Chapter 7:

Recharge/deep percolation: water moves downward from surface water to groundwater. It is the primary
method through which water enters an aquifer

Natural sources of freshwater that become ground water are: (1) areal recharge from precipitation that
percolates through the unsaturated zone to the water table (2) losses of water from streams and other
bodies of surface water such as lakes and wetlands

Frost Action:
 Ground freezing frequently results in volumetric expansion of the soil which causes heaving of
structures located above or adjacent to the freezing soil. Thaw during the following spring will
release the excess water, usually causing loss of strength or complete collapse of the soil
structure. Ice lenses are bodies of ice formed when moisture, diffused within soil or rock,
accumulates in a localized zone.
 A pressure differential between the ice and water phases draws water from unfrozen soil into
freezing soil. Fine-grained soils are more susceptible to moisture migration along a pressure
gradient, resulting in growth of ice lenses. The resulting heave magnitude depend upon the soil
type, overburden pressure, groundwater condition and freezing rate
 The resulting heave magnitude depend upon the soil type, overburden pressure, groundwater
condition and freezing rate
 Conditions for frost heaving: frost-susceptible soils; subfreezing temperatures in the soil; and,
source of water (order-uniform heavying, if not its differential heaving irregular, cracking).
 Groups of frost: F1 to F4 - least to more susceptible to frost action
 F1-gravel, F2-sandF-3clay, PI>12 f-4silt[small voids, high capillary potential/action, and relatively high
permeability]

Measures to reduce the potential damages to structures and roads include:  

 Lowering of the ground water table  
 Removal of frost susceptible soils in the subgrade or foundation, and replacing with non-frost
susceptible materials  
 Use of thermal insulation (Styrofoam) sheets under roads, building foundations  
 Building foundations, water and sewer lines should be placed below the maximum depth of frost
penetration
Effect of frost action on pavements is frost heaving caused by crystallization of ice lenses in voids of
soils containing fine particles

An aquifer is an underground layer which permits storage and transmission of water through it. Rock fractures or soil deposits
(gravel, sand, or silt).
Aquitard Poorly permeable and does not yield water freely to wells but permits storage, e.g. sandy clay

Aquiclude Relatively impermeable material & is not capable of transmitting water easily, permits storage of water e.g. clay

aquifuge Impermeable material Neither contains or transmits water, e.g. solid unfractured rocks

Artesian is a confined aquifer containing groundwater under pressure. Artesian forms when an aquifer is confined by
aquifer impermeable layers

Chapter 6: The knowledge of knowing the flow of water in soil in a unit time is required to design earth dams, determine the
quantity of seepage under hydraulic structures, and dewater before and during the construction of foundations. Stratified soils
(formed by layer upon layer of the soils deposited on each other: the permeability is higher parallel to the layers of stratification,
while lower in perpendicular direction.
  Permeability :capacity of soil to allow water passes through it i.e., quantity of flowing for a unit of
soil surface under a pressure of 1 unit hydraulic gradient.
 Factors: Particle size: (D10):Void ratio. Properties of pore fluid : ᾱ viscosity of pore fluid.
Shape of particles: ᾱ to specific surface [angular soils have more specific surface area than
round, thus angular less permeable. Structure of soil mass: in flocculent than dispersed.
Degree of saturation: fully saturated. Temperature :

Water in soil:
Zones of water beneath the soil:
1. Unsaturated zone (vadose zone or zone of aeration): water can’t be pumped by by wells and voids are filled with air and
water.
2. Capillary fringe: Transition zone btn the unsaturated and sat zone. Below the water table and saturated/almost saturated
by capillary forces.
3. Saturated zone (groundwater): below the water table and water can be pumped by wells.

h = hp+Z -> piezometric head

(@standpipe or ref. datum)

Darcy law
 Q=discharge

Δh=hydraulic head difference

K=hydraulic gradient coeff, hydraulic conductivity , permeability coeff .m/s

Darcy’s Law: q= kiA or q=Av where v=ki

Relationship between seepage velocity and

discharge velocity

Darcy law

A soil is highly pervious when water can

flow through it easily. (such as Gravels)

In an impervious soil, the permeability is

very low and water cannot easily flow
through it. (such as Clays)

Hydraulic conductivity lab tests

constant head test: determine coefficient of

permeability can be used for granular soils.
known constant pressure through known soil
dimensions and the rate of flow is
determined.Made on remolded samples.

Falling head test.  find the coefficient of

permeability for both fine grained soils and
coarse grained soils.
 q= volume of water
collected
H= the head difference
L = length of specimen
T = the duration of water
collection
A = area of cross section
of soil specimen

Field test for k is better since it is performed

in undistributed soil

Factors affecting field test for ‘k”: soil

stratification, in-site compaction, degree of
saturation
Granular soil, uniform sand
Pump test –to find average hydraulic
conductivity, pump at constant rate, several
wells are placed at different distance for
observation from test well. Water levels are
measured until stable for both observed and
test wells. Rate of pump = conductivity
gradient
Capillary: rise in water found in a small diameter tube. Rise due to cohesion of water molecules and
adhesion of water to the tube walls. Occurs in ground water table from saturated to unsaturated
Capillary rise: the height above water table in which water is saturated, depends on size grain and size
pores. In gravel capillary rise is small. Above water table pressure is negative.

Chapter 4 American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO), classification
system and Unified Soil Classification System, both: particle size distribution and Atterberg Limits

Gravel: fraction passing the 75 mm and retained on the No. 10 (2 mm)  b. Sand: fraction passing the
No. 10 (2 mm) sieve and retained on No. 200 (0.075nmm) sieve  c. Silt and clay: fraction passing the
No. 200 sieve

Plasticity-Silty- fine soil have (PI) of 10 or less. Clayey: fine fractions have a plasticity index of 11 or
more.

Group index (GI)

- If negative, take GI=0, it is rounded to the nearest whole number.

- GI for A-1-a, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3 is always 0.

- GI for A-2-6 and A-2-7,

- PI = LL-PL

Liquid Index

Group A-3 is placed before group A-2 in the table since: • It is better as a subgrade • It is based only on
grain size

Chapter 5 - COMPACTION

- Compaction is the densification of soil through by air removal through mechanical energy. [dry unit
weight]. Water is a softening agent causing soil particles to slip through each other and move in a
densely packed position. - After compaction, dry unit weight increases with moisture content increase.

-Optimum moisture content: maximum dry unit obtained. After this point, Dry unit weight decreases
with increase in moisture content because water takes up space which would have been occupied by
soil particles

Proctor compaction test: compaction (J/m^3) is a function of four variables: dry density, moisture
content and compaction effort

Standard Protector Test: Mold 944 cm3 in volume  102 mm dia. mold  3 layers soil  25 blows  2.5
kg hammer  305 mm drop
Modified Proctor Test: Mold 2124 cm3 in volume  152 mm dia. mold  5 layers soil  25 blows  4.54
kg hammer  457 mm drop

-Compaction increases the strength properties, decreases soil settlement and soil permeability

-Increasing the compaction effort tends to increase the maximum dry density, as expected, but also
decrease the OMC. (This is why the curve never be to the right of zero curve).

- For clay soils d(max) tends to decrease as plasticity increases.

-Test is a dynamic impact type, whereas field compaction is essentially a kneading-type compaction.

Fine grain soil needs more water to reach optimum.

9.81kN/m^3

Field compaction Tests to unit weight of

compaction

1. Sand cone method

2. Rubber balloon yd= (dry weight evacuated
from hole)/volume of hole
3. Nuclear density meter (Densometer)
 Flocculent (random)
Parallel, dispersed
more repulsive, and
double layer. Bigger yd

Dispersed, more repulsive and

Flocculent (random) double layer
Less repulsive, little
Decrease in yd: water dilutes soil
double layer
concentration

Diffuse double layer: when anions and cation float around clay particles. Cation concentration decreases
with the distance from the surface of the particle

Field compaction:
1. Smooth-wheel rollers (or smooth-drum rollers): static weight, smooth finish, compact coarse base
2. Pneumatic rubber-tired rollers: Better than smooth…several tires, clay and sand
3. Sheep foot rollers: clayey, projections
4. Vibratory rollers: granular, rotating wheels
5. Hand held vibratory: granular over limited area

In-situ field compaction

1. Viboflotation: sands and silt, increase in bearing capacity, decrease settlement and mitigate
liquefaction
2. Dynamic compaction: granular soil, heavy weight is dropped on the ground from a height

Estimation of depth of
influence