minimize makeup water usage.
Minimize the potential for deaerator
pressure vessel repairs or replacement.
Reduce the potential for unscheduled plant
shut downs.
Recover exhaust steam to increase system
efficiency.
No. 276
To ensure a properly maintained deaerator, check
the following items that apply to your system. The
frequency of maintenance for items on this list
should be determined based on actual operating
conditions at your facility.
Check automatic vent valve operation.
Check manual vent valve orifice for wear.
Check operation of the safety relief valve(s).
Check over-flow control valve for proper operation.
Check for proper adjustment and operation of the
makeup water controls.
Check for proper adjustment and operation of the
steam pressure reducing valve.
Verify accuracy of pressure and temperature
gauges.
Verify temperature, pressure and quantity of
condensate returns.
Record makeup water, temperature, pressure and
consumption.
No. 277
Record deaerator tank pressure and
temperature.
Clean pump strainers.
Maintain pumps and motors (including
packing/seals, lubrication, by-pass orifices/relief
valves, alignment, etc.) in accordance with
manufacturer’s recommendations.
Check for dissolved oxygen in the deaerated
water.
Monitor trends in chemical consumption.
Clean gauge glass.
Check spring compression.
Inspect tank internals.
Inspect mechanics of water spray valve, steam
spray valve and packed columns.
Repair piping leaks.
Check the operation of the high and low water
alarm.
Replace manway and spray head gaskets.
Determine the cause of any unusual noises.
No. 278
No. 279
Maintaining the Heater
There are eight primary areas of the boiler itself that
should be examined or inspected regularly:
Water Level:
The most important maintenance inspection is to
check the boiler water level daily. Insufficient water
causes pressure vessel damage or failure.
At a minimum, steel in the pressure vessel could
overheat. The condition could change the pressure
withholding capabilities of the vessel, necessitating
vessel repair or replacement.
More seriously, a low water level could damage the
equipment or building or even cause personal injury.
No. 280
Boiler Blowdown:
Steam boilers should be blown down daily to
maintain recommended dissolved solids levels and to
remove sludge and sediment. Hot water boilers
generally take on no makeup water and, therefore do
not need to be blown down.
As the boiler takes on makeup water the solids

concentration builds up. Solids accumulate in either
dissolved or suspended form. Unless they are
controlled dissolved solids promote carryover of water
with the steam causing water hammer and damaging
piping, valves, or other equipment. Carryover also
raises the moisture content in the steam, affecting
proper operation of equipment that uses steam.
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No. 281
Water Column Blowdown:
Water columns on steam boilers should be
blown down once each a minimum once a day.
This action keeps the column and piping
connections clean and free of sediment or
sludge.
The water column must be kept clean to ensure

the water level in the gauge glass accurately
represents the water level in the boiler.
The gauge glass and tricocks connected to the

water column are the only means of visually
verifying boiler water level.
Water Treatment:
Proper water treatment prolongs boiler life and

ensures safe and reliable operation.
Treatment programs are designed around the

quality and quantity of raw water makeup and
system design.
No. 282
Flue Gas Temperature:
Flue gas temperature is a good indicator of boiler

efficiency changes.
The temperature should be recorded regularly and
compared to those of a clean boiler under the same
operating conditions.
Accurately determining the affect on efficiency

requires that the firing rate and operating pressure
be the same.
Waterside and Fireside Surfaces:
Waterside and fireside surfaces should be

inspected and cleaned annually.
A visual inspection provides an early warning that

the vessel needs repair or water treatment or that
combustion needs adjustment.
Inspecting and cleaning water-column

connections should receive special attention.
Soot in the breeching is a fire hazard and can

cause severe combustion-related problems. 2
8
3
No. 283
Safety Valves:
Valves are the most important safety devices on
the boiler. They are the last line of defense for
protecting the pressure vessel from
overpressure.
Once a year, operating pressure should be tested

by bringing the relief valve to its setting.
Valves should pop and reseat according to
the valve stamping.
Refractory:
Refractory protects steel not in direct contact
with the water from overheating.
It helps maintain proper burner flame patterns

and performance.
If the boiler remains on all the time, refractory

should be inspected twice a year.
If the boiler cycles more frequently or is turned

on and off daily, refractory should be inspected
more often.
No. 284
LANCASHIRE BOILERS SIGNIFICANT
ADVANTAGES:
Sudden large steam demands, such as a pit-winding engine
being started, could easily be tolerated because the resulting
reduction in boiler pressure released copious amounts of
flash steam from the boiler water held at saturation
temperature;
The large volume of water meant that although the steaming
rate might vary widely, the rate of change of the water level
was relatively slow.
Water level control would again have been manual, and the
operator would either start a reciprocating, steam powered
feedwater pump, or adjust a feedwater valve to maintain the
desired water level.

No. 285
LANCASHIRE BOILERS SIGNIFICANT
ADVANTAGES:
The low level alarm was simply a float that descended

with the water level, and opened a port to a steam whistle
when a pre-determined level was reached.
The large water surface area in relation to the steaming
rate meant that the rate at which steam was released
from the surface (expressed in terms of kg per square
metre) was low.
This low velocity meant that, even with water containing
high concentrations of Total Dissolved Solids (TDS),
there was plenty of opportunity for the steam and water
particles to separate and dry steam to be supplied to the
plant.
No. 286
ECONOMIC BOILER (TWO-PASS,
DRY BACK)
No. 287
Day Four
Turbines
No. 288
GAS TURBINE BASICS
Gas Turbines
• Types
• How They Work
• Applications
• Components of Plant
• Flow Paths
• Operation
289
No. 289
GAS TURBINE APPLICATIONS
Simple Cycle
Combined Cycle
Cogeneration
290
No. 290
TYPES OF GAS TURBINE
PLANTS
Simple Cycle
• Operate When Demand is High – Peak
Demand
• Operate for Short / Variable Times
• Designed for Quick Start-Up
• Not designed to be Efficient but Reliable
• Not Cost Effective to Build for
Efficiency
Combined Cycle
• Operate for Peak and Economic
Dispatch
• Designed for Quick Start-Up
• Designed to Efficient, Cost-Effective
Operation
291
• Typically Has Ability to Operate in SC
No. 291
Mode
PRINCIPLES OF
OPERATION
Open Cycle
Also referred to as simple cycle)
 The energy contained in a flowing ideal

gas is the sum of enthalpy and kinetic
energy.
 Pressurized gas can store or release
energy. As it expands the pressure is
converted to kinetic energy. Link to picture
292
No. 292
BRAYTON CYCLE – GAS
TURBINE CYCLE
293
No. 293
THERMODYNAMIC
FUNDAMENTALS
Pressure Ratio & CT

Components
294
No. 294
COMBUSTION OR GAS
TURBINE
295
No. 295
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
Compressor
As air flows into the compressor, energy is transferred from its rotating
blades to the air. Pressure and temperature of the air increase.
Most compressors operate in the range of 75% to 85% efficiency.
Combustor
The purpose of the combustor is to increase the energy stored in the
compressor exhaust by raising its temperature.
Turbine
The turbine acts like the compressor in reverse with respect to energy
transformation.
Most turbines operate in the range of 80% to 90% efficiency.
296
No. 296
PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
OVERALL ENERGY TRANSFORMATIONS (THERMAL
EFFICIENCY)
Useful Work = Energy released in turbine minus energy absorbed by

compressor.
The compressor requires typically approximately 50% of the energy released by
the turbine.
Overall Thermal Efficiency =
Useful Work/Fuel Chemical Energy *100
Typical overall thermal efficiencies of a combustion turbine are 20% - 40%.
297
No. 297
GAS TURBINE APPLICATIONS
Simple Cycle
Link to picture
298
No. 298
Simple Cycle Power Plant
Westinghouse 501D5 – 340 MW
299
No. 299
COMBINED CYCLE POWER
PLANT
300
No. 300
COMBINED CYCLE PLANT DESIGN
GT PRO 13.0 Drew Wozniak Net Power 95959 kW
LHV Heat Rate 7705 BTU/kWh
12.54 p
90 T 1X GE 6581B 967.3 m 2 X GT 73.85 %N2
30 %RH 13.53 %O2
12.93 p 3.233 %CO2+SO2
944 m 1034 T
Fogger 149.2 p 143.2 p 33781 kW 8.497 %H2O
4327 ft elev. 684 T 2072 T 1934.6 M
4.717 m 0.8894 %Ar
12.39 p
68 T
948.7 m
30813 kW
Natural gas 18.58 m

LHV 369671 kBTU/h 850 p
122 T 77 T 96 T 950 T
292.6 M 248.6 M
122 T 17.19 p 1.694 p

220 T 120 T
222.1 M
29.58 M
29.65 M
292.6 M
0.1296 M
26.36 M
195.8 p 597 T
183 p 375 T 70 M V4
6.89 M 879.8 p 954 T 120 T
V8
6.89 M
FW
LPB IPE2 IPB HPE2 IPS1 HPE3 IPS2 HPB1 HPS3
268 T 1031 T
1934.6 M 1934.6 M
17.19 p 203.6 p 203.6 p 924.2 p 199.7 p 910.5 p 195.8 p 910.5 p 879.8 p
220 T 373 T 383 T 472 T 460 T 523 T 500 T 533 T 954 T
29.65 M 292.6 M 36.75 M 251.1 M 36.75 M 251.1 M 36.75 M 248.6 M 248.6 M
268 326 419 481 534 538 568 569 897 1031
p[psia], T[F], M[kpph], Steam Properties: Thermoflow - STQUIK Natural gas
0M
1512 10-13-2004 23:27:31 file=C:\Tflow13\MYFILES\3P 0 70.gtp
301
No. 301
GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS
COMPRESSOR – COMBUSTOR - TURBINE
302
No. 302
GAS TURBINE COMPONENTS &
SYSTEMS (CONT’D)
Combustion System  Exhaust System
 Simple Cycle Stack
• Silo, Cannular,  Transition to HRSG
Annular  Generator
• Water, Steam, DLN  Open-Air cooled
Turbine  TEWAC
 Hydrogen Cooled
• Multiple Shaft, Single
 Starting Systems
Shaft  Diesel
• Number of Stages  Motor
 Static
• Material and Paper Towel thru
Manufacturing compressor
Processes
303
No. 303
COMBUSTION TURBINE
FUELS
Conventional Fuels
• Natural Gas
• Liquid Fuel Oil
Nonconventional Fuels
• Crude Oil
• Refinery Gas
• Propane
Synthetic Fuels
• Chemical Process
• Physical Process
304
No. 304
GE COMBUSTION TURBINE
COMPARISONS
305
No. 305
GAS TURBINE TYPES
 Advanced Heavy-Duty Units

 Advanced Aeroderivative Units
Parameter Heavy Duty Aero-Derivative

Capital Cost, $/kW Lower Higher
Capacity, MW 10 - 330 5 – 100
Efficiency Lower Higher
Plan Area Size Larger Smaller
Maintenance Requirements Lower Higher
Technological Development Lower Higher

GAS TURBINE MAJOR
SECTIONS
• Air Inlet
• Compressor
• Combustion System
• Turbine
• Exhaust
• Support Systems
No. 307
GAS TURBINE BARRIER INLET
FILTER SYSTEMS
308
No. 308
GAS TURBINE PULSE INLET
FILTER SYSTEM
309
No. 309
INLET GUIDE VANES
310
No. 310
INLET GUIDE VANES
311
No. 311
GAS TURBINE COMPRESSOR
ROTOR ASSEMBLY
312
No. 312
6B GAS TURBINE
313
No. 313
GAS TURBINE COMBUSTOR
ARRANGEMENT
314
No. 314
FRAME 5 GT
315
No. 315
GE LM2500 AERODERIVATIVE
GAS TURBINE
Compres
Power
sor
Turbine
Turbine
Compress Section
Section
or
316
No. 316
FT4 GAS TURBINE
317
No. 317
FT4 GAS TURBINE – GAS
GENERATOR (COMPRESSOR)
318
No. 318
FT4 GAS TURBINE – GAS
GENERATOR (COMPRESSOR)
319
No. 319
FT4 GAS TURBINE – FREE
TURBINE
320
No. 320
FT4 GAS TURBINE – FREE
TURBINE GAS PATH
321
No. 321
FT4 GAS GENERATOR
PERFORMANCE
322
No. 322
FT4 FREE TURBINE
PERFORMANCE
323
No. 323
AERODERIVATIVE VERSUS HEAVY
DUTY COMBUSTION TURBINES
Aeroderivatives
• Higher Pressure Ratios and Firing
Temperatures Result in Higher Power Output
per Pound of Air Flow
• Smaller Chilling/Cooling Systems Required
• Compressor Inlet Temperature Has a Greater
Impact on Output and Heat Rate
• Benefits of Chilling/Cooling Systems are More
Pronounced
324
No. 324
TYPICAL SIMPLE CYCLE CT
PLANT COMPONENTS
Prime Mover (Combustion Turbine)

Fuel Supply & Preparation
Emissions Control Equipment
Generator
Electrical Switchgear
Generator Step Up Transformer
Starting System (Combustion Turbines)
Auxiliary Cooling
Fire Protection
Lubrication System
325
No. 325
TYPICAL PEAKING PLANT
COMPONENTS
Lube Oil
System GSU Generator
Switchgear / Starting
MCC Engine Fire Protection
326
No. 326
COMBINING THE BRAYTON
AND RANKINE CYCLES
Gas Turbine Exhaust used as the heat source for the Steam
Turbine cycle
Utilizes the major efficiency loss from the Brayton cycle
Advantages:
• Relatively short cycle to design, construct & commission
• Higher overall efficiency
• Good cycling capabilities
• Fast starting and loading
• Lower installed costs
• No issues with ash disposal or coal storage
Disadvantages
• High fuel costs
• Uncertain long term fuel source
• Output dependent on ambient temperature
327
No. 327
HOW DOES A COMBINED CYCLE
PLANT WORK?
Picture courtesy of Nooter/Eriksen
328
No. 328
COMBINED CYCLE HEAT
BALANCE
329
No. 329
COMBINED CYCLES TODAY
Plant Efficiency ~ 58-60 percent

• Biggest losses are mechanical input to the compressor and heat in the
exhaust
Steam Turbine output
• Typically 50% of the gas turbine output
• More with duct-firing
Net Plant Output (Using Frame size gas turbines)
• up to 750 MW for 3 on 1 configuration
• Up to 520 MW for 2 on 1 configuration
Construction time about 24 months
Engineering time 80k to 130k labor hours
Engineering duration about 12 months
Capital Cost ($900-$1100/kW)
Two (2) versus Three (3) Pressure Designs
• Larger capacity units utilize the additional drums to gain efficiency at the
expense of higher capital costs
330
No. 330
COMBINED CYCLE
EFFICIENCY
Simple cycle efficiency (max ~ 44%*)

Combined cycle efficiency (max ~58-60%*)
Correlating Efficiency to Heat Rate (British Units)
 = 3412/(Heat Rate) --> 3412/ = Heat Rate*
• Simple cycle – 3412/.44 = 7,757 Btu/Kwh*
• Combined cycle – 3412/.58 = 5,884 Btu/Kwh*
Correlating Efficiency to Heat Rate (SI Units)
 = 3600/(Heat Rate) --> 3600/ = Heat Rate*
• Simple cycle – 3600/.44 = 8,182 KJ/Kwh*
• Combined cycle – 3600/.58 = 6,207 KJ/Kwh*
Practical Values
• HHV basis, net output basis
• Simple cycle 7FA (new and clean) 10,860 Btu/Kwh (11,457 KJ/Kwh)
• Combined cycle 2x1 7FA (new and clean) 6,218 Btu/Kwh (6,560 KJ/Kwh)
*Gross LHV
basis
331
No. 331
GAS TURBINE GENERATOR
PERFORMANCE
Factors that Influence Performance

• Fuel Type, Composition, and Heating Value
• Load (Base, Peak, or Part)
• Compressor Inlet Temperature
• Atmospheric Pressure
• Inlet Pressure Drop
• Varies significantly with types of air
cleaning/cooling
• Exhaust Pressure Drop
• Affected by addition of HRSG, SCR, CO
catalysts
• Steam or Water Injection Rate
• Used for either power augmentation or NOx
control
• Relative Humidity 332
No. 332
ALTITUDE CORRECTION
333
No. 333
HUMIDITY CORRECTION
334
No. 334
COGENERATION PLANT
A Cogeneration Plant
• Power generation facility that also
provides thermal energy (steam) to a
thermal host.
Typical thermal hosts
• paper mills,
• chemical plants,
• refineries, etc…
• potentially any user that uses large
quantities of steam on a continuous basis.
Good applications for combined cycle plants
• Require both steam and electrical power
335
No. 335
MAJOR COMBINED CYCLE
PLANT EQUIPMENT
Combustion Turbine (CT/CTG)

Steam Generator (Boiler/HRSG)
Steam Turbine (ST/STG)
Heat Rejection Equipment
Air Quality Control System (AQCS) Equipment
Electrical Equipment
336
No. 336
HEAT RECOVERY STEAM
GENERATOR (HRSG)
337
No. 337
STEAM TURBINE
GE D11
338
No. 338
HEAT REJECTION
EQUIPMENT - CONDENSER
Same Function as
discussed earlier in
Session 9
• Usually utilizes a
cooling tower to
reject heat to the
atmosphere
• Rarely uses once
through cooling
(retrofit
applications or
ocean)
339
No. 339
Day Five
Cooling Tower & Chiller Operation

& Troubleshooting Maintenance
No. 340
Training Agenda: Cooling
Towers
Introduction
Types of cooling towers
Assessment of cooling towers
Energy efficiency opportunities
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Introduction
Cooled water is needed for, for example,
air conditioners, manufacturing processes
or power generation.
A cooling tower is an equipment used to

reduce the temperature of a water stream
by extracting heat from water and emitting it
to the atmosphere.
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Introduction
Cooling towers
make use of evaporation whereby some of the
water is evaporated into a moving air stream
and subsequently discharged into the
atmosphere.
As a result, the remainder of the water is cooled
down significantly Cooling towers are able to
lower the water temperatures more than devices
that use only air to reject heat, like the radiator
in a car, and are therefore more cost-effective
and energy efficient.
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Introduction
Main Features of Cooling
Towers
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Introduction
Components of a cooling tower
• Frame and casing: support exterior enclosures
• Fill: facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water

/ air contact
• Splash fill
• Film fill
• Cold water basin: receives water at bottom of

tower
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Components of a cooling tower
Frame and casing
Most towers have structural frames that support

the exterior enclosures (casings), motors, fans, and
other components. With some smaller designs,
such as some glass fiber units, the casing may
essentially be the frame.
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Components of a Cooling Tower
Fill.
Most towers employ fills (made of plastic or wood) to

facilitate heat transfer by maximizing water and air
contact. There are two types of fill:
Splash fill:
water falls over successive layers of horizontal splash

bars, continuously breaking into smaller droplets, while
also wetting the fill surface. Plastic splash fills promote
better heat transfer than wood splash fills.
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Film fill:
consists of thin, closely spaced plastic surfaces over

which the water spreads, forming a thin film in
contact with the air.
These surfaces may be flat, corrugated,

honeycombed, or other patterns. The film type of fill
is the more efficient and provides same heat transfer
in a smaller volume than the splash fill.
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Cold-water basin
The cold-water basin is located at or near the bottom

of the tower, and it receives the cooled water that
flows down through the tower and fill. The basin
usually has a sump or low point for the cold-water
discharge connection. In many tower designs, the
cold-water basin is beneath the entire fill.
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In some forced draft counter flow design, however,

the water at the bottom of the fill is channeled to a
perimeter trough that functions as the cold-water
basin. Propeller fans are mounted beneath the fill to
blow the air up through the tower. With this design,
the tower is mounted on legs, providing easy access
to the fans and their motors.
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• Drift eliminators: capture droplets in air stream

• Air inlet: entry point of air
• Louvers: equalize air flow into the fill and retain
water within tower
• Nozzles: spray water to wet the fill
• Fans: deliver air flow in the tower
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Drift eliminators
These capture water droplets entrapped in the air

stream that otherwise would be lost to the
atmosphere.
Air inlet
This is the point of entry for the air entering a tower.
The inlet may take up an entire side of a tower

(cross-flow design) or be located low on the side or
the bottom of the tower (counter-flow design).
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Louvers
Generally, cross-flow towers have inlet louvers.
The purpose of louvers is to equalize air flow into

the fill and retain the water within the tower.
Many counter flow tower designs do not require

louvers.
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• Nozzles.
• These spray water to wet the fill.
• Uniform water distribution at the top of the fill is
essential to achieve proper wetting of the entire fill
surface.
• Nozzles can either be fixed and spray in a round
or square patterns, or they can be part of a
rotating assembly as found in some circular
cross-section towers.
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• Fans
• Both axial (propeller type) and centrifugal fans
are used in towers.
• Generally, propeller fans are used in induced
draft towers and both propeller and centrifugal
fans are found in forced draft towers.
• Depending upon their size, the type of propeller
fans used is either fixed or variable pitch.
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• A fan with non-automatic adjustable pitch blades

can be used over a wide kW range because the fan
can be adjusted to deliver the desired air flow at the
lowest power consumption.
• Automatic variable pitch blades can vary air flow in
response to changing load conditions.
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Training Agenda: Cooling
Towers
Introduction
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Types of Cooling Towers
Natural Draft Cooling
Towers
• Hot air moves through tower

• Fresh cool air is drawn into the tower
from bottom
• No fan required
• Concrete tower <200 m
• Used for large heat duties
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Towers
The natural draft or hyperbolic cooling tower makes
use of the difference in temperature between the
ambient air and the hotter air inside the tower.
It works as follows:
• Hot air moves upwards through the tower

(because hot air rises)
• Fresh cool air is drawn into the tower through an

air inlet at the bottom.
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Towers
Due to the layout of the tower, no fan is required and

there is almost no circulation of hot air that could
affect the performance.
Concrete is used for the tower shell with a height of
up to 200 m.
These cooling towers are mostly only for large heat
duties because large concrete structures are
expensive.
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Natural Draft Cooling Towers
• Air drawn across • Air drawn up

falling water through
• Fill located falling water
outside tower • Fill located
inside tower
Cross
flow Counte
r flow

Towers
There are two main types of natural draft towers:

Cross flow tower (left figure): air is drawn across
the falling water and the fill is located outside the
tower
Counter flow tower (right figure): air is drawn up

through the falling water and the fill is therefore
located inside the tower, although design depends
on specific site conditions
Mechanical Draft Cooling
Towers
• Large fans to force air through circulated water
• Water falls over fill surfaces: maximum heat

transfer
• Cooling rates depend on many parameters
• Large range of capacities
• Can be grouped, e.g. 8-cell tower
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Towers
• Mechanical draft towers have large fans to force

or draw air through circulated water.
• The water falls downwards over fill surfaces,
which help increase the contact time between the
water and the air - this helps maximize heat
transfer between the two.
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Towers
• Cooling rates of mechanical draft towers depend

upon various parameters such as fan diameter
and speed of operation, fills for system resistance
etc.
• Mechanical draft towers are available in a large
range of capacities.
• Towers can be either factory built or field erected
– for example concrete towers are only field
erected.
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Towers
• Many towers are constructed so that they can be

grouped together to achieve the desired capacity.
• Thus, many cooling towers are assemblies of two
or more individual cooling towers or “cells.”
• The number of cells they have, e.g., a eight-cell
tower, often refers to such towers.
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Towers
Three types
• Forced draft
• Induced draft cross flow
• Induced draft counter flow
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Towers
Forced Draft Cooling Towers
• Air blown through tower by centrifugal fan at air

inlet
• Advantages: suited for high air resistance & fans

are relatively quiet
• Disadvantages: recirculation due to high air-

entry and low air-exit velocities
Towers
Forced Draft Cooling Towers
How it works: air is blown through the tower by a fan

located in the air inlet
Advantages:
• Suited for high air resistance due to centrifugal

blower fans
• Fans are relatively quiet

Disadvantages: Recirculation due to high air-entry
and low air-exit velocities, which can be solved by
locating towers in plant rooms combined with
discharge ducts
Towers
Induced Draft Cooling Towers

• Two types
– Cross flow
– Counter flow
• Advantage: less recirculation than forced draft
towers
• Disadvantage: fans and motor drive

mechanism require weather-proofinh
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Towers
Two types of induced draft cooling towers:

• cross flow and
• counter flow
Advantage: Less recirculation than forced draft
towers because the speed of exit air is 3-4 times
higher than entering air
Disadvantage: Fans and the motor drive mechanism
require weather-proofing against moisture and
corrosion because they are in the path of humid exit
air
Towers
Induced Draft Counter Flow CT
• Hot water enters at the top
• Air enters at bottom and exits at top
• Uses forced and induced draft fans

Towers
Induced Draft Cross Flow CT
• Water enters top and passes over fill
• Air enters on one side or opposite sides
• Induced draft fan draws air across fill


Towers
Induced draft cross flow cooling tower:

• water enters at top and passes over fill
• air enters on one side (single-flow tower) or
opposite sides (double-flow tower)
• an induced draft fan draws air across fill
towards exit at top of tower
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Training Agenda:
Cooling Towers
Introduction
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Assessment of Cooling Towers
Measured Parameters
• Wet bulb temperature of air
• Dry bulb temperature of air
• Cooling tower inlet water temperature
• Cooling tower outlet water temperature
• Exhaust air temperature
• Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
• Water flow rate
• Air flow rate
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The performance of cooling towers is evaluated to

assess present levels of approach and range
against their design values, identify areas of energy
wastage and to suggest improvements.
During the performance evaluation, portable
monitoring instruments are used to measure the
following parameters:
• Wet bulb temperature of air
• Dry bulb temperature of air
• Cooling tower inlet water temperature
• Cooling tower outlet water temperature
• Exhaust air temperature
• Electrical readings of pump and fan motors
• Water flow rate
• Air flow rate
Performance Parameters
1. Range
2. Approach
3. Effectiveness
4. Cooling capacity
5. Evaporation loss
6. Cycles of concentration
7. Blow down losses
8. Liquid / Gas ratio
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1. Range
Difference between cooling water inlet and outlet

temperature:
Range (°C) = CW inlet temp – CW outlet temp
High range = good performance
Hot Water Temperature (In)

Range
(In) to the Tower

(Out) from the Tower
Cold Water Temperature (Out)

Approach
Wet Bulb Temperature (Ambient)

• The range is the difference between the cooling

tower water inlet and outlet temperature.
• The formula for cooling tower range in degrees
Celcius is cooling water inlet temperature minus
cooling water outlet temperature
• A high CT Range means that the cooling tower
has been able to reduce the water temperature
effectively, and is thus performing well.
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2. Approach
Difference between cooling tower outlet cold

water temperature and ambient wet bulb
temperature:
Approach (°C) =
CW outlet temp – Wet bulb temp
Low approach = good performance

Range
(In) to the Tower


Approach

• Approach is the difference between the cooling
tower outlet cold-water temperature and ambient
wet bulb temperature.
• The formula for approach is CT Approach in
degrees Celcius is cold water outlet temperature
minus the wet bulb temperature
• The lower the approach the better the cooling tower
performance. Although, both range and approach
should be monitored, the `Approach’ is a better
indicator of cooling tower performance.
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3. Effectiveness
Effectiveness in %
= Range / (Range + Approach)
= 100 x (CW temp – CW out temp) / (CW in temp

– Wet bulb temp)
High effectiveness = good performance

Range
(In) to the Tower


Approach

• Cooling tower effectiveness is the ratio between
the range and the ideal range (in percentage), i.e.
difference between cooling water inlet temperature
and ambient wet bulb temperature
• Effectiveness = Range / (Range + Approach)
• The formula for cooling tower effectiveness is: CT
Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW temp – CW out
temp) / (CW in temp – WB temp)
• The higher this ratio, the higher the cooling tower
effectiveness.
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4. Cooling Capacity
Heat rejected in kCal/hr or tons of refrigeration (TR)
= mass flow rate of water X specific heat X

temperature difference
High cooling capacity = good performance

Range
(In) to the Tower


Approach

Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or tons
of refrigeration (TR), given as product of mass flow rate
of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
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5. Evaporation Loss
Water quantity (m3/hr) evaporated for cooling duty
= theoretically, 1.8 m3 for every 10,000,000 kCal heat

rejected
= 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
T1-T2 = Temp. difference between inlet and outlet water

Range
(In) to the Tower


Approach

• Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for

cooling duty.
• Theoretically the evaporation quantity works out to 1.8
m3 for every 1,000,000 kCal heat rejected. The following
formula can be used (Perry):
• Evaporation loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation
rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)
• T1 - T2 = temperature difference between inlet and
outlet water
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(C.O.C.)
Ratio of dissolved solids in circulating water

to the dissolved solids in make up water
(C.O.C.)
Depend on cycles of concentration and the
evaporation losses
Blow Down =
Evaporation Loss / (C.O.C. – 1)

• Cycles of concentration, C.O.C, is the ratio of dissolved

solids in circulating water to the dissolved solids in make up
water.
• Blow down losses depend upon cycles of concentration and
the evaporation losses.
• Blow down losses is given by the following relation: Blow
down = evaporation loss / (cycles of concentration – 1)
8. Liquid Gas (L/G) Ratio
Ratio between water and air mass flow rates
Heat removed from the water must be equal to the heat

absorbed by the surrounding air
L(T1 – T2) = G(h2 – h1)

L/G = (h2 – h1) / (T1 – T2)
T1 = hot water temp (oC)
T2 = cold water temp (oC)
Enthalpy of air water vapor mixture at inlet wet bulb temp (h1) and outlet wet bulb
temp (h2)
• The L/G ratio of a cooling tower is the ratio
between the water and the air mass flow rates.
• Cooling towers have certain design values, but
seasonal variations require adjustment and tuning
of water and air flow rates to get the best cooling
tower effectiveness.
• Adjustments can be made by water box loading
changes or blade angle adjustments.
• Thermodynamic rules also dictate that the heat
removed from the water must be equal to the heat
absorbed by the surrounding air.
Therefore the following formulae can be used (mention that

these are the same formula, just written differently):
L(T1 – T2) = G(h2 – h1)
L/G = (h2 – h1) / (T1 – T2)
Where:
L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)
T1 = hot water temperature (0C)
T2 = cold-water temperature (0C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust
wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet
wet-bulb temperature (same units as above)
Training Agenda:
Cooling Towers
Introduction
Energy Efficiency Opportunities

1. Selecting a cooling tower
2. Fills
3. Pumps and water distribution
4. Fans and motors
The main areas for improving the energy efficiency of

cooling towers are:
1.Selecting the right cooling tower (because the
structural aspects of the cooling tower cannot be changed
after it is installed)
2.Fills
3.Pumps and water distribution system
4.Fans and motors
We will go through these one by one on the next slides.
• Capacity
• Heat dissipation (kCal/hour)
• Circulated flow rate (m3/hr)
• Other factors
• Once a cooling tower is in place it is very difficult to significantly
improve its energy performance.
• A number of factors are of influence on the cooling tower’s
performance and should be considered when choosing a cooling
tower: capacity, range, approach, heat load, wet bulb temperature,
and the relationship between these factors. We will start with capacity.
Capacity, in terms of heat dissipation (in kCal /hour) and

circulated flow rate (m3/hr), are an indication of the capacity
of cooling towers.
However, these design parameters are not sufficient to

understand the cooling tower performance.
For example, a cooling tower sized to cool 4540 m3/hr

through a 13.9 0C range might be larger than a cooling tower
to cool 4540 m3/hr through 19.5 0C range. Therefore other
design parameters are also needed.

Range
• Range determined by process, not by
system
Approach
• Closer to the wet bulb temperature
• = Bigger size cooling tower

• = More expensive
• Cooling towers are usually specified to cool a certain

flow rate from one temperature to another temperature
at a certain wet bulb temperature.
• For example, the cooling tower might be specified to
cool 4540 m3/hr from 48.9oC to 32.2oC at 26.7oC wet
bulb temperature.
When the size of the tower has to be chosen, then
the approach is most important, closely followed by
the flow rate, and the range and wet bulb would be
of lesser importance.
Range
• The range is difference between the cooling tower water
inlet and outlet temperature, in this case range 16.7 oC =
48.9 oC - 32.2 oC.
• The range is thus determined not by the cooling tower,
but by the process it is serving.
Approach
• The approach is also important.
• This is the cold water temp minus the wet bulb temp, in
this case Approach (5.50C) = Cold-water temperature
32.2 0C – Wet bulb temperature (26.7 0C).
• As a general rule, the closer the approach to the wet
bulb, the more expensive the cooling tower due to
increased size.
• Usually a 2.8oC approach to the design wet bulb is the
coldest water temperature that cooling tower
manufacturers will guarantee.
Heat Load
• Determined by process
• Required cooling is controlled by the
desired operating temperature
• High heat load = large size and cost of
cooling tower
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is

determined by the process being served.
• Process heat loads may vary considerably

depending upon the process involved and are
therefore difficult to determine accurately.
• On the other hand, air conditioning and

refrigeration heat loads can be determined with
greater accuracy.
The heat load imposed on a cooling tower is
determined by the process being served.
• Process heat loads may vary considerably

depending upon the process involved and are
therefore difficult to determine accurately.
• On the other hand, air conditioning and

refrigeration heat loads can be determined with
greater accuracy.
The degree of cooling required is controlled by the
desired operating temperature of the process.
In most cases, a low operating temperature is desirable

to increase process efficiency or to improve the quality
or quantity of the product.
However, in some applications (e.g. internal combustion

engines) high operating temperatures are desirable.
• The size and cost of the cooling tower is increases

with increasing heat load.
• Purchasing undersized equipment (if the
calculated heat load is too low) and oversized
equipment (if the calculated heat load is too high)
is something to be aware of.
Wet bulb temperature – considerations:

• Water is cooled to temp higher than wet bulb
temp
• Conditions at tower site
• Not to exceed 5% of design wet bulb temp
• Is wet bulb temp specified as ambient
(preferred) or inlet
• Can tower deal with increased wet bulb temp
• Cold water to exchange heat

Wet bulb temperature is an important factor in
performance of evaporative water cooling equipment,
because it is the lowest temperature to which water
can be cooled.
For this reason, the wet bulb temperature of the air
entering the cooling tower determines the minimum
operating temperature level throughout the plant,
process, or system.
The following should be considered when pre-selecting a

cooling tower based on the wet bulb temperature:
Theoretically, a cooling tower will cool water to the

entering wet bulb temperature. In practice, however, water
is cooled to a temperature higher than the wet bulb
temperature because heat needs to be rejected from the
cooling tower.
• A pre-selection of towers based on the design wet bulb

temperature must consider conditions at the tower site.
• The design wet bulb temperature also should not be
exceeded for more than 5 percent of the time.
• In general, the design temperature selected is close to
the average maximum wet bulb temperature in summer.

• Confirm whether the wet bulb temperature is specified as
ambient (the temperature in the cooling tower area) or inlet
(the temperature of the air entering the tower, which is
often affected by discharge vapors recirculated into the
tower).
• As the impact of recirculation cannot be known in advance,

the ambient wet bulb temperature is preferred.
• Confirm with the supplier if the cooling tower is able to
deal with the effects of increased wet bulb temperatures.
• The cold-water temperature must be low enough to
exchange heat or to condense vapors at the optimum
temperature level.
• The quantity and temperature of heat exchanged can be
considered when choosing the right size cooling tower
and heat exchangers at the lowest costs. .
Relationship range, flow and heat load

• Range increases with increased
• Amount circulated water (flow)
• Heat load
• Causes of range increase
• Inlet water temperature increases
• Exit water temperature decreases
• Consequence = larger tower
1. Selecting a cooling
tower
• The range increases when the quantity of
circulated water and heat load increase.
• This means that increasing the range as a result
of added heat load requires a larger tower.
There are two possible causes for the increased
range:
1. The inlet water temperature is increased (and the
cold-water temperature at the exit remains the
same). In this case it is economical to invest in
removing the additional heat.
2. The exit water temperature is decreased

(and the hot water temperature at the inlet
remains the same).
In this case the tower size would have to be

increased considerably because the approach
is also reduced, and this is not always
economical.
tower
Relationship Approach and Wet bulb

temperature
• If approach stays the same (e.g. 4.45 oC)
• Higher wet bulb temperature (26.67 oC)
= more heat picked up (15.5 kCal/kg air)
= smaller tower needed
• Lower wet bulb temperature (21.11 oC)
= less heat picked up (12.1 kCal/kg air)
= larger tower needed
tower
• The design wet bulb temperature is determined
by the geographical location.
• For a certain approach value (and at a constant
range and flow range), the higher the wet bulb
temperature, the smaller the tower required.
For example, a 4540 m3/hr cooling tower selected

for a 16.67oC range and a 4.45oC approach to
21.11oC wet bulb would be larger than the same
tower to a 26.67oC wet bulb.
The reason is that air at the higher wet bulb
temperature is capable of picking up more heat.

This is explained for the two different wet bulb
temperatures:
• Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb
temperature of 21.1oC contains 18.86 kCal.
• If the air leaves the tower at 32.2oC wet bulb

temperature, each kg of air contains 24.17 kCal.
• At an increase of 11.1oC, the air picks up 12.1 kCal

per kg of air.
tower
• Each kg of air entering the tower at a wet bulb
temperature of 26.67oC contains 24.17 kCals.
• If the air leaves at 37.8oC wet bulb temperature,
each kg of air contains 39.67 kCal.
• At an increase of 11.1oC, the air picks up 15.5
kCal per kg of air, which is much more than the
first scenario.
1. Fill Media
• Hot water distributed over fill media and

cools down through evaporation
• Fill media impacts electricity use
• Efficiently designed fill media reduces pumping costs
• Fill media influences heat exchange: surface area,
duration of contact, turbulence
1. Fill Media
In a cooling tower, hot water is distributed above

fill media and is cooled down through evaporation
as it flows down the tower and gets in contact
with air.
The fill media impacts energy consumption in

two ways:
1. Electricity is used for pumping above the fill

and for fans that create the air draft.
An efficiently designed fill media with

appropriate water distribution, drift eliminator,
fan, gearbox and motor with therefore lead to
lower electricity consumption.
1. Fill Media
2. Heat exchange between air and water is influenced by

surface area of heat exchange, duration of heat
exchange (interaction) and turbulence in water
effecting thoroughness of intermixing.
The fill media determines all of these and therefore
influences the heat exchange.
The greater the heat exchange, the more effective the
cooling tower becomes.
There are three types of fills:
Splash fill media: splashing water over the fill media into
smaller water droplets.
Film fill media: water forms a thin film on either side of fill
sheets.
Low-clog film fills: higher flute sizes were recently

developed to handle high turbid waters (e.g. sea water).
These influence the liquid to gas ratio, heat exchange,

pumping costs, which all impact on energy use.
1. Fill Media
Comparing 3 fill media: film fill more efficient
Splash Film Fill Low Clog

Fill Film Fill
Possible L/G Ratio 1.1 – 1.5 1.5 – 2.0 1.4 – 1.8
Effective Heat 30 – 45 150 m2/m3 85 - 100 m2/m3

Exchange Area m2/m3
Fill Height Required 5 – 10 m 1.2 – 1.5 m 1.5 – 1.8 m
Pumping Head 9 – 12 m 5–8m 6–9m

Requirement
Quantity of Air Required High Much Low Low
1. Pumps & Water Distribution

• Pumps: see pumps session
• Optimize cooling water treatment
• Increase cycles of concentration (COC) by
cooling water treatment helps reduce make up
water
• Indirect electricity savings
• Install drift eliminators
• Reduce drift loss from 0.02% to only 0.003 –
0.001%
1. Pumps & Water Distribution
• With increasing costs of water, efforts to increase
Cycles of Concentration (COC), by cooling water
treatment would help to reduce make up water
requirements significantly.
• In large industries and power plants improving

the COC is often considered a key area for water
conservation.
1. Cooling Tower Fans

• Fans must overcome system
resistance, pressure loss: impacts
electricity use
• Fan efficiency depends on blade
profile
• Replace metallic fans with FBR blades (20-
30% savings)
• Use blades with aerodynamic profile (85-
92% fan efficiency)
• The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a

specified quantity of air through the system.
• The fan has to overcome the system resistance, which
is defined as the pressure loss, to move the air.
• The fan output or work done by the fan is the product of
air flow and the pressure loss.
• The fan output and kW input determines the fan
efficiency.
The fan efficiency in turn is greatly dependent on the profile

of the blade.
Blades include:
• Metallic blades, which are manufactured by extrusion or

casting processes and therefore it is difficult to produce
ideal aerodynamic profiles
• Fiber reinforced plastic (FRP) blades are normally hand

molded which makes it easier to produce an optimum
aerodynamic profile tailored to specific duty conditions.
• Because FRP fans are light, they need a low
starting torque requiring a lower HP motor, the lives
of the gear box, motor and bearing is increased,
and maintenance is easier.
• A 85-92% efficiency can be achieved with blades
with an aerodynamic profile, optimum twist, taper
and a high coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop
ratio. However, this efficiency is drastically affected
by factors such as tip clearance, obstacles to
airflow and inlet shape, etc.
Cases reported where metallic or glass fiber
reinforced plastic fan blades have been replaced by
efficient hollow FRP blades.
The resulting fan energy savings were in the order of
20-30% and with simple pay back period of 6 to 7
months (NPC).
CHILLERS OPERATION
TROUBLESHOOTING AND
MAINTAINING
REFRIGERATION
A refrigeration system controls the
absorption and rejection of heat by
refrigerant to move heat from inside a
cooled space to outside the cooled space.
No. 413
COMPRESSION
REFRIGERATION
In a mechanical compression
refrigeration system, a compressor is
used to produce the refrigeration
effect.
No. 414
Refrigerant vapor pressure charts list the saturation
temperature and pressure of refrigerants.
No. 415
REFRIGERATION
COMPRESSORS
Refrigeration compressors
include reciprocating, vane,
centrifugal, and screw
compressors.
No. 416
Refrigerant compressors are available in
hermetic and semi-hermetic
configurations.
No. 417
AIR-COOLED
CONDENSER
An air-cooled condenser removes heat
from high-pressure refrigerant vapor by
air blown across the condenser coils.
No. 418
WATER-COOLED
CONDENSERS
Water-cooled condensers transfer

heat from refrigerant vapor to water.
No. 419
EVAPORATIVE
CONDENSERS
Evaporative condensers reject heat through the
evaporation of water.
No. 420
FIN COMB
A fin comb is used for condenser maintenance to

straighten damaged or bent fins, which limit airflow
and reduce condenser efficiency.
No. 421
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
A thermostatic expansion valve uses temperature

readings at the evaporator outlet to control the rate of
refrigerant flow into the evaporator.
No. 422
THERMOSTATIC
EXPANSION VALVE
The opening and closing of a thermostatic
expansion valve is controlled by the pressure in the
remote bulb.
No. 423
AUTOMATIC EXPANSION
VALVE
An automatic expansion valve controls the

temperature of the refrigerant by controlling the
pressure in the evaporator.
No. 424
CAPILLARY TUBE
As refrigerant is forced through the capillary tube, it

loses pressure until it is at the desired evaporator
pressure.
No. 425
EVAPORATOR
An evaporator vaporizes low-pressure

refrigerant liquid into a low-pressure
vapor.
No. 426
HOT-GAS DEFROST
A hot-gas defrost uses hot gas from the compressor

to melt frost on the evaporator.
No. 427
EVAPORATOR PRESSURE
REGULATER
An evaporator pressure regulating valve allows two

evaporators running from the same compressor to
maintain different temperatures.
No. 428
ACCESSORIES
Accessories are used for maintaining and

controlling the flow of refrigerant in a
refrigeration system.
No. 429
PRESSURE SWITCHES
Pressure switches control refrigeration

system temperature through changes in
system pressure.
No. 430
AMMONIA SYSTEMS
Ammonia systems operate at high temperatures

and pressures and must have special controls
and fittings to control the release of ammonia
gas.
No. 431
HEAT PUMP
The direction of refrigerant flow in a heat pump is

controlled by a reversing valve.
No. 432
HEAT PUMP
Heat pumps may use air or water as the

heat source.
No. 433
CHILLED WATER SYSTEM
Chillers use chilled water to cool large building

spaces.
No. 434
COOLING TOWER
A cooling tower cools water from a

condenser by the evaporation of water
as it cascades through the tower.
No. 435
ABSORPTION SYSTEM
Absorption systems use a generator and absorber in place of

the compressor to raise system pressure.
No. 436
GAUGE MANIFOLDS
Gauge manifolds are used to take pressure readings, add

or remove refrigerant, and remove air from a system
before it is filled with refrigerant.
No. 437
SERVICE VALVES
Service valves are front-seated for isolating parts of

the system, mid-seated for adding or removing
refrigerant or taking system pressures, and back-
seated during normal operation.
No. 438
PRESSURE READINGS
Refrigeration system pressure readings are taken

by connecting the blue hose to the low-pressure
side service valve and the red hose to the high-
pressure side service valve with both gauge
manifold valves front-seated.
No. 439
HEAD PRESSURE
CONTROLLER
A head pressure controller prevents the condenser
pressure from falling too low and starving the
evaporator for refrigerant.
No. 440
OZONE-DEPLETING
The EPA has established regulations under

Section 608 of the Clean Air Act to regulate the
handling of ozone-depleting substances.
No. 441
RECOVERY UNIT
A recovery unit is used to recover
refrigerant for reuse.
No. 442
LEAK DETECTOR
A leak detector is a device used to detect refrigerant

leaks in air conditioning or refrigeration systems.
No. 443
VACUUM PUMP
A vacuum pump removes all air from a

refrigeration system.
No. 444
EVACUATING SYSTEM
The vacuum pump is connected to the system

service valves using a gauge manifold and hoses.
No. 445
LEAK TESTING
Electronic leak detectors are extremely sensitive

and indicate the general location of a leak.
No. 446
CHARGING SYSTEM
No. 447

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TECHNICAL TRAINING PROGRAM

LEVEL 04– Mechanical

Day 1 – Filtration and Thin film evaporator

• Thin Film Evaporator

• Principles of Operation of heaters, furnaces and incinerator

Filtration And Thin Film Evaporator

Filtration: It may be define as a process of separation of

Clarification: When solid are present in very low

• Production of sterile products:

• Production of bulk drugs

• Production of liquid dosage

• Effluents and waste water treatment

The mechanism whereby particles are retained by a filter is significant

• Solids having the momentum move along the path of

• Particles become entwined (entangled) in the masses of

• Solids are retained on the filter medium as a result of

Surface/ screen filtration Depth filtration

Surface filtration Depth filtration

Rate = driving force / resistance

Powder or granule bed visualized as a bundle of capillaries

Resistance to movement={pressure upstream-

Poiseullie considered that filtration is similar to the

Where, V = rate of flow, m3/s (l/s)

Poiseullie's law assumes that the capillaries found in the

Where, K = permeability coefficient of cake, m2

Kozeny-Carman equation is widely used for filtration.

Properties of Properties of Properties of

Rate can be increased either using large filter or

Inversely proportional to specific surface of filter

According to K-C equation the rate of filtration is

• A pressure difference could be obtained by maintaining a head of slurry above

• The gravitational force could be replaced by centrifugal force in

According to K-C equation rate of filtration is inversely

The surface upon which solids are deposited in a filter is

• Made up of wool, silk, metal or synthetic fibres (rayon, nylon etc.).

Bed of granular solid built up on supporting medium

• In some processes, a bed of graded solids may be formed to reduce resistance of

• Used for its convenience and effectiveness.

Membrane filter media

• These are cartridge units and are economical and available

The objective of filter aid is to prevent the medium from

Characteristics of filter aids:

Filter aids may be used in either or both two ways:

Based on application of external

Pressure Vacuum Centrifugal

Discharge and filtrate are Discharge of filtered solid is

Cake filters Clarifying filters Cross- flow filters

• Filter paper and funnel

• Buchner funnel and filter paper

• Sintered glass filter

Quantity of material to be handle Should be sterilisable by heat,

Whether any form of pretreatment will Should be economical.

The Filter press is made of two types of units, plate and

The filter medium usually cloth is interposed between plate and

in sequence and clamed to a supporting structure.

It is normally described by dots as 1.2.1.2.1 so on.

A number of plates and frames are employed so that the

filtration area is as large as necessary.

Number of filtration units are operated in parallel.

Channels for slurry inlet and filtrate outlet can be arranged by

is having individual outlets controlled by valves.

Working can be divided into two steps-

Plate and frame filter press, principle of filtration