1

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Introduction

The availability of energy resource plays a critical role in the progress of a nation.
Almost all the human energy needs are currently met from the fast depleting fossil fuels
associated with serious environmental consequences. Over the last century, there has
been more than 20 fold increase in the consumption of energy worldwide and all major
sources excepting hydropower and nuclear electricity are the finite sources and
therefore are likely to be exhausted in near future .The rapid increase in the consumption
of fossil fuels is resulting into climate change which is considered as the most important
environmental problem of the present century and the recent studies hence indicates that
the emission of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere have contributed to the increase in
the global mean temperature by approximately 0.8°C during the past century. The
impact of climate change on the ecosystem and human societies has prompted to
develop eco-friendly and infinite renewable sources like solar, wind, small hydro,
biomass, etc .

Renewable energy sources in general and biomass energy in particular is capable

of reducing our dependency on foreign import there by increasing the security of energy
supply. The ethanol and biodiesel are the two liquid bio fuels that can replace/substitute
gasoline /diesel respectively. Production and utilisation of the bio fuel would generate
the of new economic opportunities in term of creation of job opportunities in rural areas
in addition to the protection of the environment .Biodiesel and ethanol derived from
biomass feed stocks can provide alternative substitute of petro diesel and gasoline
respectively. The present paper will be restricted only to the biodiesel diesel substitute.
Biodiesel can be obtained from a number of edible and non-edible oil resources and
 2

major thrust is given for the utilisation of non-edible seed plant. The oil from these
plants can be transesterified by suitable method depending on its FFA content for the
production of biodiesel that can be used to operate an CI engine.

1.2. India’s Energy Scenario

As per 2009/10, estimates, the crude oil production in India stood at 33.67 MT
which is approximately the same as compared to the previous year’s production of 33.51
MT (2008-09). Since the Indian economy is growing at the rate of 6% or more and the
energy demand is therefore, expected to rise to 166MT by 2019 and 622MT by 2047.
The demand of crude oil in the country is met through indigenous supplies as well as
through imports. The dependency on imported crude oil has been about 79% of the total
demand in 2009/10 valued at Rupees 3753 billion which is 9% higher than the 2008-
09,Fig I shows that the demand of crude has reached to 159.3MT during 2009-10which
is about three times more than 57.8MT during1979-2000.

Figure 1.1. Annual imports and cost of crude oil imports

The rapidly increasing demand of crude oil coupled with increase in fuel demand
has forced the countries to look for alternative to conventional fuels As stated above,
 3

the biodiesel production from non-edible seed plant like jatropha, pongamia, mahua etc
are being considered as indigenous source of oil for biodiesel production. Once the oil
resources starts to available in the country, the availability of biodiesel as substitute of
diesel fuel will increase and dependency on oil import would reduce there by making
the country self-sufficient in fuel supplies.

1.3. National Biodiesel Mission

The demand of diesel is five times more than the gasoline in the country. The
ethanol industry is well established while the biodiesel industry is still in the process of
development. Indian Government has formulated an ambitious National Biodiesel
mission in the year to substitute about 20% of the total diesel demand by biodiesel by
2011-2012.Accordingly Jatropha curcas has been accorded top priority to be used as
non-edible oil feed stocks for biodiesel production. The Jatropha curcas plant is being
grown over 40000 ha of land from 2003 or so over to produce about3.75T of oil per
hectare annually. Jatropha plant to biodiesel chain will include plantation, plant
management oil extraction, oil refinement transtesterification, purification,
stabilisation, blending and marketing when oil start to be available for conversion to
biodiesel. This will allow to encourage the use of B20 blend with country and save the
diesel fuel.

1.4. Biodiesel

1.4.1. Introduction
Energy is one of the most important resources for mankind and its sustainable
development. Today, the energy crisis becomes one of the global issues confronting us.
Fuels are of great importance because they can be burned to produce significant
amounts of energy. Many aspects of everyday life rely on fuels, in particular the
transport of goods and people. Main energy resources come from fossil fuels such as
petrol oil, coal and natural gas. Vegetable oils cannot be directly used in the diesel
 4

engine for its high viscosity, high density, high flash point and lower calorific value. So
it needs to be converted into biodiesel to make it consistent with fuel properties of
diesel.

Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel made from vegetable oil and animal fats. It
can act both as substitute and an additive to diesel fuel. Importance of biodiesel
increases due to
(i) Increasing petroleum prices,

(ii) Limited fossil fuel reserves, and

(iii) Environmental benefits of biodiesel.

Different methodologies used for production of biodiesel are:

(i) Direct use/blending,
(ii) Micro-emulsion,
(iii) Pyrolysis, and
(iv) Transesterifcation

1.4.2. Direct Use/Blending

Vegetable oil can be directly used as diesel fuel without any changes to engine.
The very first engine (by Rudolf Diesel) was tested using vegetable oil as fuel. The
primary concern with vegetable oil as fuel is its high viscosity (atomization of vegetable
oil is difficult), which leads to problems in the long run:

Advantages of vegetable oil as diesel fuel are:

(i) Liquid nature and portability,
(ii) High heat content (80 percent of diesel fuel),
(iii) Ready availability, and
(iv) Renewability.
 5

The problems appear only after long period. Some of common problems are:
(i) Coking and trumpet formation on the injectors to such an extent that fuel
atomization becomes difficult,
(ii) Carbon deposits,
(iii) Oil ring sticking, and
(iv) Thickening and gelling.

1.4.3. Micro-emulsions
Micro emulsion is defined as colloidal dispersion of fluid microstructures (1-150
nm) in solvent forming two immiscible phases. The common solvents used are
methanol and ethanol. Micro-emulsions is the probable solution to high viscosity of
vegetable oil. Their atomization is relatively easy because of lower viscosity.

1.4.4. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis means conversion of one substance to another by application of heat.
Catalysts are used to speed up the process. Different products can be obtained from the
same material depending on different path of reaction and this makes pyrolytic
chemistry difficult. Pyrolysis of vegetable oil gives different lower hydrocarbons that
can be used as fuel.

1.4.5. Transesterification
Transesterfication is a kind of organic reaction where alcohol group in ester is
substituted. It can also be reaction of vegetable oil/fat with alcohol to give ester and
glycerol. The applicability of transesterification is not restricted to laboratory. Several
relevant industrial processes use this reaction to produce different types of compounds.
An example is the production of PET (polyethyleneterephthalate), which involves a step
where dimethylterephthalate is transesterified with ethylene glycol in the presence of
zinc acetate as catalyst. Furthermore, a large number of acrylic acid derivatives are
produced by transesterification of methyl acrylate with different alcohols, in the
presence of acid catalysts.
 6

1.4.6. Criteria for a fuel to be engine fuel

In IC engine, the thermal energy is released by burning the fuel in the engine
cylinder. The combustion of fuel in IC engine is quite fast but the time needed to get
a proper air/fuel mixture depends mainly on the nature of fuel and the method of its
introduction into the combustion chamber. The fuel should therefore satisfy the
following performance.

1. High energy density.

2. Good combustion characteristics.

3. High thermal stability.

4. Low deposit forming tendencies.

5. Compatibility with the engine hardware.

6. Good fire safety.

7. Low toxicity.

8. Less pollution.

9. Easy transferability and onboard vehicle storage.

The combustion process in the cylinder should take as little time as possible with
the release of maximum heat energy during the period of operation. Longer operation
results in the formation of deposits which in combination with other combustion
products may cause excessive wear and corrosion of cylinder, piston and piston rings.
The combustion product should not be toxic when exhausted to the atmosphere. These
requirements can be satisfied using a number of liquid and gaseous fuels. The biodiesel
from non-edible sources like Jatropha, Pongamia, Mahua, Neem etc meets the above
engine performance requirement and therefore can offer perfect viable alternative to
diesel oil in India.
 7

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review was done to determine the necessity of biodiesel and source
of biodiesel from various oil resources. Few papers which implement different biodiesel
production process with various conditions, methodologies and Engine Performance
and Emission Characteristics are discussed in this chapter.

Advancements in development and characterization of biodiesel: A review [8]

Y.C. Sharma et al., Review the latest aspects of development of biodiesel have
been discussed in this work. Yield of biodiesel is affected by molar ratio, moisture and
water content, reaction temperature, stirring, specific gravity, etc. Biodegradability,
kinetics involved in the process of biodiesel production, and its stability have been
critically reviewed. Emissions and performance of biodiesel has also been reported.
Result
Biodiesel is derived from a varied range of vegetable oil (edible and non-edible),
animal fats, used frying oil, waste cooking oil and wastewater. The edible oil in use at
present is soybean, sunflower, canola, palm. The non-edible oil used as feedstock for
biodiesel production includes J. curcas, P. pinnata, M. indica, F. elastica, A. indica, C.
inophyllum, etc. The main advantage in its usage is attributed to lesser exhaust
emissions in terms of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, particulate matter, polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbon compounds and nitrited polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon
compounds. Biodiesel is said to be carbon neutral as more of carbon dioxide is absorbed
by the biodiesel yielding plants than what is added to the atmosphere when used as fuel.
Exhaust emissions of NOx can be controlled by adopting certain strategies such as
 8

change in composition of feedstock, addition of cetane improvers, retardation of

injection timing, exhaust gas recirculation, etc.

Biodiesel Development from High Free Fatty Acid Punnakka Oil [7]

Ramaraju A. et al., investigated the punnakka oil Biodiesel production and said
that the acid esterification reduced the FFA content from 19.8% to 2%. The optimum
conditions for the reaction are, methanol to oil ratio of 0.65 v/v, catalyst concentration
o
of 0.75% v/v of oil, reaction temperature of 60 C, reaction time of 60 min and settling
time of 90 min. Then the product from this stage is transesterified using alkaline catalyst
to produce biodiesel. The optimum conditions of this stage are methanol to oil ratio of
o
o.2 v/v, catalyst concentration of 1.0% w/v of oil, reaction temperature of 60 C, reaction
time of 30 min and settling time of 60 min. Conversion efficiency of 92.5% is achieved
with these optimum conditions of reaction.

Callophyllum Inophyllum Lin (honne) Oil, A source for Biodiesel Production [10]
Chavan S.B. et al., is focused on the collection of seeds and oil extraction then
proceed for biodiesel production with molar ratio 8:1, KOH were 1.2wt%, tempreture
65oc, reaction time 90minutes were used and testing of parameters as per ASTM 6751
standards. The physical properties like acid value, density, Calorific value, Flash point,
Fire point and Moisture, Viscosity shows of calophyllum methyl esters
were0.702,892gm/cc, 37.18MJ/Kg, 1760c, 1820c and 0.01% . The physico-chemical
parameters showed that Calophyllum may works as a sustainable feedstock for
biodiesel production that is equivalent to fissile fuel as per ASTM 6751.

Non-edible vegetable oils: A critical evaluation of oil extraction, fatty acid

compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and
emissions production [13]
A.E. Atabani et al., investigated Non-edible vegetable oils extraction, fatty acid
compositions, biodiesel production, characteristics, engine performance and emissions
 9

production and concluded that numerous aspects linked to non-edible oil feedstocks
such as non-edible oil resources, advantages of nonedible oils, problems in exploitation
of non-edible oils, fatty acid composition profiles (FAC) of various non-edible oils, oil
extraction techniques, technologies of biodiesel production, properties and
characteristic of non-edible biodiesel and engine performance and emission
characteristics have been studied. The determined properties beside the engine
performance and emission characteristics of non-edible biodiesel covered in this review
indicated that there is a huge chance to produce biodiesel from non-edible sources in
the future.

Calophyllum inophyllum L. – A prospective non-edible biodiesel feedstock. Study

of biodiesel production, properties, fatty acid composition, blending and engine
performance [3]

A.E. Atabani et al., concluded crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil was to be

highly acidic. There fore,atwo-step of acid–base catalysed trans-esterification process
was used to produce biodiesel from this feedstock. The results of fatty acid composition
showed that(CCIO)is mainly dominated byC18:1 followed byC18:2,C18:0 and C16:0
acids. The fuel properties of Calophyllum inophyllum methyl ester (CIME) were
compared with literature and ASTMD6751 biodiesel standards .Blending of CIME with
diesel and other biodiesel feedstocks resulted in are mark able improvement in some
physical and chemical properties. For instance, blending Canola methyl ester (CME)and
Calophyllum inophyllum methylester(CIME) improved remarkably the cold flow
properties of CIME such as cloud, pour and cold filter plugging point. The summary of
engine performance and emission results of Calophyllum inophyllum methyl
ester(CIME)showed different trends. Some studies reported that higher percentage of
biodiesel tend to decrease brake power ,torque, CO and HC and increase BSFC and
NOx.
 10

Fuel Properties of Croton megalocarpus, Calophyllum inophyllum, and Cocos

nucifera (coconut) Methyl Esters and their Performance in a Multicylinder
Diesel Engine[13]
A. E. Atabani et al., investigated the the physical and chemical properties of
Croton megalocarpus, Calophyllum inophyllum and coconut methyl esters (CMME,
CIME, and COME) together with their 10 and 20% blends by volume (B10 and B20).
This is followed by evaluating their blends in a multicylinder Mitsubishi Pajero diesel
engine. It has been found that the properties of all biodiesel and their blends are
comparable with ASTM D6751 and ASTM D7467 standards, respectively. Over the
entire range of speed, it was found that the B10 and B20 blends of CMME, CIME, and
COME result in average reduction in torque and brake power (BP) along with increased
brake-specific fuel consumption (BSFC) compared to pure diesel fuel. With respect to
engine emissions, the fuel blends resulted in an average reduction in carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbon (HC) emissions. However, the CMME and COME blends
resulted in increased emissions of nitrogen oxides (NO) whereas CIME emits lower NO
compared to pure diesel. It is concluded that B10 and B20 biodiesel blends can be used
as diesel fuel substitutes without additional modifications.

Bio-diesel development process from Calophyllum Inophyllum Seeds[4]

K Ramesh et al., investigated the calophyllum inophyllum oil extracted from

the seeds. The oil (Honne oil) thus extracted was made to undergo the transesterification
process and conditioned. The transesterified oil is called as Honne Oil Methyl Ester
(HOME) Bio-diesel. HOME Bio-diesel properties are then compared with neat diesel.
Comparing the properties of Honne Oil Methyl Ester (HOME) Bio-diesel it is observed
that it may be used as an alternative fuel in internal combustion compression ignition
engines. It is noted that the bio-diesel blends comply with the American, German and
European Bio-diesel standards. The HOME Bio-diesel produced has been tested to
determine its properties and suitability for use in IC engines.
 11

Table 2.1.Summary of Literature Review

S.
Source Title of the Paper Process Result
No

Acid Catalyst :SZ 1.94% of the

Synthesis of
Biodiesel from Alkalin Catalyst:KOH acid value
Neem Oil Using Reduced
1. Brazilian Molar Ratio :9:1
Sulfated Zirconia 2.Conversion
via Temperature :65°C Efficiency:95
Tranesterification %
Time :2hr

Acid Catalyst :H2SO4 Its Fuel

property is
Biodiesel from Alkalin Catalyst :NaOH
with in the
Procedia Neem oil
2. Molar Ratio :6:1 Biodiesel
Engineeering alternative fuel for
Standards and
Diesel engine Temperature :60°C
Closer to
Time :6hr Diesel

Palm oil and

Calophyllum Acid Catalyst :H2SO4 B100 reduces
Inophyllum oil are Exhaust
Alkalin Catalyst:KOH
potential feed emission
3. IJMET Stocks for future Molar Ratio :4:1 compared with
Biodiesel in diesel
Temperature :60°C
Compression
Ignition Engines: A Time :3hr
Review

Effects of
Acid Catalyst :HCl
different
Research Biodiesel Alkalin Catalyst:NaOH parameters
Journal of production from such as
4 Molar Ratio :6:1
Chemical Jatropa oil and its temperature,
Sciences Characterization Temperature :60°C Reacant Ratio,
Catalyst varies
Time :3hr the Properties
 12

Acid Catalyst :H2SO4 1.Conversion

Biodiesel Alkalin Catalyst:KOH Efficiency:92.5
Development from %
5 APEN Molar Ratio :3:1
High free fatty acid 2.FFA reduced
Punnakka oil Temperature :60°C from 19.8% to
Time :3hr 2%

Calophylluminophyllu Acid Catalyst :H2SO4 1.It is Highly

m L. – A prospective Acidic, so
Renewable non-edible biodiesel Alkalin Catalyst:KOH Pretreatment is
and feedstock. Study of
6 Sustainable biodiesel production, Molar Ratio :12:1 Required
Energy properties, fattyacid
composition, blending Temperature :95°C 2.Better
Reviews Engine
and engine
performance. Time :2hr Performance
 13

CHAPTER III

CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM
3.1. Introduction:
The Calophyllum Inophyllum plants are widely dispersed throughout the tropics,
including the Indian Peninsula, Hawaiian and other pacific islands. They typically grow
into eight to twenty meters at maturity.[The common habitats include strand or low-
elevation riverine, 0–200 m (660 ft)in tropics, up to 800 m (2000 ft) at the equator; mean
annual temperatures 18–33°C (64–91°F); annual rainfall 1000– 5000 mm(40–200 in).
They are also commonly found on beaches and in coastal forests. They grow best in
sandy, well drained soils. They may initially grow up to 1 m (3.3 ft) in height per year
on good sites, although usually much more slowly. The agro forestry uses include
mixed-species woodlot, windbreak, and homegarden; with their main products of
timber and seed oil. Studies reveal that the annual yield of 100 kg (220 lb) nuts/tree/yr
yields 5kg (11 lb) of oil on an average. These trees have low potential for being invasive.

Figure 3.1 Calophyllum Inophyllum Tree

 14

3.2. Calophyllum inophyllum Common Names

Calophyllum inophyllum(kamani)Clusiaceae (syn. Guttiferae) (mangosteen

family), alexandrian laurel, beach mahogany, beauty leaf, poon, oil nut tree (english);
beach calophyllum (papua new guinea),biyuch(yap); btaches(palau); daog, daok(guam,
n. Marianas); dilo(fiji); eet(kosrae); feta‘u(tonga); fetau(samoa);isou(pohnpei); kamani,
kamanu(hawai‘i); lueg(marshalls); rakich(chuuk); tamanu(cook islands, society
islands,Marquesas); teitai(kiribati).

Figure 3.2. Distribution map of Calophyllum inophyllum around the world.

The species have been planted widely throughout the tropics and it is uncertain
from where it originates. It is believed to be indigenous to India, Malaysia, Indonesia
and the Philippines. It grows in areas with 1000–5000 mm rain per year at altitudes
from 0–200 m. It essentially falls to a group of coastal species that grows on sandy
beaches and, to a lesser extent, along river margins further inland. It is highly tolerant
to strong winds, salt spray and brackish water tables. The trees are sensitive to frost and
fire. The wind and salt tolerance makes it suitable for sand dune stabilization.
 15

Figure 3.3. Calophyllum Inophyllum Flowers

The fruits are used for human consumption although they are reported to be
slightly toxic. It is a medium- sized tree, normally up to 25 m tall, occasionally reaching
up to 35 m high and with diameter up to 1.50 m. The bowl is without buttresses; it is
usually twisted or leaning especially on wind exposed sites. It has sticky latex that is
either clear or white to yellowish. The fruit is a round drupe, 2–4 cm in diameter. The
single, large seed is surrounded by a shell (endocarp) and a thin, 3–5 mm layer of pulp.

Figure 3.4.Callophyllum Inophyllum Fruits

 16

The fruit is at first pinkish-green later turning into bright green and when ripe, it
turns dark grey-brown and wrinkled. There are about 100–200 seeds/kg. The tree can
flower and bear fruit all year round in Indian conditions and in Tamil Nadu and Mysore
(India) flowers usually appear in the cold season and fruits ripen in March. In Kerala
(India), flowers appear in March–April and fruits ripen in May–June, although both
flowers and fruits can be found at other times of the year. In Orissa (India), there are
two seasons, with flowering during May–June and October–November. In the Andaman
Islands (India), the tree will flower profusely during the rainy season and, to a lesser
extent, at other times of the year, with fruiting from June to august. The flowers are
pollinated by bees and other insects, and fruits are dispersed by sea currents and fruit
bats.

Biodiesel Productivity
8 Calophyllum
Inophyllum

7
Biodiesel Feedstoke

Jatropha
6 Cottonsee
d
5 Peanut
4 Sunflowe
r
3 Rapseed
2 Soyabean
1 Coconut
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Productivity (litres/hectare)

Figure 3.5. Biodiesel Productivity

The unrefined but filtered Honne oil is dark green in colour and is used as
feedstock for the biodiesel production in this study. The fatty acid composition and the
important properties of Honne oil in comparison with other non-edible oils is given in
Table I. The type and percentage of fatty acids contained in vegetable oils depend on
the plant species and on the growth conditions of the tree. Honne oil contains 24.96%
 17

saturated acids (palmitic and stearic) and 72.65% unsaturated acids (oleic, linoleic and
linolenic). Saturation fatty acid alkyl esters increase the cloud point, cetane number and
stability. The free fatty acid content of unrefined filtered honne oil was found to be 22%
and Acid value greater than 44 mg KOH/g. Its free fatty acid content was determined
by standard titrimetric method. The yield of esterification process and quality of
biodiesel decreases considerably if acid value is greater than 4 mg KOH/g, i.e. Free
fatty acid content is 2%. Therefore, development of method to produce biodiesel from
high acid value oils is significant. Efforts have been made to esterify a typical high free
fatty acid type of oil, Honne oil in this study.

Table 3.1.Physical Properties of Callophyllum Inophyllum

S.No Property Unit Value

1 Color - Greenish yellow
2 Odor - Disagreeable
3 Density at 15oC gm/cc 910
4 Kinematic Viscosity at 40oC cSt 38.17
5 Free Fatty Acid mgKOH/g 28.16
6 Moisture % 12
7 Calorific Value MJ/Kg 32.50
8 Specific Gravity - 0.908
o
9 Flash Point C 224
o
10 Fire Point C 253

3.3. Callophyllum Inophyllum Uses:

1. 1.The seeds yield a thick, dark green tamanu oil for medicinal use or hair grease.
The first neoflavone isolated in 1951 from natural sources was calophyllolide
from C. inophyllum seeds.
 18

2. The fatty acid methyl esters derived from C. inophyllum seed oil meets the major
biodiesel requirements in the United States (ASTM D 6751), and European
Union (EN 14214). The average oil yield is 11.7 kg-oil/tree or 4680 kg-
oil/hectare.
3. In the northwest coastal areas of Luzon island in Philippines, the oil was used
for night lamps.
4. This widespread use started to decline when kerosene became available, and later
on electricity.
5. It was also used as fuel to generate electricity to provide power for radios during
World War II.
6. In Southern India, the oil of the seeds of the plant is used specifically for treating
skin diseases.
7. It is also applied topically in cases of rheumatism. The oil may have been useful
in waterproofing cloth and is used as a varnish.
8. An extract from the fruit was once used to make a brown dye to colour cloth.
The oil can also be used to make soap.
9. In the most of the South Sea islands, tamanu or sultan champa oil is used as an
analgesic medicine(natives use it in frictions for sciatica and rhematism) and to
cure ulcers and bad wounds.
10. A farmer in Nagappattinam district of Tamil Nadu has successfully used the oil
as biodiesel to run his 5-hp pump set.

3.4.Advantages of Calophyllum inophyllum:

There are many advantages of using Calophylluminophyllum L. some of the
advantages are as follows :
1. Calophyllum inophyllum has high survival potency in nature, still productive
upto 50years.
2. It does not compete with food crops.
3. Its trees serve as wind breaker at the seashore where it can reduce abrasion ,
protect crops and provide ecotourism and conservation of coastal demarcation.
 19

4. It has higher oil yield than Jatropha curcas (Table3.2).

5. It has high heating value.
6. Its biodiesel meets the US ASTMD6751 and European Union EN
14214biodieselstandards.
7. Its biodiesel can be used as a potential substitute for diesel as other plant / seed
feedstocks have been used or proposed to be used.
8. Its biodiesel is compatible with diesel and possesses better lubrication capability.

Table 3.2.Oil content of some potential feedstock for biodiesel

Oil wt% Oil yield
Feedstock Source
dry (kg/ha/year)
Nyamplung
40–
(Calophyllum Seed kernel 4680
73/60–64
inophyllum)
Palm oil (Elais 45–
PulpþKernel 4000–6000
guineensis) 70/46–54
Coconut (Cocos
Kernel 60–70 -
nucifera)
Physic nut (Jatropha
Seed kernel 40–60 1900–2500
curcas)
Pongam (Pongamia
Seed 27–39 225–2250
pinnata)
Rubber seed (Hevea
Seed 40–50 40–50
brasiliensis)
Kelor (Moringa
Seed 30–49 –
oleifera)
Euphorbia lathyris L. Seed 48 1500–2500
Castor (Ricinus
Seed 43–45 500-100
communis)
Sunflower (Helianthus
Seed 38–48 500–1500
annus)
Soybean Seed 17 200–600
Colza (Brassica
Seed 40–48 500–900
campestris)
 20

CHAPTER IV

OIL EXTRACTION FROM CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM SEEDS

4.1. Oil Extraction:

The production of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil was carried out in the following
order.

Drying

Shelling

Milling

Determination of
Moisture Content

Heating

Pressing

Filteration

Figure 4.1. Oil Extraction Flow Chart

 21

1. Drying
The seeds collected were made to dry under hot sun, causing the inner seeds to
detach from the outer shell.
2. Shelling
The shelling process is to remove the seed coat of the calophyllum inophyllum
seeds. It was carried out manually. This process was tiresome and needs automation.
3. Milling
The unshelled seeds were milled into dough by using the corn milling machine.
Not much difficulties were faced during this process.
4. Determining Moisture Content
The moisture content was determined and was found to be more than 12
percentage by Karl Fischer titration method. The water was to be removed to achieve
12% moisture content.
5. Heating
Heating of the seeds was done in an oven. The temperature was raised to 80-
85oC, so as to remove the moisture content completely. The heated dough is thus free
from moisture.
6. Pressing
Pressing was done by using an Oil press and the Honne oil was extracted from
the dough and taken for filteration.
7. Filteration
The oil was collected and filtered using coarse and fine filters. Thus removing
the finest dust and slag particles left over the pressing process.
 22

(a) (b)

(c)
Fig 4.2. Biodiesel Extraction
(a) Fresh Fruit, (b) Dried Seeds, (c) Extracted oil
 23

CHAPTER V

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM CALOPHYLLUM INOPHYLLUM OIL

5. Biodiesel Production
According to production of biodiesel from crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil was
suggested to be as follows:
1) Pre-treatment process (acid catalyzed esterification)

2) Alkali catalyzed transesterification process;

3) Post-treatment process.

5.1. Pre-treatment process

In this process, crude Calophyllum inophyllum oil (CCIO) was entered in a rotary
evaporator and heated to remove moisture for 1 h at 95OC under vacuum.

5.2. Transesterification of Vegetable Oils

In transesterification of vegetable oils, a triglyceride reacts with three molecules of
alcohol in the presence of catalyst, producing a mixture of fatty acids alkyl esters and
glycerol (Fig. 5.4).
Oils (triglycerides) + Methanol → Biodiesel + Glycerol
 24

Figure 5.1.Transesterification reaction of a triglyceride

The overall process is a sequence of three consecutive reactions, in which die- and
monoglycerides are formed as intermediates. Transesterification is a reversible reaction
thus; excess alcohol is used to increase the yields of the alkyl esters and to allow its
phase separation from the glycerol formed.

Conversion of vegetable oil to biodiesel is effected by several parameters namely

(i) Time of reaction,

(ii) Reactant ratio (Molar ratio of alcohol to vegetable oil),

(iii) Type of catalyst,

(iv) Amount of catalyst, and

(v) Temperature of reaction.

 25

Figure 5.2.Tranesterification Process

5.3. Acid Catalyzed Transesterification

Transesterification is catalyzed by Bronsted acids. These catalysts give very high
yields in alkyl esters, but the rate of reaction is slow, requiring, typically, temperatures
above 100 °C and more than 3h to reach complete conversion. H2SO4 is a commonly
used acid catalyst. Figure 5.3 gives the mechanism of an acid catalyzed process.
 26

Figure 5.3. Mechanism of an acid catalyzed process

5.4.Base Catalyzed Transesterification

The base-catalysed transesterification of vegetable oils proceeds faster than the
acid-catalysed reaction. Because of above reason, together with fact that the bases are
less corrosive than acidic catalyst, industrial processes usually use base catalysts such
as, alkaline metal alkoxides and hydroxides as well as sodium or potassium carbonates.
The mechanism of the base-catalysed transesterification of vegetable oils is shown in
Figure 5.4. Alkaline metal alkoxides (for the transesterfication) are the most active
catalysts, since they give very high yields in short reaction times even if they are applied
at low molar concentrations. However, they require absence of water, which makes
them inappropriate for typical industrial processes. Alkaline metal hydroxides (KOH
and NaOH) are cheaper than metal alkoxides, but less active. Undesirable side reaction
(saponification) reduces the ester yields and makes the recovery of the glycerol difficult
due to the formation of emulsions. For this study, base (KOH, Base catalyzed process)
has been used as catalyst.
 27

Figure 5.4. Mechanism of a base catalysed process

 28

CHAPTER VI

EXPERIMENTAL SETUP AND TRANESTERIFICATION PROCEDURE

6.1.Experimental Setup
Reaction or transesterfication was carried out in a system, as shown in Figure
6.1. Reactor consisted of spherical flask, which was put inside the heat jacket. Oil was
used as medium of heat transfer from heat jacket to the reactor. Thermostat was a part
of heat jacket, which maintained the temperature of oil and in turn the temperature of
the reactants at a desired value. The reaction was carried out at around 65- 70°C.
Spherical flask consisted of four openings. The center one was used for putting stirrer
in the reactor. The motor propelled the stirrer. Thermometer was put inside the second
opening to continuously monitor the temperature of the reaction. Alcohol being volatile
vaporized during the reaction so the condenser was put in the third opening to reflux
the vapours back to the reactor to prevent any reactant loss. Fourth opening was used
for filling reactants to the reactor.

6.2. Experimental Procedure

A known quantity of oil (100 mL for each run) was taken inside the reactor and
heated at about 70 °C. This temperature was maintained throughout the reaction by the
thermostat inside the heat jacket. Preheating was used to remove unwanted moisture
present in the oil. The transesterification was carried out in basic medium and to achieve
it, KOH was used as catalyst. Catalyst was dissolved in alcohol (MeOH). Once the oil
temperature reached 70 °C, alcohol solution (containing dissolved catalyst) was added
to the reactor and an equilibrium temperature was maintained. During the reaction
 29

alcohol gets vaporized. To prevent any reactant loss condenser was used to condense
the alcohol vapour and reflux it back into the reactor. Condenser was also helpful in
maintaining atmospheric pressure inside the reactor (Figure 6.1). Once reaction was
over the products were taken out through the outlet in the lower side of the reactor and
put in the separating funnel. Two phases (having different density) are formed as a result
of transesterification. Separation was done using a separating funnel (separation took
around two hours). Upper layer consisted of biodiesel, alcohol, and some soap (formed
as a result of side reaction saponification – free fatty acids get converted to soap). Lower
layer consisted of glycerin, excess alcohol, catalyst, impurities, and traces of unreacted.

1 Iron Stand 6 Closed Neck

2 Condenser 7 Three neck Flask
3 Thermometer 8 Magnetic Stirrer
4 Coolant in 9 Magnetic Stirrer Controller
5 Coolant out 10 Temperature Controller
Figure 6.1. Experimental Setup

Purification of upper layer (to obtain biodiesel) was done in two steps.

(i) Removal of alcohol - by keeping mixture at elevated temperature ~80 °C

 30

(ii) Removal saponified products - by washing with warm water. Water is

immiscible with biodiesel, hence can be easily separated from biodiesel.

Figure 6.2. Biodiesel Production at Various Stages

6.3. Separation
After the transesterification process, the biodiesel layer is separated from the
glycerin layer, both undergo purification. The upper layer consists of biodiesel, alcohol
and some soap. The evaporation of water and alcohol gives 80-88 %pure glycerin,
which can be sold as crude glycerin is distilled by simple distillation. After completion
of transesterification process, the mixture is allowed to settle under gravity for overnight
separation in a separating funnel. The products developed during transesterification
process were Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester and Glycerin. The bottom layer
consists of Glycerin, excess catalyst, alcohol, impurities and traces of unreacted oil.

Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester (biodiesel) is mixed and washed with hot
distilled water to eliminate the unreacted alcohol; oil and catalyst and permitted to settle
under gravity for 24 hours. The separated biodiesel is taken for characterization.
 31

Figure 6.3. Biodiesel Separating Funnel

6.4. Acid catalyzed Esterification (Acid pretreatment) Procedure:

The method of acid transesterification is listed below:

1. The Calophyllum Inophyllum oil of 200ml is taken

2. It is heated at 60°C for about 10 min and mixed with 60 ml of methanol

3. To the mixture 2ml of concentrated H2SO4 was added.

4. Then the mixture was stirred on magnetic hot plate for 1 h at 50°C

5. it was allowed to settle for 2 h.

6. The pre-treated oil was separated from the methanol - water phase at the
top.
 32

6.5. Base catalyzed transesterification Procedure

The method of base catalysed transesterification is listed below

1. The pretreated oil was measured (200ml) and taken in beaker.

2. Methanol of 50 ml was taken and added to it.

3. The mixture is heated on the magnetic stirrer at a temperature of 60°c.

4. The agitation rate is kept at 1000 rpm.

5. A solution of NaOH in methanol (1%) was dissolved at room temperature

and the pretreated oil was added.
6. The reaction was allowed for a period of 2h.

7. The resulting mixture was poured into a separating funnel and allowed to
settle under gravity for 24 hr for separation of biodiesel.
8. The lower glycerol layer was tapped off.
 33

Figure 6.4. Tranesterified Biodiesel

 34

CHAPTER VII

PROPERTIES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF BIODIESEL

7.1.Introduction

Considerable efforts have been made to develop non-edible oil derivatives that
approximate the properties and performance of biodiesel fuels . Criteria for determining
properties of nonedible biodiesel are now becoming a relevant subject due to the
increase in alternative fuels worldwide.

7.2. Kinematic viscosity

Viscosity is defined as the resistance of liquid to flow. It refers to the thickness

of the oil, and is determined by measuring the amount of time taken for a given measure
of oil to pass through an orifice of a specified size. Kinematic viscosity is the most
important property of biodiesel since it affects the operation of fuel injection equipment,
particularly at low temperatures when an increase in viscosity affects the fluidity of the
fuel . Moreover, high viscosity may lead to the formation of soot and engine deposits
due to insufficient fuel atomization. It has been shown that the viscosity oil methyl
esters decrease sharply after transesterification processes of biodiesel.

7.3. Density

Density is the relationship between the mass and volume of a liquid or a solid
and can be expressed in units of grams per liter (g/L). The density of diesel oil is
 35

important because it gives an indication of the delay between the injection and
combustion of the fuel in a diesel engine (ignition quality) and the energy per unit mass
(specific energy). This can influences the efficiency of the fuel atomization for airless
combustion systems.

7.4.Flash point (FP)

Flash point is another important property for biodiesel fuel. Flash point of a fuel
is the temperature at which it will ignite when exposed to a flame or a spark. Flash point
varies inversely with the fuel’s volatility. The flash point is the lowest temperature at
which fuel emits enough vapors to ignite. Biodiesel has a high flash point which is
usually more than 150OC, while generally conventional diesel fuel has a flash point of
55–66OC

7.5. Cetane number

The CN is a measure of the ignition quality of diesel fuel during combustion

ignition. It provides information about the ignition delay (ID) time of a diesel fuel upon
injection into the combustion chamber. High CN implies short ignition delay. Fuels
with low CN tend to cause diesel knocking and show increased gaseous and particulate
exhaust emissions (PM) due to incomplete combustion. Moreover, excessive engine
deposits are reported. Cetane number (CN) is based on two compounds which are
hexadecane with a CN of 100 and heptamethylnonane with a CN of 15. The CN of
biodiesel is generally higher than diesel fuels.

7.6. Calorific value

Calorific value is an important parameter in the selection of a fuel. Calorific

value is amount of heat energy liberated during combustion process. The caloric value
of biodiesel is lower than of diesel because of its higher oxygen content.
 36

Table 7.1.Summary of some important characteristics of biodiesel

Fuel characteristic Effects

Viscosity 1. Proper viscosity of fuel required for proper operation
of an engine
2. Important for flow of oil through pipelines, injector
nozzles and orifices.
3. Effective atomization of fuel in the
cylinder requires limited range of viscosity of
the fuel to avoid excessive pumping pressures
Specific gravity 1. It is required for the conversion of measured volumes
to volumes at standard temperature of 15 1C
2. It is used in the calculation of cetane index
Heat of combustion 1. To measure of energy available in a fuel
2. A critical property of fuel intended for use in weight-
limited vehicles
Cetane number 1. To measure of ignition quality of diesel fuels
2. The high cetane number implies short ignition delay
3. Higher molecular weight normal alkanes have high
cetane numbers
4. It influences both gaseous and particulate emissions.
5. The cetane index which is very close to cetane number
is calculated based on 10%, 50%, 90% distillation
temperatures and specific gravity
6. The fuels with high auto ignition temperatures are
more likely to cause diesel knock
 37

CHAPTER VIII

BIODIESEL STANDERDS AND BLENDS

8.1. Biodiesel Standers

Biodiesel fuel quality depends upon composition of feedstock, production

process, storage and handling. Biodiesel quality is evaluated through the determination
of chemical composition and physical properties of the fuel. Contaminants and other
minor components due to incomplete reaction are the major issues in the quality of
biodiesel i.e., glycerol, mono, di, triglycerides, alcohol, catalysts and free fatty acid
present in the biodiesel. Moreover, biodiesel composition could be changed during
storage and handling. Biodiesel can absorb water or undergoes oxidation during storage.
Therefore, significance of these parameters and their analytical or engine test methods
are addressed in standards. Each country has its own fuel quality testing methods and
standards to specify the properties of the fuel. Here the standard methods and limits are
described with reference to ASTM / EN/ IS standards. In India, IS 15607 specifies the
properties of biodiesel, B100 is given in Table 8.1.

Table 8.1 Biodiesel specification

S.No Fuel properties Unit Diesel Biodiesel
1 Fuel standard ASTM D 975 ASTM D 6751
2 Fuel composition C 10- 21 HC C 12- 22 FAME
3 Lower heating value MJ/kg 42.52 37.12
4 Kinematic viscosity at cSt 1.3-4.1 1.9-6.0
40°C
 38

5 Density at 15°C kg/m3 848 878

6 Water, by wt. ppm 161 0.05% max.
7 Carbon wt (%) 87 77
8 Hydrogen wt (%) 13 12
9 Oxygen wt (%) 0 11
10 Sulphur wt (%) 0.05 max. 0
11 Boiling point °C 188 to 343 182 to 338
12 Flash point °C 60 to 80 100 to 170
13 Cloud point °C -15 to 5 -3 to 12
14 Pour point °C -35 to -15 -15 to 16
15 Cetane number 40 to 55 48 to 60
16 Auto ignition temperature °C 316 N.A

8.2. Biodiesel Blends:

Biodiesel is mono-alkyl ester made from natural and renewable vegetable oil and
animal fats based feedstock. The data indicates that the biodiesel is compatible with
petroleum diesel and can be blended in any proportion with diesel to create suitable
biodiesel blend. The blending of biodiesel with diesel is expressed as Bxx where xx
indicates the percentage of biodiesel in the blend For example B20 blend is made by
mixing 20% biodiesel with 80% diesel which can be used in CI engine with no
modification with comparable power output.

 5 different blends were made. The proportions were as follows:

1. B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel

2. B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel

3. B60-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel

4. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel

 39

5. B100-100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil

Figure 8.1. Calophyllum Inophyllum Biodiesel at different Blends

After Blend:

1. Calorific value increased with increasing percentage of diesel.

2. Kinematic viscosity and density also decreased with the increasing percentage of
diesel.
 40

8.3. ITA Lab Reports

8.3.1 B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel

Figure 8.2. B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel
 41

8.3.2 B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel

Figure 8.3. B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel
 42

8.3.3. B60-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel

Figure 8.4. B60-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel
 43

8.3.4. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel

Figure 8.5. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel
 44

8.3.5 B100- 100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Viscosity and Calorific Value

Figure 8.6. B100-100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Viscosity and
Calorific value
 45

8.3.6. B100- 100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Properties

Figure 8.7. B100- 100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil Properties
 46

Table 8.2. Calophyllum Inophyllum Biodiesel Properties at different Blends

Fuel Properties Unit B20 B40 B60 B80 B100 Diesel

Density @15OC Kg/m3 847.6 854.6 857.5 867.3 868.6 840

Kinematic Viscosity @40 OC cSt 2.85 3.03 3.3 3.54 3.7 3.12
O
Flash Point* C 30 28 26 26 24 25
O
Fire Point* C 40 38 36 36 34 36

Calorific Value MJ 43.86 41.21 40.13 39.02 36.86 44.34

Cetane Number 56 55 54 53 52 48
*by Pensky Martens Closed Cup(PMCC) Method
 47

CHAPTER IX

PERFORMANCE CHARACTERTICS

9.1. Engine Specification:

Maker :Kirloskar
Number of Cylinder : Single
Rated Power :3.5kW at 1500rpm
Bore Diameter : 87.5mm
Stroke Length : 110mm
Dynamometer Arm length : 0.185m

Figure 9.1.Engine Setup

Engine performance is an indication of the degree of success of the engine

performs its assigned task, i.e. the conversion of the chemical energy contained in the
fuel into the useful mechanical work. The performance of an engine is evaluated on the
basis of the following :
 48

(a) Specific Fuel Consumption.

(b) Brake Mean Effective Pressure.
(c) Specific Power Output.
(d) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.

The particular application of the engine decides the relative importance of these
performance parameters.
For the evaluation of an engine performance few more parameters are chosen
and the effect of various operating conditions, design concepts and modifications on
these parameters are studied. The basic performance parameters are the following :
(a) Power and Mechanical Efficiency.
(b) Mean Effective Pressure and Torque.
(c) Specific Output.
(d) Volumetric Efficiency.
(e) Fuel-air Ratio.
(f) Specific Fuel Consumption.
(g) Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance.
(h) Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions.

9.2. Power and Mechanical Efficiency

The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
• Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force
and linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity.
• Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque)
as well as speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and
the speed by a tachometer.

The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the
brake power (bp) and is given by,
 49

where,
T is torque in N-m and
N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.

The total power developed by combustion of fuel in the combustion chamber is,
however, more than the bp and is called indicated power (ip). Of the power developed
by the engine, i.e. ip, some power is consumed in overcoming the friction between
moving parts, some in the process of inducting the air and removing the products of
combustion from the engine combustion chamber.

Indicated Power
It is the power developed in the cylinder and thus, forms the basis of evaluation of
combustion efficiency or the heat release in the cylinder.

where,
pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine), and
k = Number of cylinders.
Thus, we see that for a given engine the power output can be measured in terms of mean
effective pressure.
 50

The difference between the ip and bp is the indication of the power lost in the
mechanical components of the engine (due to friction) and forms the basis of
mechanical efficiency; which is defined as follows :

The difference between ip and bp is called friction power (fp).

fp = ip − bp

9.3. Mean Effective Pressure and Torque

Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical/average pressure which is
assumed to be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke. Therefore,

where,
Pm = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
Ip = Indicated power, Watt,
L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2,
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm (It is N/2 for four stroke engine),and
k = Number of cylinders.
If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called the brake mean effective
pressure (bmep Pmb replace ip by bp in Eq. 5.5), and if based on ihp it is called indicated
mean effective pressure (imep). Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (fmep)
can be defined as,
fmap = imep – bmep
 51

The torque is related to mean effective pressure by the relation

Thus, the torque and the mean effective pressure are related by the engine size.
A large engine produces more torque for the same mean effective pressure. For this
reason, torque is not the measure of the ability of an engine to utilize its displacement
for producing power from fuel. It is the mean effective pressure which gives an
indication of engine displacement utilization for this conversion. Higher the mean
effective pressure, higher will be the power developed by the engine for a given
displacement. Again we see that the power of an engine is dependent on its size and
speed. Therefore, it is not possible to compare engines on the basis of either power or
torque. Mean effective pressure is the true indication of the relative performance of
different engines.

9.4. Specific Output

Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per unit of
piston displacement and is given by,
 52

• The specific output consists of two elements – the bmep (force) available to work and
the speed with which it is working.
• Therefore, for the same piston displacement and bmep an engine operating at higher
speed will give more output.
• It is clear that the output of an engine can be increased by increasing either speed or
bmep. Increasing speed involves increase in the mechanical stress of various engine
parts whereas increasing bmep requires better heat release and more load on engine
cylinder.

9.5. Volumetric Efficiency

Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree
to which the engine fills its swept volume. It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air
inducted into the engine cylinder during the suction stroke to the mass of the air
corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at atmospheric pressure and
temperature. Alternatively, it can be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled
during suction stroke measured at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.

The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric
efficiency of an engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be
efficiently burned and the power output. For supercharged engine the volumetric
efficiency has no meaning as it comes out to be more than unity.

9.6. Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)

Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-
air mixture. Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio of the
mixture affects the combustion phenomenon in that it determines the flame propagation
velocity, the heat release in the combustion chamber, the maximum temperature and the
completeness of combustion. Relative fuel-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual
 53

fuel-air ratio to that of the stoichiometric fuel-air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied.
Stoichiometric fuel-air ratio is the ratio of fuel to air is one in which case fuel is
completely burned due to minimum quantity of air supplied.

9.7. Brake Specific Fuel Consumption

Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each
unit of brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with
which the engine develops power from fuel.

This parameter is widely used to compare the performance of different engines.

9.8. Thermal Efficiency and Heat Balance

Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the
chemical energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated
output. It is the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel
(input) is converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for
combustion efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is
not converted into heat energy during combustion.

where,
Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and
mf = Mass of fuel supplied, kg/sec.
 54

9.9. Performance Characteristics

Table 9.1. B20-20% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 80% Diesel

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Mechanical Specific Fuel
Load Thermal Thermal
Power Power Efficiency Consumption
Efficiency Efficiency
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr

0 0.12 4.24 2.33 81 2.88 3.68

1.5 0.54 3.69 8.74 90.81 14.7 0.64
3.05 0.88 5.11 13.82 79.93 17.29 0.62
4.56 1.35 3.67 21.14 78.58 26.91 0.41
6.13 1.8 4.2 22.16 73.73 30.05 0.39
7.5 2.2 4.57 26.99 83.22 32.44 0.32
8 2.53 4.88 29.02 85.05 34.12 0.3

Table 9.2. B40-40% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 60% Diesel

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr
0 0.06 2.66 1.22 57.27 2.14 3.84
1.6 0.47 2.96 9.05 56.68 15.96 0.95
3.04 0.9 3.63 15.49 62.48 24.79 0.55
4.5 1.32 4.54 20.69 71.07 29.12 0.41
6.12 1.79 5.6 23.71 74.2 31.96 0.36
7.49 2.19 6.87 25.16 78.84 31.92 0.34
8.87 2.49 7.1 26.79 76.36 35.08 0.32
 55

Table 9.3. B20-60% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 40% Diesel

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr

0 0.08 2.33 2.16 50.16 4.31 3.97

1.57 0.47 2.91 7.31 45.59 16.03 1.17
3.16 0.64 3.64 13.42 52.27 25.67 0.64
4.51 1.33 5.12 17.59 67.77 25.95 0.49
6.04 1.77 5.29 23.45 70 33.5 0.37
7.44 2.18 6.77 23.41 72.78 32.16 0.37
8.82 2.48 6.71 23.72 64.15 36.97 0.36

Table 9.1. B80-80% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil + 20% Diesel

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr

0 0.3 2.33 1.9 40.1 4.73 4.52

1.56 0.46 2.84 7.92 48.91 16.2 1.08

2.94 0.87 3.27 13.65 51.15 26.69 0.63

4.5 1.32 3.86 17.54 51.08 34.33 0.49

6.05 1.77 4.95 23.39 65.59 35.66 0.37

7.53 2.2 6.78 25.23 77.77 32.44 0.34

8.82 2.55 7.67 27.41 82.49 33.22 0.31

 56

Table 9.5. B100-100% methyl ester of Calophyllum Inophyllum oil

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr

0.13 0.04 2.35 0.84 50.52 1.65 10.26

1.54 0.46 3.02 7.85 51.92 15.12 1.09
2.97 0.88 3.42 13.7 53.44 25.64 0.63
4.54 1.34 4.15 16.44 51.06 28.64 0.52
6.3 1.77 4.95 19.97 65.59 31.6 0.39
7.52 2.19 6.74 22.16 68.23 32.2 0.36
9.02 2.6 7.8 23.56 70.69 33.33 0.33

Table 9.6. Diesel Performance

Break Indicated
Break Indicated Thermal Thermal Mechanical Specific Fuel
load Power Power Efficiency Efficiency Efficiency Consumption
Kg kW kW % % % Kg/kW hr

0.1 0.06 3.33 1.23 71.63 1.72 6.97

1.49 0.44 4.28 8.4 81.84 10.26 1.02
3.08 0.9 4.64 17.26 88.83 19.43 0.5
4.57 1.33 4.8 22.95 82.62 27.77 0.37
6.32 1.86 5.21 25.24 83.2 33.54 0.29
7.75 2.25 5.84 29.8 82.5 38.54 0.27
9.05 2.62 6.66 32.17 81.93 39.26 0.25
 57

Performance Characteristics:
1. Break Power vs Break Thermal Efficiency
2. Break Power vs Specific Fuel Consumption
3. Break Power vs Volumetric Efficiency
4. Break Power vs Exhaust gas temperature

9.9.1. Break Power vs Break Thermal Efficiency

Break Power vs Break Thermal Efficiency

35
Break Thermal Efficiency(%)

30
25 Diesel
20 B100
15 B80

10 B60
B40
5
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 9.2. Break Power vs Break Thermal Efficiency

 58

9.9.2. Break Power vs Specific Fuel Consumption

Break Power vs SFC

12
Specific Fuel Consumption(kg/kW h)

10

8 Diesel
B100
6
B80
4 B60
B40
2 B20

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 9.3. Break Power vs Specific Fuel Consumption

9.9.3 Break Power vs Volumetric Efficiency

Break Power Vs Valumetric Efficiency

82
Volumetric Efficiency(%)

81
Diesel
80 B100
79 B80
B60
78
B40
77 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Load(kg)

Figure 9.4. Break Power vs Volumetric Efficiency

 59

9.9.4 Break Power vs Exhaust gas temperature

Break Power vs Exhaust Tempeture

200
Exhaust Temperature(°C)

150 DIESEL
B100
100
B80
B60
50
B40
0 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 9.5.Break Power vs Exhaust gas temperature

 60

CHAPTER X

EMISSION CHARACTERISTICS

10.1. Emission Analysis:

Engine Emissions:
-Exhaust Emissions
-Non-Exhaust Emissions

10.2. Exhaust Smoke and Other Emissions

Smoke and other exhaust emissions such as oxides of nitrogen, unburned
hydrocarbons, etc. are nuisance for the public environment. With increasing emphasis
on air pollution control all efforts are being made to keep them as minimum as it could
be.

Smoke is an indication of incomplete combustion. It limits the output of an engine if air

pollution control is the consideration. Exhaust emissions have of late become a matter
of grave concern and with the enforcement of legislation on air pollution in many
countries; it has become necessary to view them as performance parameters.

Exhaust Emissions:
-Unburnt Hydrocarbons(HC)
-Oxides of Carbon(CO,CO2)
-Oxides of Nitrogen(NO,NO2)
-Oxides of Sulphur(SO2,SO3)
-Particulates, Soot and Smoke
 61

10.2.1. HC emissions
Unburned HCs mainly result from the incomplete combustion of fuel and flame
quenching in crevice regions of the engine and at cylinder walls.

10.2.2. CO emissions
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic gas formed from the incomplete combustion
of any fuel that does not contain oxygen. Generally, several factors such as engine
speed, air/fuel ratio, injection pressure, injection timing, and type of fuel have an effect
on CO emissions.

10.2.3. NO Emission
Nox Emission Created mostly from nitrogen in the air. Nitrogen can also be found
in the fuel blends.
1. Biodiesel is an oxygenated fuel that contains 11–12% more oxygen in its
molecular structure. This causes higher adiabatic flame temperatures and helps
to achieve more complete combustion and therefore higher NO emissions for
biodiesel blends.
2. Biodiesel naturally contains more double-bonded molecules than diesel. These
double-bonded molecules have slightly higher adiabatic flame temperatures,
which cause the increase in NO emissions for biodiesel blends.
3. Radiation from soot formation in the flame zone is a major source of heat transfer
away from the flame, and therefore it can lower bulk flame temperatures by 25–
125 K, depending on the amount of soot produced at the engine operating
conditions.

10.3. Emission Characteristics

1. Brake Power Vs Carbon monoxide
2. Brake Power Vs Unburn Hydro Carbon
3. Brake Power Vs NOX
 62

4. Brake Power Vs CO2

10.3.1. Brake Power Vs Carbon monoxide Emission

Table 10.1 Brake Power Vs Carbon monoxide Emission

Carbon monoxide Emission (% vol)

Break
Diesel B100 B80 B60 B40 B20
Power(kW)
0 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03
0.45 0.02 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.03 0.03
0.9 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02
1.35 0.01 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02
1.8 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02
2.25 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01 0.01
2.7 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01

Break Power vsCO Emission

0.06
CO Emission(% vol)

0.05
0.04 Diesel
B100
0.03
B80
0.02 B60
0.01 B40
0 B20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 10.1. Break Power vs CO Emission

 63

10.3.2. Brake Power Vs Unburn Hydro Carbon Emission

Table 10.2. Brake Power Vs Unburn Hydro Carbon Emission

Unburn Hydro Carbon Emission (ppm)

Bp Diesel B100 B80 B60 B40 B20
0 12 30 37 25 16 12
0.45 11 24 34 23 12 12
0.9 9 23 33 21 16 7
1.35 7 18 29 19 12 10
1.8 4 16 28 15 7 9
2.25 2 14 17 12 7 7
2.7 2 13 16 12 7 7

Break Power vs HC Emission

40
35
HC Emission(ppm)

30
Diesel
25
B100
20
B80
15
B60
10
B40
5
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 10.2. Brake Power Vs Unburn Hydro Carbon Emission

 64

10.3.3. Brake Power Vs NOX Emission

Table 10.3. Brake Power Vs NOX Emission

NOX Emission(ppm)
Bp Diesel B100 B80 B60 B40 B20

0 65 52 57 63 62 69

0.45 73 78 80 88 79 73

0.9 84 109 99 113 102 89

1.35 110 141 130 144 120 115

1.8 134 168 168 171 149 148

2.25 186 223 233 222 213 219

2.7 203 264 263 278 263 260

Break Power vs NOX Emission

300

250
NOX Emissio(ppm)

200 Diesel
B100
150
B80
100 B60
50 B40
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 10.3. Brake Power Vs NOX Emission

 65

10.3.4. Brake Power Vs CO2 Emission

Table 10.4. Brake Power Vs CO2 Emission

CO2 Emission (%vol)

Bp Diesel B100 B80 B60 B40 B20
0 0.7 0.9 1.18 1 0.9 1
0.45 0.7 1.1 1.2 1.2 1.1 1.2
0.9 0.8 1.2 1.3 1.3 1.2 1.2
1.35 0.8 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.3 1.3
1.8 0.9 1.4 1.5 1.4 1.4 1.4
2.25 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.4 1.5
2.7 1 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.5 1.5

Break Power vs CO2 Emission

1.8
1.6
CO2 Emission(% vol)

1.4
1.2 Diesel
1 B100
0.8 B80
0.6 B60
0.4
B40
0.2
B20
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Break Power(kW)

Figure 10.4. Brake Power Vs CO2 Emission

 66

CHAPTER XI

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

11.1. Conclusion
In the present investigation, it has confirmed that Calophyllum Inophyllum oil
used as resource to obtain biodiesel. That seeds having more oil content. The extracted
oil has more Free Fatty Acids (FFA) about 19%. The calophyllum inophyllum oil
having more viscosity, so it needed two step of esterification. The best combination of
the parameters was found as 6:1 molar ratio of Methanol to oil, 9 gram of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) catalyst, 60⁰C reaction temperature. The viscosity of Calophyllum
Inophyllum oil reduced considerably after transesterification and is comparable to
diesel. The experimental result shows that base catalyzed transesterification is a
promising area of research for the production of biodiesel in large scale.
Biodiesel characteristics like kinematic viscosity, density, flash point, fire point,
calorific value and cetane number are comparable to diesel. The pure biodiesel (B100)
had almost nearer Kinematic viscosity and Calorifc value to diesel. The Calophyllum
Inophyllum Methyl Ester (CIME) biodiesel it is observed that it may be used as the
alternative fuel in Internal Combustion (IC) engine without any changes. The
performance results shows that the B20 blend also gives good performance. So we can
use B20 blend in our commercial life, but the biodiesel gives more NOX emission.

11.2. Future Work

Calophyllum Inophyllum methyl ester gives more NOX emission, if we add some
additives with that pure biodiesel (B100) to reduce the emission.
 67

REFERENCES

1. V.Ganesan ,Internal Combustion Engines, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd.

2. S.S.Thipse, Alternative Fuels, Concepts, Technologies and Developments

3. A.E. Atabani, Calophylluminophyllum L. – A prospective non-edible biodiesel

feedstock. Study of biodiesel production, properties, fattyacid composition,
blending and engine performance.

4. K Ramesh, Bio-diesel development process from Calophyllum Inophyllum Seeds.

5. Gaurav Dwivedi, Diesel engine performance and emission analysis using

biodiesel from various oil sources-Review

6. H. Suresh Babu Rao, Palm oil and Calophyllum Inophyllum oil are potential feed
Stocks for future Biodiesel in Compression Ignition Engines: A Review

7. Ramaraju.A, Biodiesel Development from High Free Fatty Acid Punnakka oil

8. Y.C. Sharma, Advancements in development and characterization of biodiesel:

A review

9. Vivek and A K Gupta, Biodiesel production from Karanja oil. Vol. 63, pp
39- 47(2004)

10. Chavan S.B, Callophyllum Inophyllum Linn (“honne”) Oil, A source for
Biodiesel Production.

11. S.Antony Raja, Biodiesel production from jatropha oil and its characterization.
Vol. 1 (1) April(2011)

12. Vivek and A K Gupta. Biodiesel production from Karanja oil. Vol. 63, pp 39-47
(2004)

13. A.E. Atabani et al. / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 18 (2013) 211–
245
 68

14. 13. Ahmad AL,MatYasinNH,DerekCJC,LimJK.Microalgaeasasustainable

energy sourceforbiodieselproduction:areview. RenewSustainEnergyRev
2011;15(1):584–93.

15. 14. Venkanna BK,ReddyCV.Biodieselproductionandoptimizationfrom Calo-

phylluminophyllum linn oil(honneoil) – a threestagemethod.Bioresour
Technol2009;100(21):5122–5.

16. 15.Deepanraj. B, Dhanesh. C, Senthil. R andKannan. M, Use of Palm oil

Biodiesel Blends as a Fuel for Compression Ignition Engine, American
Journal of Applied Sciences Vol.8,No.11, pp.1154-1158, 2011.

17. 16. Venkanna.B.K andVenkataramana Reddy.C, Performance, emission and

combustion characteristics of direct injection diesel engine running
on calophyllum minophyllum linn oil (honne oil), International Journal
of Agricultural and Biological Engg., Vol.4 No.1, pp.1-9, 2011.

18. Shivakumar, SrinivasPai. P, Shrinivasarao. B andSamaga. B. S.,

Performance And Emissioncharacteristics of a 4 Stroke C.I. Engine
Operated On Honge Methyl Ester Using Artificial Neural Network,
ARPN Journal of Engg. and Applied Sci., Vol.5,No.6, pp.83-94, 2010.

19. Anand. R, Kannan. G, Rajasekhar Reddy. K and Velmathi. S, The

performance and emissions of a variable compression ratio diesel
engine fuelled with bio-diesel from cotton seed oil, ARPN Journal of
Engineering and Applied Sciences, Vol.4, No.9, pp.72-87, 2009.