Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 33 (1992) 75-93 75

Elsevier

Numerical and physical modelling of cold forging

of bevel gears

Markus Meidert, Markus Knoerr, Knut Westphal and Taylan Altan

Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, the Ohio State University,
Columbus, OH 43210, USA

Industrial Summary

Bevel gears are high-volume parts used in the automotive industry, which are being increasingly
produced to net shape by cold forging. However, complex multi-action tooling designs and long
die try-out phases needed to produce a net shape part and to guarantee a robust process, result in
long development times. High punch pressures can cause frequent punch failures during produc-
tion, leading to unwanted downtimes.
In this paper, two modelling techniques, finite element (FE) based numerical modelling and
physical modelling with plasticine, are being presented as process design tools in cold forging. A
strategy has been developed to allow successful 2D FE modelling of bevel gear forging. The results
from the process simulation are then used as load input data for a punch stress analysis. It is, thus,
possible to modify the punch geometry in order to reduce the punch stresses. Physical modelling
is then applied to verify the results of the 2D FE simulations.

1. Introduction

In the production of high-volume parts with complex geometries, the cold-

forging process provides both economical and technological advantages com-
pared to other mass manufacturing processes. Some of these advantages are
near net shape quality, excellent surface finish, high material and energy yield,
high output and low labour costs/part [ 1 ]. However, high initial investments,
expensive tooling and long developmenttimes for new part geometries are some
of the disadvantages of cold forging compared to machining processes.
The long developmenttime results from the complex tooling designs needed
to guarantee proper material flow and die fill, die and tool manufacturing and
the die try-out phase, where trial-and-error are applied to determine necessary
tooling modifications to achieve good parts, and a robust and safe process.

Correspondence to: T. Altan, Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, College
of Engineering, the Ohio State University, 339 Baker Systems, 1971 Neil Avenue, Columbus, OH
43210-1271, USA.

0924-0136/92/$05.00 © 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers B.V. All rights reserved.

76

Several techniques have been developed that can help to reduce process de-
velopment time. Modelling techniques aim at providing detailed information
on material flow, die fill, defect formation and forming load before the actual
tooling is produced. Thus, necessary design modifications can be identified at
an early stage of development, where modification costs are still low.
In this paper, the use of 2-dimensional finite element analysis in modelling
the forming of complex cold-forged parts with protrusions using multiple-tool
actions is discussed. As a geometry a straight bevel gear was chosen. The pre-
dicted flow and filling under different conditions is then compared with phys-
ical modelling experiments.

2. Cold forging of bevel gears

Bevel gears are high volume parts used mainly in the automotive industry.
In general, all car and truck differentials use a set of bevel gears (2 side gears
and 2 mating pinion gears) to compensate for variations in the revolutional
speed of the wheels on the driving axle.
For such a high quantity part, cold forging of bevel gears with net shaped
teeth seemed an appropriate production process. However, high tooling pres-
sures and die deflections initially did not allow the forming of the teeth within
tolerances [2 ]. In the seventies, developments in die materials and tool making
enabled the cold forging of net shaped teeth to acceptable tolerances. The de-
velopment of multi-action tooling later helped to reduce the number of forming
steps.
During process development the material flow in the die, defect formations
and proper filling of the teeth are major concerns, and many trials are neces-
sary to achieve good quality parts [ 3 ].

3. Modelling of bevel gear forming

Two different bevel-gear geometries, supplied by member companies of the

Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing (ERC/NSM),
were investigated. Figure 1 (a) shows a side-gear geometry used in a truck dif-
ferential, which is currently being hot forged. The possibility of cold forging
this gear using multi-action tooling was investigated [4 ]. The geometry on the
bottom of the gear was changed slightly by adding a small shaft for the study
(Fig. 2 (a)).
Later, in a second study [5], the numerical modelling approach developed
in the initial study was verified with a cold forged side-gear geometry (Fig. 1
(b)), for which an E R C / N S M member company also supplied the forming
sequence.
 77

. . . ./ . . t I [
/ ! I
I f II IIII llll Itl I[t|~l)ti
I ..~^ II/I
"o 50 so 70 so sO lULl ; o

b)
Fig, 1. (a) Hot-forged bevel-gear geometry used in the initial study (scale in inches); (b) cold-
forged bevel-gear geometry used in the second study (scale in ram).

35
I
• • ~ J mI
~ - ~ RootCone(41%r')
, :/ \., F.c.con.
I I

40.30 ~ ' L
Av.r.g.cone 64.15

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. Averaged cone geometries used in: (a) the initial; and (b) the second study. (Dimensions
in mm. )

3.1. Numerical modelling

The material flow during bevel gear forming is initially axisymmetric until
the flow front touches the die at the tooth root. Then the flow near the root is
78

diverted into the tooth and becomes three-dimensional. However, due to sym-
metry conditions in planes through the tooth center and the tooth root, ma-
terial flow in these planes can only be radial.
Although some three-dimensional FE based codes enable the modelling of
large plastic deformation, and some results have been reported [6 ], three-di-
mensional modelling is still much too complicated and time consuming for
industrial application. Thus, a strategy was developed that gives an accurate
approximation of the material flow for bevel-gear forming using a two-dimen-
sional code.

3.1.1. Modelling approach

The section plane through the tooth center was chosen for the simulations.
A simulation thus represents the forming of a truncated cone. If the actual face
cone cross-sections, shown in Fig. 2 (a), were used, the billet length would be-
come unrealistically long in order to obtain filling of the cone. It was decided,
therefore, to use an averaged cone geometry. Initially, the averaged cone ge-
ometry, as seen in Fig. 2(a), was determined by keeping the 70 mm base di-
ameter and adjusting the top diameter till the bevel gear volume and the vol-
ume of the truncated cone matched. A solid modeller was used to calculate the
volume. Thus, the simulation could be performed using the original billet length,
as shown in Fig. 3.
In the second study, this approach was modified, as the sharp corner in the
lower edge of the model did not correlate with the actual gear. By changing the
angle of the cone, but retaining the diameters at the top and bottom, as shown
in Fig. 2 (b), the appropriate volume was achieved.
The simulations were performed with the rigid-plastic FE code DEFORM.
More detailed information on DEFORMcan be found in Refs. [4,7]. During the
simulations the mesh was distorted frequently and had to be remeshed. The
remeshing procedure is automated in D E F O R M . Very fine meshes were used in
order to observe defect formations more precisely.
The initial simulations were performed assuming isothermal processing con-
ditions. Flow stress data in the form ~=K~ n for AIS14161 (20MoCr4) at room
temperature were used with constants K = 1174 N / m m 2 and n =0.0563. Cou-
lomb friction was used with ]~=0.08. In the second study, data for AISI 8620
(K= 828 N / m m 2, n = 0.173 ) were used.

3.2. Physical modelling

Physical modelling with plasticine was utilized to verify the material flow
predictions using the 2D FEM approach. Plasticine is used widely as a model
material for cold-forging process design [8]. To obtain a good prediction of the
material flow, the friction conditions at the die-workpiece interface must be
similar to the actual conditions. If the model material has a similar strain-
 79
Upper Punch
40

30

et
20

10

-10

-20

-30.

-40.4

Lower
Punch
I
50.0

Fig. 3. Die and billet geometry for the numerical simulation used in the initial study.

hardening exponent as the actual billet material, it is also possible to predict

the forming load.
To determine the material behavior of the plasticine used in the study, up-
setting tests were performed. The tests showed a strain-softening behavior, so
it was not possible to predict the forming load. From the barrelling of the spec-
imen and comparative DEFORM simulations the friction conditions were de-
rived also.
80

3.2.1. Experimental tooling

A tooling with two split dies and two moveable punches, as shown in Fig. 4,
was designed. Since the die cavity of a bevel-gear forging die is of intricate
shape and difficult to machine, the die for physical modelling was manufac-
tured by casting liquid plastic around a master gear. The part of the tooling
containing the cavity was designed as a die insert, which could be pressed into
a shrink ring in one of the die halves. Using this modular design, other bevel-
gear geometries can be investigated by casting a new die insert and replacing
the punches.

3.2.2. Experimental conditions

The plasticine was vacuum extruded into bars having the punch bore di-
ameter of the tooling. Billets of 80 mm length were then cut from the bars. To
better observe the flow pattern some layered billets were created from two
colors. The dies were first wet with glycerin mixed with a small amount of
liquid soap and then coated with a layer of talcum powder. Friction conditions
similar to cold forging could be obtained.

3.3. Prediction o[ material [low

Besides investigating possible simulation strategies, it was also the objective
of the initial study to investigate the influence of different combinations of

Fig. 4. Schematic of the tooling for the plasticine experiments. ( 1,8 - base plates; 2,9 - punches;
3,7 - support plates; 4 - cast die insert; 5 - tapered shrink ring; 6 - lower die).
 81

punch movements upon material flow and die fill. Therefore, the following
three combinations were examined:
(1) forming of the gear with both punches moving simultaneously;
(2) forming of the gear with the upper punch only;
(3) forming of the gear with the lower punch only.
The predicted material flow and forming sequences obtained through plas-
ticine modelling experiments are shown in Figs. 5 to 7.

3.3.1. Forming with both punches moving simultaneously

The mesh deformation for the forming variation, with both punches moving
simultaneously, is shown in Fig. 5. It is seen that moving both punches results
in a very symmetric and regular flow. The top and bottom cavities, formed by
the billet, the die and the punches, fill before a large amount of bulging is
observed.
At a stroke of s = 13 m m bulging with a rather round flow front is observed.
The material flow is still mainly radial. The teeth slowly start to form at this
point as seen in the plasticine forming sequence in Fig. 5.
The material touches the outer cavity wall nearly at the center of the cone
(s = 30.5 mm). However, when the gear is formed with two punches moving
simultaneously the upper and lower corners in the die cavity are filled last. The
shape of the upper free surface, predicted by DEFORM simulations, indicates
that filling of the upper corner cannot be achieved. This was then verified with
the plasticine experiments.

3.3.2. Forming with upper punch only

Figure 6 shows the simulation results obtained with the motion of the upper
punch only. The initial position of the punch and the undeformed billet are
shown in the upper left plot. The upper punch movement deforms the billet at
the top and the bottom. The deformation of the billet, which can be considered
initially as an upsetting, causes high friction between the workpiece and the
wall of the die. Therefore, the cavity formed by the die and punch in the upper
right corner starts to fill first (s=5 mm). After the filling of this cavity, the
material in the punch bore can be considered as rigid and deformation takes
place at the lower end of the billet. With the present position of the lower
punch, the material in the die cavity touches the lower right corner of the die,
and the flow is divided in vertical and horizontal direction. A small annular
nose is formed on the billet starting at a stroke of s-- 15 ram. This is observed
in both the physical and numerical simulation. The formation of the nose is a
flow-induced defect, which would not allow the production of a sound part. In
addition a second defect was observed due to horizontal flow of the material
near the lower punch tip at s = 49.5 mm. The formation of the two defects, the
annular nose and the formation of a cavity at the lower punch, made a further
continuation of the simulation unnecessary.
82

position
s=5 mm
Z0 a
3 mm

I0 q Lo+

"\\ ,,,
-LG 0

_~° °

.~0 o ~mm
-400

s=5 mm
position
,o o ~ "1 J I + + i

+o +

,° +

n2m
'° + 23ram
'~ ' ~ 0 . 5 mm

,oo

0+I -
++ i

,o° J

' I l

-1o + i i i ~
o.+ 1o.+ J+.o :l.+ ooo ° o ,o o ,o o ,o o .o o

Radius [mini

Fig. 5. Flow prediction and forming sequence obtained from numerical and physical modelling;
upper and lower punch moving simultaneously.

3.3.3. Forming with the lower punch only

In this simulation, the cavity formed by the die and the lower end of the
punch is filled before the upper part of the billet is seriously deformed. This is
 83

ion ~,.o - = 6*.*

o
io.D 5o.*

H 41.o
e
!
g Do o 31.1

h
t[ ~,e

m
le~Q

Qo a.*

- t ~ .e -~o.a -lol

- 2 e~o

-3o.o [ i i i

!
?l.i

40.0

50.0 5o,!
--~ s=15 mm
H
oe.o

g
h
~Q .o "~ s=31.8nun ~o.e

~ 2oo

,o.e

ao ..o

-to~e -l*.e

-~D.o -2..a

i I f i -~o.o i i i i -3o o i I i

Radius [ram]

!i~¸~!~!~i¸ i! ~i !i /ii!iiii~iiiiiii
Fig. 6. Flow prediction and forming sequence obtained from numerical and physical modelling;
upper punch moving.
 84

.... I j
DO

,\

H
e
i
g ~,~
h
tl '~'

s=20 m m

,o o

ial position ~ s=IO mm

.00j r
I

L0 0 ,00

oo g g

10 0

H ,o o
20 0
e
i

,oo

in
m
]
~ S=~ n'lm

•o d 6D D

P
I
,o o 70 0

,o o

90 a ] ~ . . . . T T

Radius [mini

Fig. 7. Flow prediction and forming sequence obtained from numerical and physical modelling;
lower punch moving.
 85

I I
o

N I
o

I I I I I I
o

o
I
I
I I I

A
86

b}

Fig. 8. Comparison of flow prediction obtained from numerical and physical modelling: (a) (see
opposite page) deformation of equally spaced mesh predicted by "flow net"; (b) cross section
through the tooth center of a layered plasticine billet.

due to the high friction between the workpiece and the die wall in the punch
bore as discussed above. After filling of this lower cavity, the material is ex-
truded radially into the gear cavity. The material slides along the top die wall,
and the cavity fills from top to bottom ( s = 4 0 mm and s=55 mm in Fig. 7).
This flow pattern from the top to the bottom guarantees a good filling of the
corners. In particular the corner in the upper right of the gear cavity, which
forms the toe of the bevel gear, is filled completely.

3.4. Comparison of the modelling techniques

Figures 5 to 7 show that both modeling techniques agree well. Figure 8 gives
additional evidence. For Case 1 (both punches moving simultaneously) cross
sections through layered plasticine specimens are compared with the predicted
deformation of an equivalent mesh imposed on the billet. A feature of the DE-
FORM post processor, called "flownet", allows the tracking of the deformation
of arbitrarily defined mesh shapes over the stroke.
Since plasticine modelling has been used successfully for many years to pre-
dict material flow in cold forging, it can be assumed that the suggested 2D
approach gives valid information. In a second study [5 ] this assumption was
supported. Using a slightly different method to determine the averaged cone
geometry (Fig. 2 (a)), the forming of a cold- forged bevel gear was simulated.
Figure 9 shows the preform located in the die before the die set is closed and
at the end of the deformation stroke, which was performed by the lower punch.
The flow pattern agreed well with the forming sequence provided by an E R C /
NSM member company.
 87

$0.0

40.0

30.0

20.0

10.0

O.O

-10.0 I
1

0.0 10,0 20.0 30.0 40.0 0,0 10.0 20.0 30.3 40.0

a) b)

o EI c) c

original modified

Fig. 9. FEM models used in the second study: (a) preform located in the lower die before defor-
mation starts; (b) filled die at the end of the stroke; and (c) punch tip meshes used for stress
analysis. (A - face; B - comer radius; C - cone angle; D - fillet radius; E - edge).
88

4. Investigation of punch design

In the production of complex cold forgings using multiple actions, the max-
imum allowable punch load is often a limiting factor [8]. In many applications
punch loads are very high to achieve complete die filling. The stresses locally
exceed the yield strengths of most commonly used punch materials, which are
in the range of 2000-2500 MPa [9,10]. It is, therefore, a goal during process
design to reduce the punch load in order to avoid frequent failures of the punches
during production. Detailed information on the punch stresses is, however,
only available through a numerical stress analysis.
NORMAL PRESSURE VS. DISTANCE ALONG PUNCH TIP
3 1 4 9 . 2 , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , ,

3000 . 0 / ~ 4 - Geometry: Original

Horizont. Length [A]: 5.0ram
Face Angle [B]: 0.0°
Corner Radius [C]: 3.0 mm
Cone Angle [D]: 30.0°
Fillet Radius [ E ] : 3.0mm
Fillet An:~le [F]: 2.0°

2000.0

l~a

I o o o . o

0.0 ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' ' 4" '
DIST. FROM CENTER ALONG PUNCH TIP

I I I I II
A C D E F
Fig. 10. N o r m a l pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n along t h e p u n c h tip from t h e c e n t e r o u t w a r d s for the original
p u n c h - t i p design.
 89

In addition to the flow predictions DEFORM simulations also provide the

contact pressure distribution at the die-workpiece interface. The second study
was thus extended beyond flow predictions to the stress analysis of the punches.
From work performed previously at the E R C / N S M [11] an automated data
exchange between the process simulation and die stress analysis task was
available. Therefore, the influence of the punch design on the stress levels
could be investigated with a number of punch face variations.
The geometry of the highly stressed upper punch, seen in Fig. 9, was inves-
tigated. Figure 10 shows the normal pressure distribution along the punch face
ABAQUS 4-9-I : #ISTATIC

MPa

2500. oo I~

2250.00

--q
2000.00

175o.oo I
i

15oo.oo

1250.00 5

-1
EP
1000.00

..,.. 750.00

D
500.00

25o.oo ~:1

lA \c
Fig. 11. Equivalent stress distribution at the punch tip for the original punch-tip design.
90

from the center outwards. Very high pressures are observed at the lower punch
corner (first peak ) and in the upper fillet radius ( second peak ). The equivalent
stress distribution near the punch tip, resulting from the normal and shear
components of the contact pressure distribution, is shown in Fig. 11. The val-
ues were obtained by an elastic-plastic stress analysis using the FE code ABA-
QUS. Very high stresses occur at the upper of the punch tip. Assuming a yield
strength of 2500 MPa for an AISI M2 punch steel hardened to 65-67 Rc, the
zone below the contour line No. 10 would experience small amounts of plastic
straining.
The effect of a slight modification of the punch geometry is shown in Figs.
12 and 13. As can be seen in Fig. 13, a face angle of 6 ° was added. The cone
2925.B
Geometry: Modification

I
Horizont. Length [A]: 0.5mm
Face Angle [B]: 6.0°
Corner Radius [C]: 4.5 mm
Cone Angle [D]: 33.46°
Fillet Radius [E]: 4.5 mm
Fillet Angle [F]: 2.0 °

2000.0

I ]VIPa

1000.0

0.0 I I I I I I l i i I I I i 1 i l

DIST. FROM CENTER ALONG PUNCH T I P

11 I I 1 I I
AB C D E F
Fig. 12. Normal pressure distribution along the punch tip from the center outwards for the mod-
ified punch-tip design.
 91

ABAGUS 4 - 9 - 1 : ~STATIC

i5.24 HAX: 1948.79 IV[Pa

i

1750.00 7

i500.00

5
1250. O0 5

1000.00

EF 750.00

500.00
D
i

250.00 l

~A IB \C

Fig. 13. Equivalent stress distribution at the punch tip for the modified punch-tip design.
angle and the corner radius were increased also. Achieving the same amount
of fill, the peaks of the normal pressure distribution1, as seen in Fig. 12, are
reduced, and the load is more evenly distributed over the punch face. The re-
sulting stress distribution is then reduced significantly (Fig. 13). The zone of
highest loading now remains below the yield strength of the punch material.

5. Conclusions

Physical and numerical modelling of cold forging of bevel gears were pre-
sented. A practical approach to 2D FE modelling of bevel gear forging was
92

suggested, and two examples were shown. The accuracy of the 2D approach
was verified by plasticine experiments and comparison with a forming se-
quence obtained from industry. The FE model predicted material flow, filling
problems and defect formations well. The FE process simulation was then ex-
tended to elastic-plastic punch stress analysis. The influence of the punch
stresses was investigated. A slight modification of the punch geometry proved
to have a significant influence on the stress level in the punch.
The use of plasticine has been reported more frequently in cold-forging pro-
cess design. Cold-forging companies, however, still remain hesitant in imple-
menting FE based process simulation. Although complex cold forgings usually
exhibit three-dimensional flow, good approximations can be obtained from 2D
simulations, as was shown in this paper for bevel-gear geometries. Considering
the amount of time that is necessary to perform plasticine experiments due to
die manufacture and material preparation, FE simulations can provide results
much faster. Therefore, a greater number of variations can be investigated. In
addition, a more accurate contact pressure distribution than the assumption
of an average pressure distribution at the punch tip is available for a punch
stress analysis. Elastic-plastic stress analysis should be performed to obtain
information on possible localized yielding; which can lead to fatigue failure of
the punch.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank contributing students and staff at the E R C / N S M ,

especially Hans-JSrg Klein, Blaine Lilly and Mary Hartzler for the die design
and manufacture. They also appreciate the input from E R C / N S M member
companies, who helped the authors to better understand the details of bevel-
gear forging. Messrs. Moriguchi, Yoshimura and Noda of ND Tech Corp. have
been most kind and supportive.

References

1 R. Geiger and M. Hiinsel, Cold forging technology 1990 in Europe, applications, state of the
art, developments, (in German), in: Proc. 8th Int. Cold Forging Congress, VDI-Bericht 810,
Dtisseldorf, 1990, p. 297,
2 H. Leykamm, Forming of toothed parts by cold forging, (in German), in: R. Kopp (Ed.),
Proc. Neue Verfahren der Massivumformung, Deutsche GesellschaftfOr Metallkunde, 1981,
p. 234.
3 M. Burgdorf, Cold forging of toothed parts, (in German), Prepr. Int. Cold Forging Congress,
Brighton, 1975.
4 M. Meidert, M. Knoerr and T. Altan, Investigation of physical and numerical modelling of
bevel gear forming, Report No. B-91-13, Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Man-
ufacturing, Columbus, OH, May, 1991.
 93

5 K. Westphal, M. Knoerr and T. Altan, Computer-aided design of cold forging punches, Re-
port No. B-D-92-08, Engineering Research Center for Net Shape Manufacturing, Columbus,
OH, March, 1992.
6 D.Y. Yang, J.H. Yoon and N.K. Lee, Modular remeshing: A practical method of 3D remeshing
in forging of complicated parts, in: Advanced Technology of Plasticity 1990, The Japanese
Society for Technology of Plasticity, 1990, pp. 171-178.
7 M. Knoerr, J. Lee and T. Altan, Application of 2D finite element method to various metal
forming processes, J. Mater. Process. Technol., 33 ( 1,2 ) ( 1992 ) 31-55.
8 V. Maegaard, Cost effective substitution using extruded parts in mass production, in: Proc.
8th Int. Cold Forging Congress, VDI-Bericht 810, DiJsseldorf, 1990, p. 61.
9 K. Lange, Handbook of Metal Forming, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985.
10 ICFG Data Sheet, Punches and mandrels for cold extrusion of steel, No. 5/71, Surrey, ISME,
1971.
11 M. Knoerr, C. Rentsch and T. Altan, Application of I-DEASin CAE of forging dies, in: 1991
ICCON User's Conference, SDRC, Cincinnati, OH, 1991, pp. 115-126.