Ancient Chinese Mathematics (a very short summary)

• Documented civilization in China from c.3000 BCE. Un-

til c.200 CE, ‘China’ refers to roughly to the area shown
in the map: north of the Yangtze and around the Yellow
rivers.
• Earliest known method of enumeration dates from the
Shang dynasty (c.1600–1046 BCE) commensurate with
the earliest known oracle bone script for Chinese char-
acters. Most information on the Shang dynsaty comes
from commentaries by later scholars, though many orig-
inal oracle bones have been excavated, particularly from
Anyang, its capital.

• During the Zhou dynasty (c.1046–256 BCE) and especially towards the end in the Warring States
period (c.475–221 BCE) a number of mathematical texts were written. Most have been lost but
much content can be ascertained from later commentaries.

• The warring states period is an excellent example of the idea that wars lead to progress. Rapid
change created pressure for new systems of thought and technology. Feudal lords employed
itinerant philosophers1 ) The use of iron in China expanded enormously, leading to major changes
in warfare2 and commerce, both of which created an increased need for mathematics. Indeed
the astronomy, the calendar and trade were the dominant drivers of Chinese mathematics for
many centuries.

• The warring states period ended in 221 BCE with the victory of victory of the Qin Emperor Shi
Huang Di: famous for commanding that books be burned, rebuilding the great walls and for
being buried with the Terracotta Army in Xi’an. China was subsequently ruled by a succession
of dynasties until the abolition of the monarchy in 1912. While this simple description might
suggest a long calm in which Chinese culture and technology could develop in comfort, in
reality the empire experienced its fair share of rebellions, schisms and reprisals. The empire of
the Qin dynasty was tiny in comparison to the extent of modern China, and its expansion did
not happen smoothly or without reversals.

• East Asia (modern day China, Korea, Japan, etc.) is geographically isolated from the rest of the
world and, in particular, from other areas of developing civilization. To the north is Siberia, to
the west the Gobi desert, southwest are the Himalaya and to the south is jungle. During the
Han dynasty (c.200 BCE–220 CE) a network of trading routes known as the silk road connected
China, India and, through Persia, Europe. Indeed part of the purpose of the Great Wall was
the protection of these trade routes. Knowledge moved more slowly than goods, and there is
very little evidence of mathematical and philosophical ideas making the journey until many
1 Confucius was one such and served for a period as an advisor to Lu, a vassal state of the Zhou. He died at the beginning

of the warring states period, around 479 BCE, but his followers turned his teachings into a major philosophical school of
thought Confucianism. Its primary emphasis was stability and unity as a counter to turmoil. The other major philosophical
system dating from this time is Taoism which is more comfortable with change and adaptation.
2 Sun Tzu’s military classic The Art of War dates from this time.
 centuries later. For instance, there is no evidence of the Chinese using sexagesimal notation
to aid their calculations, which meant that essentially none of Babylonian and Greek work on
astronomy made it to China. Similarly, there are many mathematical ideas which saw no ana-
logue in the west until many centuries after Chinese mathematicians had invented them. It
seems reasonable to conclude that Chinese and Mediterranean mathematics developed essen-
tially independently.

Important Mathematical Texts

The oldest suspected3 mathematical text is the Zhou Bi Suan Jing (The Mathematical Classic of the
Zhou Gnomon4 and the Circular Paths of Heaven). It was probably compiled some time in the period
500–200 BCE. The text contains, arguably, the earliest statement of Pythagoras’ Theorem as well as
simple rules for computing fractions and conducting arithmetic. The book was largely concerned
with astronomical calculations and presented in the form of a dialogue between the 11th century BCE
Duke of Zhou5 and Shang Gao (one of his ministers, and a skilled mathematician).

As with other early texts, there is no rigorous notion

of proof or axiomatics, merely strong assertions or ‘ob-
vious’ appeals to pictures. For instance, the ‘proof’
of Pythagoras’ Theorem is purely pictorial: taking the
sides of the triangle to be a, b, c in increasing order of
length, the picture essentially claims that

1
c2 = 4 · ab + (b − a)2
2
giving the familiar result when multiplied out.
Of course the Chinese do not attribute this result to Pythagoras! Instead it is known as the gou gu
where these words refer first to the shorter and then the longer of the two non-hypotenuse sides of
the triangle.

There are several other early works; here are two of the most important.
Suanshu Shu (A Book on Arithmetic) Compiled c.300–150 BCE, covering, amongst other topics, frac-
tions, the areas of rectangular fields, and the computation of fair taxes.
Jiu Zhang Suan Shu (Nine Chapters on Mathematical Arts) Written c.300 BCE–200 CE. Many top-
ics are covered, including square roots, working with ratios (false position and the rule of three6 ),
simultaneous equations, areas/volumes, right-angled triangles, etc. The Nine Chapters is a hugely
influential text, in no small part due to the creation of a detailed commentary and solution manual to
its 246 problems written by the mathematician Liu Hui in 263 CE.

3 Ancient Chinese texts are extremely difficult to date: we have no original copies and most seem to have been compiled
over several hundred years. Most of what we know of these texts is in the form of commentaries by later authors.
4 Gnomon: “One that knows or examines” — strictly the elevated piece of a sun/moondial which would have been used

for measuring said circular paths of heaven.

5 Credited with writing the I Ching, the ‘classic of changes.’
6 Given equal ratios a : b = c : d, where a, b, c known, then d = bc .
a

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The style of both text consists of laying out methods of solution which have wide application, rather
than on proving that a particular method is guaranteed to work. Indeed there is no notion of ax-
iomatics on which one could construct a proof in the modern sense of the word.
Liu made other contributions to mathematics, including accurate
estimates of π made similarly to Archimedes. He made particu- Ao
lar use of the out-in principle which essentially describes how to Bi
compare areas and volumes:
Co
1. Areas and volumes are invariant under translation.
2. If a figure is subdivided, the sum of the areas/volumes of Bo
the parts equals that of the whole.
Ci Ai
For instance, Liu gave the argument shown in the picture as an
alternative proof of the gao gu: the green square is subdivided
and the in pieces Ai , Bi , Ci translated to new positions Ao , Bo , Co
to assemble the required squares.
Liu extended the out-in principle to analyze solids, comparing the volumes of four basic solids:

• Cube (lifang)

• Right triangluar prism (qiandu)

• Rectangular pyramid (yangma)

• Tetrahedron (bienuan)

These could be assembled to calculate the volume of, say, a truncated pyramid:

The Bamboo Problem This problem is taken from the Nine Chapters:
indeed the picture shows the problem as depicted in Yang Hui’s
famous Analysis of the Nine Chapters from 1261.

A bamboo is 10 chi high. It breaks and the top touches the ground 3
chi from the base of the stem. What is the height of the break?

In modern language, if a, b, c is the triangle, we know that b + c = 10

and a = 3. We want b.

1 a2 91
 
The solution is b = b+c− = chi: think about why. . .
2 b+c 100

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Chinese Enumeration
The Chinese had two parallel systems of enumeration. Both are essentially decimal.

Oracle Bone Script and Modern Numerals The earliest Chinese writing is known as oracle bone
script dates from around 1600 BCE. The numbers 1–10 were recorded with distinct symbols, with
extra symbols for 20, 100, 1000 and 10000. These were decorated to denotes various multiples. Some
examples are shown below.

The system is quite complex, given all the possibilities for decoration, and therefore more advanced
than other contemporary systems. Standard modern numerals are a direct descendant of this script:

Observe the similarity between the expressions for the first 10 digits. The second image denotes
the number 842, where second and 4th symbols represent 100’s and 10’s respectively: literally eight
hundred four ten two. No zero symbol is required as a separator: one could not confuse 205 with 250.
The system is still partly positional: the symbol for, say, 8 can mean 800 if placed correctly, but only
if followed by the symbol for 100.

Rod Numerals The second dominant form of enumeration dates from around 300 BCE and was
in very wide use by 300 CE. Numbers were denoted by patterns known as Zongs and Hengs. These
represented alternate powers of 10: Zongs denoted units, 100’s, 10000’s, etc., while Hengs were for
10’s, 1000’s, 100000’s, etc.

Rod numerals were immensely practical. In extremis they could easily be scratched in the dirt. More
commonly they were created using short bamboo sticks or counting rods, of which any merchant
worth their salt would carry a bundle. They were often used in conjunction with a counting board:
a grid of squares on which sticks could be placed for ease of calculation. This technology was in-
valuable for keeping calculations accurate and facilitating easy trade. They also made for several
calculation methods which will seem familiar. There was no need for a zero in this system, as an
empty space did the job.

4
Addition and subtraction are straightforward by carrying and borrowing in the usual way. The
smallest number was typically placed on the right. Multiplication is a little more fun: for instance to
multiply 387 by 147, one would set up the counting board as follows:
3 8 7
Arrange rods: use modern numerals for clarity
1 4 7

3 8 7
4 4 1 441 = 147 × 3: note the position of 147 under the 3
1 4 7

8 7
4 4 1
Delete 3, move 147 and multiply: 1176 = 147 × 8
1 1 7 6
1 4 7

8 7
5 5 8 6 Sum rows
1 4 7

7
5 5 8 6
Delete 8, move 147 and multiply: 1029 = 147 × 7
1 0 2 9
1 4 7

5 6 8 8 9 Sum rows: 387 × 147 = 56889

1 4 7
The algorithm is essentially long-multiplication, but starting with multiplication by the largest digit
instead of the units as we are used to.

Division essentially works like long-division: to divide 56889 by 147 one might have the following
sequence of boards
3 3 8 3 8 7
5 6 8 8 9 −→ 5 6 8 8 9 −→ 1 2 7 8 9 −→ 1 0 2 9
1 4 7 1 4 7 1 4 7 1 4 7
In the first two boards. 147 goes 3 times into 568.
In board 3, we subtract 3 × 147 from 568 to leave 127, shift the 147 over and observe that 147 goes 8
times into 1278. In the final step we have subtracted 8 × 147 from 1278 to leave 1029 before shifting
the 147 to its final position. Since 147 divides exactly seven times into 1029, we are done.
There is nothing stopping us from dividing numbers where the result is not an integer: simply con-
tinue as in long-division.

Similtaneous equations The counting board could be set up to compute solutions to simultaneous
linear equations. Essentially the coefficients of a linear system were placed in adjacent columns and

5
then column operations were performed. The method is thus identical to what you learn in a linear
algebra class, but with columns rather than rows. For instance, a linear system could be encoded
thus:
( 3 2 1 2 1 1 0 1
3x + 2y = 7
−→ 2 1 −→ 1 1 −→ 1 0 −→ 1 0 −→ x = 1, y = 2
2x + y = 4 7 4 3 4 3 1 2 1
This matrix method was essentially unique to China until the 1800’s.

Euclidean algorithm The counting board lent itself to the computation of greatest common divi-
sors, which were used very practically for simplifying fractions. Here is the process applied to 35
91 :,

35 35 35 14 14 7
91 56 21 21 7 7
At each stage, one subtracts the smaller number from the larger. Once the same number is in each
row you stop. You should recognize the division algorithm at work. . . Since gcd(35, 91) = 7, both
35 5
could be divided by 7 to obtain 91 = 13 in lowest terms.

Negative numbers There is a strong case for arguing that the Chinese are also the oldest adopters
of negative numbers. These were not thought of as numbers per se, rather different colored rods
could be used to denote a deficiency in a quantity. Indeed the Nine Chapters describes using red
rods for positives and black for negatives. This would commonly be used when adding up accounts.
This practice was known by around 1 CE, roughly 500 years before negative numbers were used in
calculations in India.

Music, Mysticism and Approximations Like the Pythagoreans, the Chinese were interested in mu-
sic and pattern for mystical reasons. While the Pythagoreans delighted in the pentagram, the Chinese
created magic squares7 as symbols of perfection. The notion of equal temprament in musical tuning
was first ‘solved’ in China by Zhu Zaiyu (1536–1611), some 30 years before Mersenne & Stevin pub-
lished the same result in Europe. This required the computation of the twelfth-root of 2 which Zhu
computed using approximations for square and cube roots:
rq
√
12 3 √
2= 2

Zhu’s approximation was correct to 24 decimal places!

Indeed the Chinese emphasis on practical methods meant that they often had the most accurate
approximations for their time:
√ 355 377
• Approximations to π including 227 , 10, 113 , 120 . Most accurate in the world from 400–1400 CE.

• Methods for approximating square and cube roots were found earlier than in Europe. Approxi-
mations for solutions to higher-order equations similar to the Horner–Ruffini method were also
discovered earlier.
• Pascal’s triangle first appears in China around 1100 CE. It later appeared in Islamic mathematics
before making its way to Europe.
7 Grids where all rows and columns sum to the same total.

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Two famous problems
We finish with a discussion of two famous Chinese problems. The first is known as the Hundred Fowls
Problem and dates from the 5th century CE. It was copied later in India and then by Leonardo da Pisa
(Fibonacci) in Europe, thus showing how Chinese mathematics travelled westwards.

If cockerals cost 5 qians8 each, hens cost 3 qians each, and 3 chickens cost 1 qian, and if 100
fowls are bought for 100 qians, how many cockerels, hens and chickens are there?
In essence, the problem asks us to find non-negative integers satisfying

5x + 3y + 13 z = 100
(

x + y + z = 100

The answers are simply stated as (4, 18, 78), (8, 11, 81), (12, 4, 84) while the possible solution (0, 25, 75)
was not stated.9

Finally an example of the Chinese Remainder Theorem for solving simultaneous congruence equations.
The Theorem dates from the 4th century CE: it travelled to India where it was described by Bhra-
magupta and thence to Europe. This example comes from Qin Jiushao’s Shu Shu Jiu Zhang (Nine
Sections of Mathematics) in 1247.

Three thieves entered a rice shop and stole three identical vessels filled to the brim with
rice, but whose exact capacity was not known. The thieves were caught and their vessels
examined: all that was left in vessels X, Y and Z were 1 ge, 14 ge and 1 ge respectively. The
thieves did not know the exact quantities they’d stolen. A used a “horse ladle” (capacity
19 ge) to take rice from vessel X. B used a wooden shoe (capacity 17 ge) to take rice from
vessel Y. C used a bowl (capacity 12 ge) to take rice from Z. What was the total amount of
rice stolen?

In modern language the total amount of rice N satisfies


1 (mod 19)

N ≡ 14 (mod 17)
1 (mod 12)



The answer is that N = 3193 ge. This is the smallest possible solution: all such are congruent modulo
19 · 17 · 12 = 3876.
8A qian is a copper coin.
9 As a possible method, one substitutes z = 100 − x − y in first equation to obtain 7x + 4y = 100, or
7
y = 25 − x
4
Since y ∈ Z, we must have x = 4m for some integer m. Thus all solutions have the form

x = 4m, y = 25 − 7m, z = 75 + 3m, m∈Z

For m = 1, 2, 3 and 0 we obtain the above solutions. For m ≥ 4 we have y < 0, while m < 0 yields x < 0.