Energy xxx (2017) 1e9

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Energy
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Sustainable alternative fuels in aviation

Nadir Yilmaz a, *, Alpaslan Atmanli b
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Howard University, Washington DC, USA
b
National Defense University, Istanbul, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In recent years, renewable energy resources have become more important due to the limited number of
Received 14 December 2016 regions for production of petroleum-based fuels, which are continuously depleting. The aviation sector in
Received in revised form terms of commercial and cargo transportation has an increasing need for conventional, as well as,
2 July 2017
alternative fuels. Derivatives of petroleum fuels used in aviation have negative impacts on air quality.
Accepted 6 July 2017
Available online xxx
Factors causing greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) in the aviation sector must be reduced. However, such
fuels used in the aviation sector are not sustainable. Biofuels which have the potential to replace pe-
troleum fuels and help with emissions are heavily investigated in developed countries for independency,
Keywords:
Aviation
creating a better environment and sustainability. Biofuels which are already used for ground vehicles
Biofuels could also be implemented in the aviation sector to reduce fuel cost and emissions. Overall, aviation fuels
Environment made of sustainable resources would also support social and economic development. Numerous in-
Sustainability dustrial initiatives have emerged to find alternative ways to attain bio-aviation fuels. Therefore, there is
an increasing level of research with regards to alternative aviation fuels made of biomass in recent years.
It is important to obtain basic feedstocks and to develop biofuel production processes in a cost-effective
way. This study examines the necessity and the types of biofuels in the aviation sector. By designing
unique fuel systems for air vehicles, it is possible to formulate biofuels which can be used for both air and
ground vehicle applications. This type of consensus would help with sustainability and a better
environment.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Petroleum based liquid fuels are used in the transportation

As technological developments are happening at a fast pace,
energy is playing a more important role in the daily lives of all
people and social-economical development of every country [1,2].
Industrialization, an increasing world population, globalization,
more urban developments and other factors are the main reasons
for demand on more natural resources and energy. Cost-effective,
secure and clean energy has become one of the most important
challenges nowadays and developing countries are in need of more
energy due to their social-economic growth [2e4].
In 2014 and 2015, global energy consumption increased about
by 1.0%, much below its 10-year average of 1.9%. Fossil fuels are the
primary sources of the energy to date. 544.284 GJ energy consumed
in 2015 consisted of 32.94% petroleum, 29.2% coal, 23.85% natural
gas, 4.44% nuclear energy and 9.57% other renewable energy re-
sources (hydro, solar, wind and e.g.) [5e7].
* Corresponding author.
E-mail address: yilmaznadir@yahoo.com (N. Yilmaz).
sector. In 2011, the world's petroleum resources were consumed by
air, ground, sea and railroad transportations (54%), industry (18%),
commercial and agriculture (11%), petro chemistry (10%) and
electric production (7%) [5,8e10]. It is projected that 74% of pe-
troleum based energy will be consumed in the transportation
sector by 2020. In addition, the need for oil in the transportation
sector is growing rapidly and expected to increase by 1.3% per year
until 2030. Based on the current statistics, 1.2 billion motor vehicles
are used world-wide and this number is anticipated to reach to 2
billion until 2035 [6,11]. Thus, it is important to monitor and know
the number of vehicles per person by the oil producers. As of 2009,
the statistics shows that 70% of 870 million cars in the world
belonged to The Organization for Economic Co-operation and
Development (OECD) countries [11e13].
Pollutants are released to the atmosphere due to production and
consumption of energy worldwide. Most of these pollutants occur
because of fossil fuels [11]. With the increasing number of motor
vehicles in the developing countries, it is necessary to take pre-
ventive measures to reduce exhaust emissions [14]. As the number

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2 N. Yilmaz, A. Atmanli / Energy xxx (2017) 1e9
of motor vehicles increases, the amount of pollutants from those
vehicles increases with a higher percentage of contribution. Even a
small change in atmospheric gas balance could lead to climate
change. Carbon dioxide (CO2) has a great impact on climate change
and global warming based on the Kyoto protocol [11,12]. CO2
emissions increased 4.6% in 2010 as compared to 2009. In 2010, 36%
of total CO2 emissions was petroleum based and 22% of that was
due to the transportation sector [13]. By 2030, it is expected to have
80% increase in carbon emissions from the transportation sector as
well as the energy requirement [13]. The aviation section is an
important part of the transportation sector. Developed and devel-
oping countries have made the most investment on the aviation
sector. Like automobiles, aircrafts depend on fuels derived from
fossil fuels and thus, the aviation sector needs environmental and
economic regulations. With the increasing standards of the modern
world, the aviation sector has to take an important role to protect
the environment [14e16]. Thus, air and ground vehicles need to be
supported by sustainable energy resources. The most important
resource for sustainable energy that will meet the need for liquid
fuels for these sectors should be domestic and easily producible
sources [17e19].
Biomass has been effectively used over the years for the pro-
duction of alternative fuels for ground transportation [1,3,17,20].
Similarly, biomass will be the best potential for use in the aviation
sector which is one of most the common forms of transportation.
Any agriculture and animal feed based biological materials with
carbohydrate are considered biomass energy resources. And, fuels
made of biomass are called biofuels [18e21]. Biomass, which are
sustainable energy resources, reduce greenhouse effects, improve
air quality, reduce oil dependency and produce new job opportu-
nities [20]. Countries with biomass potential usually have large
resources of vegetable oils, inedible materials and bioalcohols.
There are two ways to use biomass: 1) direct combustion of
biomass for electric or heat generation 2) conversion to bio-
chemicals and thermochemical process such as biodiesel or other
fuels [22]. Fig. 1 shows biomass feedstock and consumption [23,24].
Petroleum fuels have limited reserves in the world. Sudden
jump of oil prices, limited resources, greenhouse effects, environ-
mental issues and other important aspects, force the use of
renewable energy resources [25]. With that, biomass is an impor-
tant source to produce biofuels which are advantages as compared
to petroleum based fuels and can be used for air and ground ve-
hicles [26].
The aviation sector which is primarily used for commercial
transportation do contribute to atmospheric pollution. Air vehicles
produced 2% of CO2 emissions in 2012 worldwide with a projected
amount of 3% by 2050 [27]. There are numerous measures which
have been taken to reduce CO2 emissions [28]. Better engines and
fuel technologies are contributing factors to reduce emissions and
use fuels more efficiently in the aviation sector as compared to forty
Fig. 1. Biomass feedstock and consumption [23].
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years ago. Jet fuels constitute a large sector for the consumption of
fossil fuels. World jet fuel demand is expected to increase by about
38% until 2015 [29]. Commercial airliners are facing aviation fuel
cost as a major expenditure out of their total operational cost.
However, more aerodynamic and lighter aircrafts, more efficient
turbine engines and major improvements in the efficiency of the air
traffic control system are some of the reasons for 70% more fuel
efficient airline industry as compared to 40 years ago [30,31]. Fuel
consumption per 100 km/traveler used to be 3.5 L which was
reduced to 3 L in recent years.
The fuels used in the aviation sector need to have high energy
content, good flow characteristics and thermal stability [32]. En-
ergy resources which meet these requirements should not chal-
lenge the food production and ecosystem while not harming the
environment nor causing deforestation. It is the expectation of
companies that aviations fuels are economical as well [33,34]. Be-
sides lower fuel consumption, it is also important to release
neutral-carbon emission. In addition, alternative aviation fuels
must offer low carbon emission over their lifecycles. In a limited
number of studies, non-edible oil crops such as camelina, jatropha,
algae, halophytes, municipal and sewage wastes, forest residues etc
were used aviation fuel production process [35e37]. Biofuel pro-
duction uses thermo chemical and biochemical techniques. After
2008, numerous test flights were performed with biofuels and
ASTM standards were achieved in 2011 in order to allow aircraft
and engine manufacturers to use biofuels in air vehicles [34]. It is
anticipated that consumption of second generation biofuels will be
6% in the aviation sector, which is supported by Boeing [38,39]. It is
emphasized that aviation biofuel production will show progress
with respect to the developed standards by national and interna-
tional organizations. International Air Transport Association (IATA)
predicts 30% biofuel in jet fuel by 2030 [39,40]. If this goal is ach-
ieved, biofuel use will result in a great deal of positive impact on
economy and environment in developing countries. Biofuels, pro-
duced from various raw materials that are easy and widely avail-
able, improve the fuel properties. This will increase the variety of
alternative fuels to be used throughout the world. Thus, biofuels
which can be maintained economically, ecologically and socially
have the potential to spread [41].
In coming years, alternative fuels used in both air and ground
transportation will support the energy policy of countries [42]. Due
to economical and environmental disadvantages of fossil fuels,
alternative energy resources have also been investigated to reduce
dependency on petroleum based fuels and protect environment.
Overall, manufacturers of air and ground vehicles focus on design of
engines and vehicles compatible with alternative fuels [43e45].
More research is needed for the compatibility of alternative fuels in
ground vehicles which use mostly liquid fuels. In this regard, it is
also important to note that internal combustion engines and gas
turbines could potentially use fuels of similar properties with new
fuel injection technologies and designs.
Gasoline engines use alcohol based alternatives fuels in ground
transportation. Diesel engines, which are used more widely than
gasoline engines for transportation, use alcohols, biodiesel and
synthetic fuels, which have been compared over the years against
one another in terms of energy value and engine characteristics.
With respect to the economic development of countries, air
transportation and aviation has become an important trans-
portation part of the system. This sector needs a special fuel whose
characteristics are placed in between those of gasoline and diesel
fuels. Thus, the need for alternative fuels in the aviation sector has
led to economical developments but also new resources for raw
fuels. Like in the transportation sector, fuels used in the aviation
sectors must be tested over the years and reliable fuels in terms of
environmental and performance impacts. As a result, bio-aviation
 N. Yilmaz, A. Atmanli / Energy xxx (2017) 1e9
fuels and bio-road fuels have to be examined for the readily and
widely available raw materials (renewable hydrocarbons such as
bio-oils, bioalcohols) which can be used in aviation and ground
transportation sectors. The purpose of this study is to compare the
characteristics of different alternative sources of energy and to
discuss the suitability for both aviation and ground transportation.
2. Discussions and remarks
While the depletion of fossil fuels increases, sustainable alter-
native fuels and energy resources have become necessary in the
aviation sector, which has a growth rate of 5% along with 3% extra
fuel consumption every year [43,44]. The most important factors
when dealing with alternative fuels is to find; (1) sustainability (2)
renewability (3) carbon dioxide recycling (4) eco-friendly tech-
nology and (5) less dependency on petroleum supplying countries
[46]. Such alternative fuels could be made of biomass, which consist
of alcohols, biodiesel made of animal waste, agriculture products
and waste oils, and Fischer-Tropsch (FT) synthetic oils. Use of these
alternative resources in the aviation sector would be beneficial in
terms of environmental and economic aspects.
2.1. Potential sources of biofuel
Biofuels made of biomass are clean, environment-friendly and
efficient renewable energy resources. Biofuels are consumed as gas,
liquid and solid. Liquid biofuels which have the potential to replace
liquid fossil fuels are vegetable oils, biodiesel, biomass and bio-
alcohols. Biomass has an important role in replacement of fossil
fuels, which in return would have an impact on the environment
and economy and potential reduction of greenhouse gases [43].
Many of developed and developing countries have various
processes of biofuels in order to decrease dependency on fossil
fuels, reduce greenhouse gases and increase development of rural
areas. There are two production processes creating primary and
secondary fuels. Primary biofuels are natural and directly used for
heating, cooking and electric production without any chemical
process. Examples include waste oils, animal fats and wood [3,17].
Secondary types of biofuels are used to improve properties of pri-
mary biofuels. Vegetable oils, biodiesel, ethanol, methanol and
biogas are some examples of secondary biofuels. Production of
secondary biofuels from renewable sources with chemical pro-
cesses is divided in to three areas as first, second and third gener-
ation [20]. Fig. 2 shows biofuels based on production methods.
Secondary biofuels can be blended with fossil fuels or directly be
used in internal combustion engines. 10% of bioethanol can be
blended with petroleum based fuels and directly used in an internal
Fig. 2. Biofuels based on production methods.
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3
combustion engine without any engine modification. Bioethanol
blend ratios can be increased with engine modifications. E85 (85%
ethanol) and flexible are often used in Brazil and USA, respectively.
Nowadays, second and third generation alternative fuel re-
sources are continuously used to reduce emissions from fossil fuels
and increase the percentage of such fuels [18,19]. Such research
studies, depending on the country of origin where research is
performed, show the extensive use of canola, soybean, cotton, palm
and coconut oils [25]. Some of the mentioned oils are edible oils
used in food industry. However, animal fats and waste oils are
important resources to produce biodiesel, 20% of which can be
blended with diesel fuel and safely used in internal combustion
engines [7,10]. In addition, third generation fuels such as synthetic
and algae based fuels are important alternative fuels for the near
future. One of the most important reasons for USA and Europe to
use biofuels is to reduce carbon based emissions. The European
Union (EU) targets 10% of biofuel use by 2020. Thus, second and
third generation fuels are supported for biofuel production, where
such fuels are made of inedible resources, and thus, do not affect
the food chain [47e49]. The biofuels, produced from biomass with
inedible quality, support economic development. In recent years,
investigations using inedible resources such as jatropha, camelina,
algae and different wastes have shown a great potential for the
transportation sector. When examined the basic properties of these
materials; Jatropha is a non-edible energy crop which does not
compete with food crops. It is drought and pest resistant, and grows
quickly even under rough soil and climate conditions [29]. Jatropha
has a permanent pattern of high yield oil production [1,2]. Jatropha
is poisonous and contains 30e40% oil in each grain. Jatropha plant
can continue yielding for 40 years once the growth starts with a
small amount of moisture [3]. South Africa, South and Central
America and South East Asia are the main reasons for cultivation of
jatropha.
Camelina is a non-food energy crop with high oil content, with
the average about 38e43% [1]. It can grow on infertile soil or
marginal land. Its cultivation happens as a rotational crop for wheat
and cereals and it needs minimum input [29]. Its left over after the
oil extraction can be used to feed animals.
Algae has high lipid content, high rate of CO2 absorption, low
land use and faster rate of growth [1,2]. As compared to other oils,
algae has 60% oil by weight which make it advantageous [50].
Another advantage of algae is that it reduces food-fuel competition
since it does not affect crop cultivation because of no need for land
or water to survive [51]. Algae can produce large quantities of lipids
and carbohydrate by using sunlight, waste water and CO2 and thus
can play a crucial role in wastewater treatment [52]. As compared
to other energy crops, it produces 30 times more yields per acre
[53]. Algae can be processed into a variety of renewable fuels [54].
Current research shows bio-jet fuel from microalgae can reduce life
cycle greenhouse gas emissions by 76% [29].
Wastes of various origins such plant or animal are dependable
feedstocks. Examples include paper, wood products, municipal
wastes and industrial wastes which can be converted to biofuel
through different routes [1,2]. While these wastes potentially
convert to biofuels, such conversion and energy production also
helps with waste management and reduce harmful products. The
use of waste materials for the production of biofuels can overcome
many difficulties such as need of fertilizer, irrigation, land and la-
bour [29,55].
These sources can be converted into products as biodiesel,
bioalcohols and synthetic fuels due to improved biofuel production
methods (thermochemical and biochemical) [56]. In the aviation
sector, because the consumption of fuels in the aviation sector is
higher than that in the ground transportation sector, it is aimed to
balance environmental and economical aspects [57]. These fuels
4 N. Yilmaz, A. Atmanli / Energy xxx (2017) 1e9

must meet various conditions so that they can be efficiently used in Table 2
the aviation sector. The properties of alternative aviation fuels are Potential biofuels for various types of vehicles.

(1) inedible (2) renewable resources (3) reduced greenhouse gas Vehicle type Fossil fuel type Potential biofuel type
emission (4) sustainability and clean burning (5) compatibility with Light vehicles Gasoline/LPG/diesel Alcohol/Biodiesel
conventional fuel [29,58e64]. According to this, all of the above Heavy vehicles Diesel Biodiesel
renewable bioresources could be used to produce alternative Equipment/Machinery Diesel Biodiesel
aviation fuels. Marine Diesel/fuel oil Biodiesel
Aviation Jet fuel (JP) Renewable and Synthetic fuels
Remote generation Diesel/naturel gas Biodiesel/Biogas
2.2. Potential alternative fuels for the aviation sector

Alternative fuels that can be used in aviation must be compat- Table 3

ible with existing fuel systems, storage conditions and fuel transfer
process [43e45,64]. For this reason, it is necessary to very-well
know the basic properties of aviation fuels [40,41]. The aviation
sector uses petroleum based kerosene which is also called jet fuel.
Such fuels are called jet fuel for gas turbines and aviation gasoline
for piston-based engines such as United States (US) Jet A (European
Jet A-1), Jet Propellant JP-4 (European F-40), JP-5 (European F-44),
JP-7 (US only), JP-8 (F-34), JP-TS (US only), and JP-8 I 100 (US only)
[29]. Kerosene based fuels are Jet A, Jet A-1, JP 5 and JP 8 with 8e18
carbons. Naphtha type fuels are Jet B and JP-4 with 5e15 carbons.
These fuels are also used as blends of kerosene-naphtha and
kerosene-gasoline (JP-4) [44].
Table 1 shows basic fuel properties of biodiesel, ethanol, n-
butanol and jet fuel. Similar fuel properties indicate that some of
the fuels can replace one another. In internal combustion engines,
studies have shown biodiesel and alcohols are the primary alter-
native fuels which can be produced from biomass. Nowadays, al-
cohols (e.g. ethanol and butanol) can be produced via fermentation
from the raw material which is actually used for biodiesel pro-
duction. It is important to note that alternative fuels, which are
produced from the same raw materials, have similar fuel properties
and characteristics. For instance, in diesel engines, ethanol or
butanol can be added to diesel fuel/biodiesel blends. In addition,
diesel/butanol blends have shown similar engine characteristics
and emissions as diesel/biodiesel blends in diesel engines. There-
fore, Table 1 shows the fuels which are used frequently for studies
nowadays and can be used in the same engine in the form of
various combinations of blends. Being able to mix such liquids is
another indicator that the fuels have similar miscibility and phys-
ical characteristics. Table 2 shows potential bio fuels for different
types of vehicles used nowadays. Table 3 shows fuel criteria based
on commercial aviation operations for safety purposes. In aviation
fuels, high heat content, good atomization, rapid evaporation, good
burning characteristics, low explosion risk, being free from con-
taminants, minimum carbon formation, low viscosity, good ther-
mal stability, and good storage should be obtained. Fuels have to
pass laboratory, storage and flight tests for operational purposes
and are then finally certified in the end [43,44].
Therefore, aviation fuels have to meet the standards of ASTM
(American Society for Testing and Materials) D1655 in USA and DSA
Basic criteria for aviation fuels.
Operability Environmental concerns Supportability
Ignition delay Production process Wide availability
Cold flow properties Low CO2 emission Acceptable cost
Thermal stability Low Particulates Easy use
Altitude relight Non-Mutagenics Good ground storage
(Defence Standards Agency) in England [45]. JP fuels for military
use have to meet the NATO standards. Biofuels also have to pass
tests and meet standards and thus, USA (US-RFS2) and Europe (EU-
RED) have various fuel standards for sustainable/renewable alter-
native fuels [46].
Based on the above-mentioned definitions and standards, there
have been initiatives to actively use biofuels in the aviation sector
as replacements for conventional jet fuel [61e65]. The aviation
sector has adapted the use of alternative fuels for fuel efficiency,
less dependency on petroleum based fuels and environmental
factors such as reduction of greenhouse gases. Thus, there is an aim
to reduce the aviation sector's contribution of 2% of CO2 emissions
to lower levels. The amount of fuels used in aviation is much less
than that in ground transportation [47,66,67]. It is important that
alternative aviation fuels have advantages in terms of choice of
feedstock, production processes, fuel properties meeting standards,
safe storage, easy transportation and extensive usage. As in ground
transportation, biofuels have the potential to be used in the aviation
sector with numerous advantages. Aviation fuel conversion and
production methods are oil to jet fuel Hydroprocessed renewable
jet fuels (hydroprocessed esters and fatty acids (HEFA)) and bio-
diesel, gas to jet fuel (Fischer-Tropsch), alcohol to jet fuel (ethanol
to jet and butanol to jet), and sugar to jet fuel (fermentation of
sugars to hydrocarbons) [47,68]. When the performance of these
production methods and the properties of their products and the
alternative fuel requirements of the aviation sector are examined
with specifications seen in Table 3, the following can be noted.
HEFA is generally paraffinic liquids. HEFA jet fuels are produced
by the hydrodeoxygenation of vegetable oils, animal fats, waste
grease, algal oil and bio-oil and the major side products are water
and propane [29]. Jatropha oil, camelina oil, algal oil, bio-oil, animal

Table 1
Fuel properties of biodiesel, ethanol, n-butanol and jet fuel [8,10,29,44].

Items Biodiesel (EN14214) Ethanol n-Butanol Jet fuel

Molecular weight (kg/kmol) e 46,07 74,12 z185

Density (g/ml@20  C) 0,860e0,9 0,789 0810 0,775e0,84
Kinematic viscosity (mm2/s@40  C) 3,5-5 1,08 2,23 8
Low heating value (MJ/kg) 35e43 26,8 33,1 42,80e43,02
Freezing point ( C) 1e 15 114,3 89,5 47e 60
Flash point ( C) >120 8 35 38
Auto ignition temperature ( C) e 434 385 210
Boiling point ( C) e 78,4 117,7 150e170
Vapour pressure (kPa@38  C) e 13,8 2,27 14e21
Oxygen content (%) e 34,8 21,6 e

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fats and waste grease are some of the most promoting feedstock for
the production of HEFAs [41,69]. The method of hydroprocessing
includes treatment of fats and oils in the presence of hydrogen for
the removal of oxygen from the feedstock. Hydrodeoxygenation is
followed by isomerization and cracking to achieve desired fuel
specifications such as low temperature properties [34,70]. The
hydroprocessed renewable jet fuels are high energy biofuels which
can be used even without blending. One of its advantages is to
reduce carbon monoxide (CO), hydrocarbons (HC), nitrogen oxides
(NOx), and particulate matter (PM) [29,71]. HEFAs are free of aro-
matics and sulphur and have high cetane number, high thermal
stability and low tailpipe emissions [38,52]. These fuels are stable
for storage and resistant to microbial growth [29,53,72]. HEFAs are
suitable for conventional aircraft engines without further engine
modification and do not raise any fuel quality issues. These fuels do
not form deposit in engines [54,73]. HEFAs are advantageous for
higher altitude flights because of cold flow properties [51]. Their
lubricity is low because of the absence of oxygen and sulphur [55]
which can be improved by blending with conventional jet fuel or
other additives [52,74]. Cold flow properties like cold filter plugging
point and cloud point are affected by higher paraffin content but it
also depends on the type of feedstock [56]. Cetane number of
hydroprocessed renewable jet fuels affects the fuel ignition in the
engine as compared to conventional jet fuel but such problems can
be easily fixed by blending HEFAs with conventional fuels [55].
Hydroprocessed renewable jet fuels are comparatively economical
[23]. HEFA fuel that meets ASTM D7566 specification can be mixed
with conventional jet fuel, up to a blend ratio of 50% [29,72e76].
Biodiesel, which is a major alternative fuel in ground trans-
portation, can be made of various oils and used in diesel engines by
limited blends with diesel fuel [1e4]. Biodiesel is alkyl esters of
fatty acid and produced by the process of transesterification. Bio-
diesel production is inexpensive and does not create a food-fuel
crisis because it can be made of non-edible oils. Biodiesel is
biodegradable and has excellent lubricity [7e11]. Some of its ad-
vantages include miscibility with petroleum fuels, high flash point,
no sulphur in its composition, reduced greenhouse gas emissions
and non-toxic [64e67]. The energy density of biodiesel is very low
compared to conventional jet fuels and this it is not sufficient to use
as an aviation fuel [68]. Biodiesel as aviation fuel does not need
further engine rebuilding or modification [69]. Some of its disad-
vantages include biodegradability causing biological growth during
storage which affects the stability [1], high freezing point which is a
concern for high altitude flight, presence of polyunsaturated and
unsaturated fatty acids [1,2], polarity which causes the formation of
emulsion [7e10] and insufficient feedstock supply [29].
First generation biofuel, biodiesel, is suitable for use in com-
mercial airlines. This fuel does not, however, meet the standards in
terms of fuel performance and safety. Raw material needed for
biofuel production for use in aviation should be inedible and eco-
friendly [47,48,77]. Thus, vegetable oils such as camelina, jatropha
and algae oils are options for production of aviation biofuels. It is
important to note that some of those fuels have poor cold flow
properties and oxidation problems within six months, and may not
be used as aviation fuels. Some preliminary research studies used
bio-synthetic parafinic kerosene made of jatropha, algae, and
camelina oils (Fig. 3) at high temperatures [49,78]. While the
above-mentioned fuels cannot replace the jet fuel, they can be
blended with the jet fuel between 5 and 20% ratios and used as part
of a jet fuel. Although they have advantages in terms of production
and environment, some of their poor fuel properties prevent them
from being used as jet fuels. Thus, they have to go through addi-
tional processes for the improvement of their fuel properties, but
such processes would increase the cost [27,79,80]. In 2014, ASTM
approved the use of 5 mg/kg biodiesel in jet fuels [38,81].
FT fuels, produced by advanced technological production pro-
cesses (thermochemical), are important alternative fuels for inter-
nal combustion engines. They are hydrocarbon-based fuels, which

Fig. 3. Raw materials for bio-jet fuel production.

Fig. 4. Process of biofuel and synthetic fuel production.

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6 N. Yilmaz, A. Atmanli / Energy xxx (2017) 1e9
are produced by catalytic conversion of syn gas (CO and H2) [29,82].
Fig. 4 shows the process of biofuel and synthetic fuel production.
The range of hydrocarbons depends on the catalyst, pressure and
temperature conditions of the process [83e85]. A wide range of
biomass feedstock can be used for the syn gas generation [86]. The
FT fuels are usually clean burning, high value fuels [29] and char-
acterized by non-toxicity, no emission of nitrogen oxides, low
sulphur and aromatic content, reduced particulate emission and
high cetane number. Also, the fuel combustion is free of CO2 and
hydrocarbons [87]. Jet fuel produced by the FT process from
different feedstock shows similar properties and is characterized by
no sulphur and aromatics [80,88]. Differences in fuel properties of
FT fuels are mainly because of operational conditions rather than
the nature of the feedstock [29,57]. The FT process is expensive and
the efficiency of the process ranges between 25% and 50% [59]. FT
fuels have low power and low fuel economy because of low energy
density [61] in additional to having low lubricity due to no sulphur
[37,68]. However, fuel lubricity is improved when FT fuels are
blended with conventional fuels [80,81]. According to the ASTM
D7566 standard, FT-fuel is approved for a 50% blend with Jet-A1
fuel [72,89].
In addition, FT bio-synthetic parafinic kerosene (FT-SPK) has
been studied and used as an alternative. FT-SPK is produced from
solid biomass or coal with the order of synthesis gas generation, FT
synthesis, hydrocracking and synthetic product [45]. This synthetic
fuel has similar properties as jet fuel and can potentially be used as
an aviation fuel, but its production process is not as environmen-
tally effective [27]. GTL (gas to liquids) jet fuel from natural gas is
another way to produce an alternative fuel [80,82].
Alcohols became important alternatives for internal combustion
engines in recent years. Alcohols made of biomass can be used in
both gasoline and diesel engines and counted as next generation
fuels. Bio alcohols are produced by thermal and biochemical
fermentation of carbohydrates which are formed by the hydrolysis
of biomass [29,48,52]. Direct sugar sources are subjected to
fermentation to produce alcohol [90]. Wood, agricultural wastes,
forest residues and wastes are some of biomass feedstocks for the
production of bioalcohol [91]. Ethanol and n-butanol have potential
alternative fuels for ground vehicles. However, because of their
high volatility, low flash point, low energy density and low tem-
perature properties, both alcohols are not viable for aviation [2,7].
In addition, alcohols need specific delivery infrastructure and
storage system for use in the aviation industry [7e10]. Alcohols as
jet fuels require engine modifications [9,29]. Safety concerns arise
at high altitude flights because of the high volatility of ethanol [19]
and because of poor fuel properties of ethanol, blending with
conventional jet fuels is not a feasible option [31,43].
Although alcohols have low calorific value and high heat of
vaporization, which are important hurdles toward being aviation
fuels, it may be possible to change chemical structures of alcohols
with technological developments to make them suitable alterna-
tives in the aviation sector [28,34,47].
In order to promote the use of biofuel in the aviation sector, it is
necessary to improve production methods and to improve fuel
standards developed by international organizations in collabora-
tion with industry. Thus, IATA and international civil aviation or-
ganization (ICAO) have led collaborative research in this field
[35e40]. Studies in this area started around 2007e2008 and have
accelerated through 2015. In 2013, IATA, in agreement with the
ICAO, approved a resolution setting out ambitious targets for
addressing carbon emission reduction entitled ‘Aviation Carbon-
Neutral Growth Strategy (CNG2020)’. The strategy involves the
use of sustainable biofuels (drop-in), aiming to achieve benefits
from environmental, social, and economic perspectives [91]. One of
the most important problems while conducting this type of
Please cite this article in press as: Yilmaz N, Atmanli A, Sustainable alternative fuels in aviation, Energy (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2017.07.077
Table 4
Target for sustainable jet fuel use in various countries [39].
Country/region Organization Blend target Timeframe
World Boeing 1% 2016
USA FAA 5% 2018
EU EC 3%e4% 2020
Australia AISAF 50% 2050
Germany Aireg 10% 2025
Netherlands Bioport Holland 1% 2015
Israel FCI 20% 2025
Indonesia Government 2% 2016
Nordic countries NISA 3%e4% 2020
research was economic factors. Lower oil prices and oscillations
negatively affect the projection studies for the development of
alternative jet fuels. For example, while oil price was $100 dollars
per barrel during 2011e2013, it went down as much as $40 dollars
in recent years. Thus, cost of alternative fuels must be comparable
to petroleum based fuels in addition to environmental advantages.
Overall, such studies are being conducted in USA as Europe as well
as Brazil, South Africa, China, Indonesia and Japan with the support
and collaboration of companies as Airbus, Boeing and Gulfstream.
Japan targets the use of alternative fuels in all flights for the Tokyo
Olympics by 2020. Indonesia and the USA have done collaborative
research for the development of alternative aviation fuels. Similarly,
South Africa is in the process of developing fuels which meet RSB
standards, and Europe has solar-jet projects. Yet despite numerous
successful test flights, aviation bio-fuels have yet to become widely
commercialized. As seen in Table 4, those countries have put for-
ward a target for the implementation and use of sustainable jet fuel
[39]. In order to reach the target, numerous tests have been con-
ducted. World-wide, the aviation sector uses 1.5e1.7 billion barrels
of Jet A1 per year. It shows the importance of even 1% use of biofuels
in the aviation sector in terms of the positive economic and envi-
ronmental outcomes [82e84,87].
2.3. Environmental effects of alternative fuels
Sustainable environment is one of the most important factors in
developing alternative fuels. High production and wide-range use
are indispensable factors for alternative fuels to compete with fossil
fuels. Thus, alternative fuels gain more importance in terms of
greener environment and higher competition against conventional
fuels [58e63]. For alternative fuels, there are a number of chal-
lenges to overcome such as; (1) environmental challenges, (2)
production issues, (3) distribution problems, (4) feedstock avail-
ability and sustainability, (5) compatibility with conventional fuel.
Of course, the most important obstacle is to protect the environ-
ment [29,50e54,71,72]. In international projections, reduction of
CO2 is critical for the future [70,78,88]. In both air and ground
transportations, this need has been recognized and legal implica-
tions have been placed. 2.5% of man-made CO2 was from the
aviation sector in 2005 as it is expected to become 4e4.7% by 2050
[50,54]. Emissions from aircraft engines affect the radiative balance
of the atmosphere, and therefore the climate system. Biofuels are
the first feasible option for greenhouse gas emission reduction in
aviation. Thus, alternative fuels in the aviation sector must meet all
aviation fuel standards. Otherwise, the use of such fuels will be
limited [28,47]. The uprising demand for bio-jet fuels affects the
fertility of soil and biodiversity and cause increase in atmospheric
CO2 [56]. In the long term, use of agricultural land for crop culti-
vation for biofuel production will cause food scarcity and reduce
soil quality and water availability in the soil. However, biofuel made
of inedible biomass would not harm the food chain. The use of
 N. Yilmaz, A. Atmanli / Energy xxx (2017) 1e9
Fig. 5. Airline companies using alternative fuels in 2008e2013 [39].
fertilizers and insecticides will result in soil destruction and water
pollution [57]. The fuel development should not arise any human
health issues [62]. In spite of all these potential disadvantages,
production of alternative fuels for the aviation sector is still a new
initiative and research is ongoing. While alternative jet fuels have
similar origins, their fuel properties must meet standards based on
flight and climate conditions [85]. Fuels for the purpose of aviation
and ground transportation can be made of the same source. Since
2011, 22 airline companies have used biofuels made of various re-
sources in more than 2000 commercial flights [38,39]. Fig. 5 shows
airline companies using alternative fuels in 2008e2013 according
to IATA [39]. In 2008, for the first time ever, Virgin Atlantic used
biofuel made of coconut oil in a flight from London to Amsterdam.
By 2011, with the approval of use of 50% of biofuels in commercial
flights, interest in biofuels has increased in the aviation sector.
However, in order to promote the use of these fuels in all airline
companies, these alternative fuels must be competitive in terms of
price, production, and social, economic, environmental and tech-
nological perspectives. With regards to the environment, use of
alternative fuels is projected to allow for a 85% decrease of green-
house gases and other pollutants due to no sulphur. ICAO was
directed by the Kyoto Protocol to explore pathways for mitigating
aviation emissions [42]. IATA indicated the target of 50% reduction
of CO2 caused by air vehicles by 2050 [41,83,87]. In order to achieve
this target, there are 15 aviation standards for biofuel production
and processes by EU-RED, US-RFS and ASTM. Increasing the num-
ber of these standards and studies will be important toward more
use of alternative aviation fuels, which contribute to a more eco-
friendly environment.
3. Conclusions
Air transport is a developing business sector, with rapidly
increasing rates in transport loads and fuel demand. Aircraft
emissions are impacting GHG emissions and hence inducing
climate change. Since reduction of carbon emissions is recognized
as important, bio-jet fuels can contribute to this goal substantially
in the short and medium-term. However, Alternative fuel produc-
tion requires establishment of new industries with time and efforts.
There is a need to explore new opportunities for the production of
renewable jet fuel. Materials and production technologies used for
making biofuels for ground transportation are suitable for the
development of sustainable aviation fuels. Aviation bio-fuel prop-
erties must meet the standards based on engine operation condi-
tions, storage, environmental and safety aspects. The fuel standards
for bio-jet fuels have successfully been established during the last
several years. To date, the research shows that alternative fuels
have been safely used in the aviation sector. Among the various
processes and alternative fuels, HEFA and FT fuels, have the
Please cite this article in press as: Yilmaz N, Atmanli A, Sustainable alternative fuels in aviation, Energy (2017), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.energy.2017.07.077
7
potential to replace the conventional jet and road fuels. These fuels
can be used in tanks, pipelines, pumps and automobiles without
any changes nowadays. The direct synthesis of aviation fuels from
renewable biomass is of great interest in research and industrial
applications. The main problems with biodiesel and bioalcohols as
aviation fuels are their poor fuel properties. Aviation biofuel op-
tions will increase as the fuel properties of such alternative fuels are
improved. In addition, streamlining the production process of the
existing biofuels will spread bio-jet fuel use in the aviation sector.
Parallel to these developments, organizations such as IATA and
ICAO must work with airline companies and aircraft manufacturers
to reduce CO2 emissions in commercial flights and to advocate for
more use of alternative fuels in aviation. The use of waste materials
from different feedstocks can contribute to the issues related to
feedstock costs. Sustainable aviation fuel will be economically more
competent as better biofuel production technologies are developed
and cost of production decreases, along with more incentives and
research.
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