Chapter 3.

Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

CHAPTER 3
Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior
______________________________________________________________________________
Learning Objectives to be achieved:

1. To distinguish various testing methods applies to different materials (steel and timber),
2. To recount the behaviour of materials when in service

Introduction:
Material strength to sustain load needs to be determined to minimize the risk of the materials
limitation under applied load. The topic here discusses the testing methods applied for metal
undergoing tensile stress. A tensile test is used in the testing method.

Tensile Test

Tensile Test or Tension test is the most common test for metal. A typical specimen is:

Standard tensile
specimen with
circular cross
section

Typically L=4 x d (diameter)

L=2 in (50 mm)

In Papua New Guinea the Australian Code AS 1391 – 1991 is used.

The rod undergo a pull of which the load is recorded and gradually increased until a necking
occurs down the cross section, and continues to apply the load until failure by fracture occurs.
A typical machine used is a Universal Testing Machine (UTM). A stress and strain is calculated.
Also a calculation of the elongation is measured. A stress and strain curve is made to reflect the
test.

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

Schematic representation of the

apparatus used to conduct tensile
stress-strain test. The specimen is
elongated by the moving
crosshead; load cell and
extensometer measure,
respectively.
-Adapted from H. W. Hayden,W.G.
Moffat, and J. Wuff. The Structure
andProperties of Materials,Vol.III.
Mechanical Behavior, p.2.
Copyright 1995

Test continues usually till the specimen ispermanantly deformed or fractured.

Calculations:

A Tensile Strength is the stress calculated by finding the maximum applied load and dividing it
with the original cross sectional area of the specimen. It is calculated on the basis of the
maximum load sustained by the test specimen. The units is in N/mm2 or MPa.

Maximum applied load

Tensile strength =
Original cross sectional area

A Yield Strength is also calculated in this test. It is the stress based on the applied load when
the material has just yielded. It is calculated by dividing the applied load at yield point by that
of the original cross sectional area.

Applied load at yield point

Yield strength =
Original cross sectional area

Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus is also measures in this test. It gives a measure of the
stiffness of the material or the ability of the material to resist deformation. It is equal to the
ratio of the stress and strain.
stress
Modulus of Elasticity =
strain

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

is also calculated. Percentage elongation is the measure of the ductility of the material. A
specified length is marked on the test specimen before testing. This is called the gauge length.
After fracture the two portions of the test specimen are placed together and the distance
between the gauge marks is measured, thus determining the elongation at the specimen at
fracture. It is the extension expressed as percentage of the original gauge length.

Percentage Reduction in area is calculated. This is a measure of ductility. It is measured by the

change of area (Original cross sectional area lessthe cross sectional area at fracture) divided by
the original cross sectional area.

Ao - A
Percentage reduction in area = x 100
Ao

Bending Testing

Test equipment and arrangements for static bending test. (3 point bending test)

Design Stresses
Typical grade stresses and data for SC4/C16 timber are:
 Bending Parallel to Grain = 5.3 N/mm2
 Tension Parallel to Grain = 3.2 N/mm2
 Compression Parallel to Grain = 6.8 N/mm2
 Compression Normal to grain = 2.2 N/mm2
 Modulus of Elasticity (mean) = 8800 N/mm2
 Density = 370 kg/m2

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

Timber Modulus of Elasticity € or Young Modulus in

N/mm2
Balsa 3200
Agba 7600
Beech 10,100
Greenheart 21,100
Norway Spruce 10,200
Douglas Fir 12,700

Table 1. Table of MoE

Timber Density Density kg/m3

Lignum Vitae 1230
African Blackwood 1200
Ebony 1180
Green Heart 1030
Purple Heart 850
Hickory 820
Jar rah 800
Beech 720
Oak 720
Ash 720
Pitch Pine 710
Yew 660
Iroko 650
Teak 650
European Larch 590
Elm 570
Mahogany 550
Douglas Fir 520
Scotch Pine 510
Joelton 470
Spruce 440
Obese 390
Western Red Cedar 370
Balsa 190
Table of Density

Hardwoods vary from about 1230 kg/m3 ( Lignum Vitae and African Blackwood to 190 kg/m 3 for
Balsa (at 12% moisture content). Softwoods vary from 720 kg.m3 (Pitch Pine) to 370 kg/m3
(Western Red Cedar)

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

Small Scale Tensile and Compression Stresses

Theoretical stresses on small samples are dangerous. In test, wood such as the Spruce or
Douglas Fir fail at a tensile stress well in excess of 100 N/mm2. The same woods as larger
elements fail in compression at 40 to 50 N/mm2.

Bending Tests on Small Samples

Very applicable to timber as its use structurally is for beams/joist. The modulus of rupture test
gives us the stress on the tensile face that leads to failure. This stress can be as high as 75 to 90
N/mm2.

IV. In – Service Behavior

In service behavior is the behavior of a material during time of service or period of use. In this
world everything has an end. All kinds of material come to its end or its usability.

is defined as insufficient load bearing capacity or inadequate serviceability of a structure or

structural element. Therefore when a material is not capable anymore of executing its normal
functions, it is described to have failed.

Insufficient load capacity means that the components of the material are not able to withstand
the load acting on the material.

Failure occurs due to various causes. These maybe due to fracture, excessive deformation due
to plastic deformation or dimensional changes with time, instability or buckling, loss of material
by corrosion, erosion or abrasive Serviceability is defined as the ability of structure or structural
element to perform adequately for normal intended use under all expected actions during the
life time of the structure. Serviceability failure occurs when material or composite of materials
of the structure fails.

Material failurewear or alteration of properties due to environmental effects. The failure

modes may be dependent on stress, time, temperature, environment or a combination of any of
these factors. Thus, it is important to understand the mechanics of the various failure modes.

Modes of Failure

1. Failure by Yielding
2. Failure by fracture
3. Failure by creep
4. Failure by Fatigue
5. Failure by corrosion

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

Failure by Yielding
Is the failure occurrence reaching above the yield point. Yielding failure occurs when a material
subject to mechanical loading exhibits sufficient plastic deformation such that it can no longer
perform its intended function. Once yielding has occurred the material is said to be plastic and
the deformation and strains are referred to as plastic. This mode of failure results in deflected,
stretched, or otherwise misshapen components, and is typical in ductile materials such as
metals and polymers.

Failure by Fracture
Fracture is the act of concentration of stress point which causes total disintegration. Some of
the commercial materials contain internal crack and other defects. Stress concentration occurs
at any sharp corner or edges of holes. At such points the stress may be several times larger
than the stress which would otherwise expected. Ductile fracture occurs when a material
experiences substantial plastic deformation or strain while being stressed beyond its yield
strength and is consequently torn into pieces. When this material is subjected to stress, cracks
propagate either by ductile tearing or cleavage.

Ductile tearing type occurs in ductile materials and considerable energy is absorbed in
deforming plastic material just ahead of a growing crack. The plastic deformation tends to
round of the tip of the crack and consequently reducing the stress concentration effect.
However, severe plastic deformation tends to create cavities adjacent to the tip of the crack and
eventually leads to fracture. In contrast, in brittle material no or little plastic deformation
occurs at the tip of the crack. If the local stress exceeds the cleavage fracture stress of the
metal, interatomic bonds are broken and the crack develops catastrophically and sudden brittle
failure occurs.

To find the critical size of the crack for fast fracture to occur, Griffith’s equation following a
relationship for plate like components for brittle materials.

2𝛾 𝐸
σc = [ ]1/2
𝜋𝑎

where:
σc – is the critical stress for fracture
γ – is the fracture surface energy per unit area
E – is the modulus of elasticity of the material and
a – is one half of the crack length

For metals that undergo plastic flow, the crack developed at the tip, thus the equation is”

2 𝛾+ 𝛾𝑝 𝐸
σc = [ ]1/2
𝜋𝑎

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

where:
γp – is the work done in plastic deformation per unit area of crack extension

Failure by creep
Factors affecting the amount of creep are time, stress and temperature. Relaxation is a
phenomenon associated with and related to creep. Examples of relaxation are reduction in
stress levels in tensioned bolts over long periods of time in service and stress reduction in pre-
stressed bars and cables in pre-stressed concrete construction.

Failure by fatigue
Is the repetitive failure during loading such as bridges and rotating machinery like pumps and
turbines are subjected to repetitive or cyclic stresses. This type of failure is a result of crack
formation in region of high stress and subsequent growth due to repetitive loading; resulting in
the crack growth and loss of stiffness of the structure resulting in failure. The existence of crack
may be due to the crack nucleation and growth or due to manufacturing defects. The final
failure is sudden and fracture is usually of cleavage type.

Other factors that affect fatigue strength are the surface condition of the metal and nature of
environment. The presence of scratches or notches act as points of stress raisers for initiation
of cracks and the fatigue strength is reduced greatly. However, ductile materials are much less
sensitive to surface flaws then brittle materials.

Failure by Corrosion
A structure subjected to cyclic stressing in conditions in which corrosion can occur, the rate of
corrosion is increased and failure occurs due to the loss of material. Or it is a loss of material
due to alteration of mechanical properties.

Failures Recorded:

1. May 16, 1988 (Reuters, Mining Accidents) news that ten black gold miners were hurled
an underground elevator on Saturday and fell to their death at the bottom of a mile
deep shaft when a descending hit the obstruction at the Harmony gold mine was cause
of the accident according to Martin Faillon, a spokesperson for the Rand Mines group.
2. August 7, 2008 (Associated Press, Mining Accidents) reported that the collapse of the
Crandall Canyon one year ago was so extensive that the federal officials found no other
mining disaster in the last 50 yrs to compare to it. Hundreds of coal pillars, overloaded
by aggressive mining that curved out too many voids, collapsed within seconds on
August 6, 2007, entombing six miners nearly half mile underground. Satellite images
show tha t69-acre section of the mine caved in which was about the equivalent of 63
football fields.

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Chapter 3. Testing Methods and In-Service Behavior

3. December 10, __(Times Wire Reports, Mining Accidents) reported that eleven Chinese
miners were trapped underground for nearly six days by tunnel collapse ate paper and
chewed on boiled leather belt to ease their hunger. A 33 yr old miner Wu Pengyong was
quoted saying “At first we ate newspaper pages, then orange peel.” The miners were
pulled from the illegal iron and gold mine in northern China after 6 days.
4. Failure by ductile:
An oil tanker (The New York Times) was reported to split in half by crack propagation
around its girth. The fractures occurs along grain boundary due to failures of fracture,
fatigue and creep. Ductile fractures is almost always preferred for two reasons. First,
brittle fracture occurs suddenly and catastrophically without any warning; this is a
consequence of the spontaneous and rapid crack propagation. On the other hand, for
ductile fracture , the presence of plastic deformation gives warning that fracture is
imminent, allowing preventive measures to be taken. Second, more strain energy is
required to induce ductile fracture in as much as ductile materials are generally tougher.
Under the action of an applied tensile stress, most metal alloys are ductile, whereas
ceramics are notably brittle, and polymers may exhibit both types of fractures.

References:

1. Venkataramana, J. Part I Metal, Part II Timber. Notes. Department of Engineering. The

Papua New Guinea University of Technology. 1999
2. Ivans, Bobby, Articles from Mining Accidents-Los Angeles Times, retrieved from
http://articles.latimes.com/keyword/minig-accidents, 0n 17/03/1, 2:31 pm.
3. Kolontar red mud dam failure, http://www.google.com/search/mine accidents
4. Digging deep into Yallourn mine failures, retrieve from http//www.google.com/search/mine
accidents

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