1

Water Management
(AGRON 504, Lecture Notes)

Prepared by

Dr. Sanjay K. Dwivedi

Senior Scientist/Associate Professor
Dr. K. L. Nandeha
Professor & Head, Agronomy
R. K. Satyaraj Guru
Ph. D. Scholar

Department of Agronomy
College of Agriculture
INDIRA GANDHI KRISHI VISHWAVIDYALAYA,
RAIPUR (CHHATTISGARH)
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Content
Chapter Particular Page No.
1. Water resources and irrigation projects 3-13

2. Status of irrigation 14-23

3. Water roles and soil water movement 24-32

4. Transpiration, absorption and soil-water-plant relationships 33-49

5. Water stress and its adaptation 50-58

6. Water requirement and factors determining water needs of crops 59-70

7. Scheduling and depth of irrigation 71-80

8. Irrigation methods 81-92

9. Micro irrigation and fertigation 93-103

10. Management of water in controlled environments and polyhouses 104-110

11. Water management of crops and cropping systems 111-125

12. Quality of irrigation water 126-130

13. Management of problematic soils and water 131-135

14. Water-use efficiency 136-141

15. Water logging 142-144

16. Drainage 145-153
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CHAPTER-1
WATER RESOURCES AND IRRIGATION PROJECTS

Introduction:
“Water is life”. It is a unique natural resource among all sources available on earth. No
life form can be sustained without water on the planet. It is essential for all the important
activities like food production, industries like energy, production and manufacturing. It plays an
important role in economic development and the general well being of the country.
Out of all the water available on the Earth, 97 % of water is saline and is in oceans, 3% of
water is freshwater available in rivers, streams and glaciers. There is enough freshwater
available on the planet for current population of the world but it is distributed unevenly.
Following graph shows the Earth’s water distribution.

Water resources in India:

Water resources of a country constitute one of its vital assets. India receives annual
precipitation of about 4000 km3. The rainfall in India shows very high spatial and temporal
variability and paradox of the situation is that Mousinram near Cherrapunji, which receives the
highest rainfall in the world, also suffers from a shortage of water during the non-rainy season,
almost every year. The total average annual flow per year for the Indian rivers is estimated as
1953 km3. The total annual replenishable groundwater resources are assessed as 432 km 3. The
annual utilizable surface water and groundwater resources of India are estimated as 690 km3
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and 396 km3 per year, respectively. With rapid growing population and improving living
standards the pressure on our water resources is increasing and per capita availability of water
resources is reducing day by day. Due to spatial and temporal variability in precipitation the
country faces the problem of flood and drought syndrome. Overexploitation of groundwater is
leading to reduction of low flows in the rivers, declining of the groundwater resources (fig. 1),
and salt water intrusion in aquifers of the coastal areas. Over canal-irrigation in some of the
command areas has resulted in waterlogging and salinity. The quality of surface and
groundwater resources is also deteriorating because of increasing pollutant loads from point
and non-point sources.

India is gifted with a river system comprising more than 20 major rivers with several
tributaries. Many of these rivers are perennial and some of these are seasonal. The rivers like
Ganges, Brahmaputra and Indus originate from the Himalayas and carry water throughout the
year. The snow and ice melt of the Himalayas and the base flow contribute the flows during the
lean season. Average water yield per unit area of the Himalayan Rivers is almost double that of
the south peninsular rivers system, indicating the importance of snow and glacier melt
contribution from the high mountains. Apart from the water available in the various rivers of
the country, the groundwater is also an important source of water for drinking, irrigation,
industrial uses, etc. It accounts for about 80% of domestic water requirement and more than
45% of the total irrigation in the country. As per the international norms, if per-capita water
availability is less than 1700 m3 per year then the country is categorized as water stressed and if
it is less than 1000 m3 per capita per year then the country is classified as water scarce. In India
per capita surface water availability in the years 1991 and 2001 were 2309 and 1902 m 3 and
these are projected to reduce to 1401 and 1191 m3 by the years 2025 and 2050 respectively.
Hence, there is a need for proper planning, development and management of the greatest
assets of the country, viz. water and land resources for raising the standards of living of the
millions of people, particularly in the rural areas.
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Rainfall is the only natural source of water. All the natural resources like stream, river,
and underground water are the manifestations of rainfall (fig. 2). Although water is a renewable
resource and reused only when resources are charged with water from natural rainfall.

Water resources can be classified into

a) Surface water resources
b) Underground resources

Surface Water Resources:

India is blessed with an average annual rainfall of about 1194 mm. However, thebounty is not
evenly spread both in time and space with the result flood-drought-floodsyndrome still persists.
As much as 85-90% of the rainfall is received only in the southwestmonsoon season of June to
October. It is that during the four rainy months of June toSeptember the Arabian Sea branch of
the monsoon carries moisture amounting to about 770 million ha meters and the Bay of Bengal
branch about 340 million ha meters of water. Of the monsoon moisture, about 25 – 30%
precipitates in the form of rainfall. During theremaining eight months an approximate
precipitation of 100 million ha meters including asmall portion of snow pour over the country.
There are on average 130 rainy days in a yearin the country.
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The rainfall when considered over the geographical area of 329 million ha amountsto
392.8 million ha meters. This may be rounded off to 400 million ha meters includingsnowfall
whose potential is not yet fully recorded.

Water resources in India

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Out of the estimated 400 million ha meters precipitation, about 70 million ha meters is lost to
atmosphere as evaporation, about 115 million ha meters flows as surface run-offand the
remaining 215 million ha meters infiltrates into the ground. The total surface water resources
of India after considering the above have been assessed at 180 million hameters, which is of the
same magnitude as is available to United States of America annually, though India’s
geographical area is only about 40% of that of the United States. This 180 million ha meters
includes about 20 million ha meters brought in by streams and rivers from catchments lying
outside the country and about 45 million ha meters pertains to regenerated flow from
groundwater as assessed from river flows during non-rainy months. The remaining 115 million
ha meters constitutes direct contribution by precipitation, of which about 10 million ha meters
is received as snowfall. Of the 180 million ha meters, due to limitations imposed by topography,
climate, soil conditions etc., only about 69 million ha meters are considered utilizable. The
present utilization of the surface water is estimated to be about 31.12 million ha meters, of
which about 95% is used for irrigation with the remaining being put to other uses.

`
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Groundwater Resources:
Of the annual precipitation of 400 million ha meters, about 215 million ha metershas
been estimated to soak into the ground (Fig. 2.1). As much as 165 million ha meters is retained
as soil moisture and is used by vegetation, thus leaving only 50 million ha meters (12.5%) of the
total precipitation for the country as a whole to reach the ground water table. This value is
likely to increase with the development of water resources i.e., percolation through rivers,
streams, and irrigation systems, which add to recharge. The Central Groundwater Board puts
the annual exploitable groundwater potential at 43.3 million ha meters. Presently, the
groundwater utilization is about 12.8 million ha metersand here again a major portion of 85% is
being used for irrigation with the remaining going for other uses.
The total water resource availability in the country though remained constant, theper
capita availability of water has been steadily declined from 5300 m3in 1951 to the present level
of 1700 m3 due to population growth, large scale urbanization & rapidindustrialization.
India – Per capita water availability

The National Commission on Integrated Water Resource Development Plan constituted

by the Government of India in its report submitted in December, 1999 has estimated the total
water resource of the country as 195.3 Mham and the total waterrequirement of the country as
69.4 to 71.0 Mham by the year 2010, 78.4 to 85.0 Mham by the year 2025 and 97.3 to 118.0
Mham by the year 2050.

Ground water resources in India:

S.no Particulars Quantity(km3/yr)
1. Total replenishable ground water resources 432
2. Provision for domestic, industrial and other uses 71
3. Available groundwater resources for irrigation 361
4. Utilisable groundwater resources for irrigation(90% of s.no 3) 325
5. Total utilizable groundwater resources(sum of s.no 2 and 4) 396
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Problems of water resources in India:

Among the problems of water resources in India, the major problem is uneven
distribution of annual rainfall in space and time including several others as discussed below:
1. Spatial and temporal distribution:
On an average over space and time, average rainfall over India has been
estimated at 1200mm. Highest rainfall of 11690mm is received at Cherrapunji in
Meghalaya and lowest at Jaisalmer, which on an avg. receives 150mm annual rainfall.
Annual precipitation including snowfall is estimated at 400Mham. Distribution of this
rainfall w.r.t different rainfall zones reveal that more than 50% of the resource is
generated in the zone the zone with rainfall ranging from 1000-2500mm. About
300Mham of this resource is generated during June to September and the remaining
100Mham id during rest of the year.
2. Conflicting objectives of Water Resources Development:
Major and minor irrigation projects are multipurpose projects withhydropower
generation, flood control and irrigation . For example, irrigation requirement could be
quite different over seasons/years while hydropower generation may require steady
release of water to meet any eventuality. Similarly, storage for irrigation and
hydropower may over weigh concerns for flood control. Therefore, operational aspects
of multipurpose need to be optimized to meet most objectives
3. Increasing sectorial competition between sectors:
With the increasing population, change in food habits, life styles changes and
increasing emphasis on travel/tourism and environment, the demand scenario of water
is expected to change drastically. Agriculture, which is currently consuming about 80%
of the developed water resources would be the looser and would have to sacrifice fresh
water for the interests of the other sectors of economy. Although, overall quantity of
water allotted to agriculture would increase, yet it would be less than the demand. As
such, agriculture needs to look at sources, particularly the so called wastewaters
released after first use by other sectors.
4. Pollution of Surface and Groundwater Resources:
Effluents from municipal and industrial establishments are being discharged
untreated into the rivers, leading to extreme pollution levels of surface waters.
Groundwater pollution is even more serious which goes on unnoticed and remains
hidden from the public view. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers, insecticides and
fungicides(non-point sources) and disposal of industrial and domestic sewage (point
sources) have resulted in increase in contamination exceeding the limits prescribed by
WHO.
5. Rising and falling water table:
Around 60-65% of the irrigation water is lost during conveyance or in the fields,
leading to rising water table in irrigation commands, particularly in areas underlain with
poor quality groundwater. This has given rise to problems of waterlogging and soil
salinity. Over exploitation of groundwater is causing decline in water table especially in
Punjab, Haryana and western part of U.P. Rising water table is detrimental to all crops
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except rice while falling water table increases the cost of lifting water from deeper soil
layers leading to unsustainable irrigated farming.

Water resources to meet the future needs:

Doubts have been raised on the sustainability of irrigated agriculture and
environmental quality. Water has been as scare in the past as what we are today. Some
of the opportunities for augmenting the water resources are indicated:
1. Irrigation Improvement :
Modernization of existing irrigation systems with better operation and
maintenance, rationalization of water rates, techniques for equitable water distribution,
right irrigation, information technology and advances methods of communication have
emerged at various forums for irrigation improvement. Inadequacy and uncertainty is
being tackled through inter-basin water transfer. Participatory irrigation
management(PIM) could play effective role in irrigation management.

2. Dew as water resource:

Although, dew may not add as much water resources compared to the
magnitude of other resources, yet dew accumulations is 15-33mm in north and north-
east India during 6 months from October to March. About 25-50% of water deficiency in
the month of January from south Punjab to Assam could be met with dew. But in other
areas it is not much of importance.
3. Green-blue water integration:
Green water constitutes about 50% of the total water resources. While too much
emphasis is placed on the development and use of blue water, not much attention has
been paid to green water. If efficiency of green water is increased, it alone would be
able to generate about 230Mha-m water at the global scale. The syndrome of green and
blue water could be broken. The increased efficiency of green water by itself can raise
the productivity of irrigated lands.
4. Reuse of drainage water:
Analysis of water samples from surface drains during monsoon showed that
water in these drains is of good quality and can be used for irrigation without affecting
the land resources for crop yields. It is very encouraging scene to see the farmers
pumping water from the drains to irrigate their fields. If low weight pumps are made
available there would be a support in the reuse of drainage water.
5. Conjunctive use of Sodic and Canal waters:
In several situations where groundwater contain high concentration of salts,
limited canal water supplies may also be available. The two options for making use of
combined use of poor quality water and canal water are: blending the two sources to
bring down the salinity/alkanity below tolerance limit of crops and apply them
simultaneously in cyclic mode. In addition to operational advantages evidences are in
favour of cyclic application. Canal water application is recommended during germination
and seedling establishment stages and saline irrigation during later growth stages.
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6. Multi use of water:

Water released from one sector(industries, household, recreation and
environmental activities) after its first use can be used in agriculture. Multi use of water
within agriculture sector should also be implemented to enhance water productivity.
Aquaculture with agriculture could be one major activity, where value added water from
aquaculture would be used to irrigate crops.
7. Separation of Grey/ Black waters:
Fresh water with drawls by urban areas will rise from a minimum of 15 BCM to a
projected maximum of 60 BCM. More than 80% of this water would be released back in
grey and black water. Grey water is of relatively good quality for irrigating
lawns/kitchens gardens. Sewage water is black water in large amounts. Now it is
mandatory in many countries to separate grey and black waters such that grey water
can be reutilized for agriculture.
8. Technology Upgradation in Agriculture:
Studies on water management have clearly shown that water could be saved
without significant reduction in final crop yield through crop diversification/ deficit
irrigation. Cultivation of low water requiring crops could save a major fraction of water
in agriculture. Application of resource conversation technologies such as land leveling,
zero tillage, bed and furrow planting, dry or semidry seeding if rice could save irrigation
water. Water productivity could be increased significantly with sprinkler and drip
irrigation.

IRRIGATION PROJECTS:
In India irrigation has always been the largest user of water. Irrigation projects mainly
consist of engineering structures which collect, conveys, and delivers water to areas on which
crops are grown.

Irrigation Projects: Irrigation projects are classified in different ways

1. Based on Cultural Command Area (CCA)

Major Irrigation Projects: The area envisaged to be covered under irrigation is of the
order over 10000 hectare (CCA>10,000 ha). This type of project consist huge storage
reservoirs, flow diversion structures and a large network of canals. These are often
multi-purpose projects serving other aspects like flood control and hydro power.
Medium Irrigation Projects: Projects having CCA less than 10,000 ha but more than
2,000 ha are classified as medium irrigation projects. These are also multipurpose
surface water projects. Medium size storage, diversion and distribution structures are
the main components of this type of project.
Minor Irrigation Projects: Projects having CCA less than or equal to 2,000 ha are
termed as minor irrigation project. The main sources of water are tanks, small reservoirs
and groundwater pumping. A number of minor irrigation projects may exist individually
within the command area of a major or medium irrigation project.
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2. Based on the Way of Water Application

The Irrigation schemes are classified into two types based on way of water application.
Gravity/Flow Irrigation Scheme: This is the type of irrigation system in which water is
stored at a higher elevation so as to enable supply to the land by gravity flow. Such
irrigation schemes consists head works across river to store the water and canal
network to distribute the water.
Lift Irrigation Scheme: Irrigation systems in which water has to be pumped to the field
or canal network form lower elevations are categorized as lift irrigation schemes.

Some of the Major Irrigation Projects: Since independence, India has developed several major
irrigation projects. Some of the major irrigation projects are listed in Table;

Major irrigation projects in India:

S.No. Name of the Project River Beneficiary States
1 Beas Project Beas Rajasthan & Punjab
2 Bhakranangal project Satluj Punjab, HP, Haryana & Rajasthan
3 Chambal Project Chambal Madhya Pradesh & Rajasthan
4 Damodar Valley Project Damodar Bihar &West Bengal
5 Farakka Project Ganga Bhagirathi West Bengal
6 Gandak Project Gandak Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Nepal
7 Hirakud Dam Mahanadi Orissa
8 Indukki Project Periyar Kerala
9 Kosi Project Kosi Bihar
10 Koyna Project Koyna Maharastra
11 Mahanandi Mahanadi Orissa
12 Mahi Project Mahi Gujarat
13 Malaprabha Project Malprabha Karnataka
14 Nagarjuna Sagar Project Krishna Andhra Pradesh
15 Narmada Sagar Narmada MP, Rajasthan, Gujarat & Maharastra
16 Rajasthan Canal Satluj Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana
17 Ramganga Project Cnuisot Stream Uttar Pradesh
18 Sri Ram Sagar Project Godavari Andhra Pradesh
19 Tawa Project Narmada Madhya Pradesh
20 Tehri Dam Bhilanganga & Bhagirath Uttar Pradesh
21 Thungabhadra Project Tungabhadra Andhra Pradesh & Karnataka
22 Ukai Project Tapti Gujarat
23 Upper Krishna Project Krishna Karnataka

Interesting no es

Green water is the soil moisture from precipitation, used by plants via transpiration.
Blue water is the fresh water: surface and groundwater, stored in lakes, streams groundwater,
glaciersand snow.
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Grey water is the product water of domestic activities: bathing, laundry and dishwashing or
polluted water due to pesticides in agriculture and nutrients from fertilizers.
Black water is the sewage waterin contactwith faecalmatter containing harmful bacteriaand
disease-causing pathogens.

References:
1. S R Reddy & G K Reddy, Irrigation Agronomy
2. http://greencleanguide.com/earths-water-distribution-and-indian-scenario/
3. https://www.scribd.com/interest/Water-Resources/explore
4. http://cpcb.nic.in/water.php
5. Angrau Water Management material
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_resources_in_India
7. www.iwrs.org.in/iwr.htm
8. Majumdar D.K(2014),Irrigation Water Management, Principles and Practice
9. Reddy S.R(2014),Introduction to Agronomy and Principles of Crop Production
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CHAPTER-2
STATUS OF IRRIGATION

Introduction:
Irrigation refers to the process of supply of water through artificial means such as pipes,
ditches, sprinkler, etc. India being an agricultural country mostly depends on monsoons rain
that is very much uncertain. Therefore, India agriculture needs artificial watering of the fields.
The artificial way of supplying water to the agricultural from or field at the right moment in an
appropriate volume for the proper growth of the plants in order to get the maximum yields of
cultivation is technically called irrigation.The irrigation system helps the farmers to have less
dependency on rain-water for the purpose of agriculture. They further stated that irrigation
also serves other purposes:

1. To add water to the soil for supplying the moisture essential for plant growth
2. To provide crop insurance against short duration drought
3. To cool the soil atmosphere, thereby making more favourable environment for plant
growth
4. To washout or dilute salts in the soil
5. To reduce the hazards of soil piping
6. To soften the tillage pans.

Advantages:

1. Irrigation plays a key role in increasing food production to feed the expanding
population
2. Irrigation can ensure a stable production in traditional dryland farming systems,
subjected to frequent vagaries of rainfall
3. Irrigation can prolong the effective growing period in areas with dry seasons, thus
permitting multiple cropping and employment generation
4. With the security of cropping under irrigation , additional inputs (tillage, fertilisers, plant
protection etc.) become economically feasible
5. Irrigation reduces the risk of expensive inputs being wasted by drought.

Adverse Effects:

No irrigation system can be considered sustainable, particularly areas prone to high water
table, waterlogging and soil salinisation. Some of the adverse effects of irrigation are:
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1. Irrigation without appropriate drainage leads to land degradation (waterlogging and soil
salinisation ) leading to reduced crop productivity
2. Groundwater pollution, especially with nitrates, due to seepage of water carrying
nitrate from applied fertiliser to the groundwater
3. Irrigation may lead to colder and damper climate conducive to outbreak of pests and
diseases.

Why Irrigation is indispensable in India?

India being an agricultural country mostly depends on monsoons rain that is very much
uncertain. Therefore, India agriculture needs artificial watering of the fields.

Various factors that have made irrigation indispensable for India Agriculture are-

1. Uncertain monsoon rain: In India, major portion of the total annual rainfall occurs in the
monsoon season and last for around four months in a year. But it is uncertain;
sometimes it causes flood and also droughts. Therefore a phrase is there that “INDIAN
AGRICULTURE IS GAMBLE OF MONSOON”
2. Spatial variation in rainfall: Many parts of our country such as Rajasthan, Punjab,
Haryana, north-western part of Gujrat, interior parts of Deccan plateau receive very low
monsoon rain even less than 75cm. This rainfall deficiency also makes it necessary to
provide irrigation to the fields.
3. Low winter rain: To grow rabi crops like wheat, pulses, oilseeds, etc. In long and dry
winter irrigation is also necessary.
4. Lack of moisture retaining capacity of the soil: Soils like laterite, red soils are poor in
moisture retaining capacity and,as such, without irrigation it is impossible to cultivate
this type of soils for better economic crop production.
5. Cultivation of high yielding variety crops: HYVs & Hybrids seeds require regular and
adequate water supply unlike any other normal seed. This can only be achieved by
irrigation.
6. Multiple cropping: In this method of cultivation more than one crop are cultivated. It is
requires regular water supply throughout the year, crop duration and this can be made
possible only through irrigation.
7. Agriculture based economy: Indian economy based on agriculture.
8. Type of crop: Irrigation is needed for growing some thirsty plants like sugarcane, jute,
cotton, wheat and paddy for better production and profit.
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Irrigation Scenario in India:

Irrigation in India includes a network of major and minor canals from Indian rivers,
groundwater well based systems, tanks, and other rainwater harvesting projects for agricultural
activities. Of these groundwater system is the largest.

In 2013-14, only about 47.7% of total agricultural land in India was reliably irrigated. The
largest canal in India is Indira Gandhi Canal, which is about 650 km long. About 2/3rd cultivated
land in India is dependent on monsoons. Irrigation in India helps improve food security, reduce
dependence on monsoons, improve agricultural productivity and create rural job opportunities.
Dams used for irrigation projects help produce electricity and transport facilities, as well as
provide drinking water supplies to a growing population, control floods and prevent droughts.
India’s irrigation covered crop area was about 22.6 million hectares in 1952, and it increased to
a potential of 90 mha at the end of 1995, inclusive of canals and groundwater wells. However,
the potential irrigation relies of reliable supply of electricity for water pumps and maintenance,
and the net irrigated land was actually irrigated in India. The total arable land in India was
reliably irrigated in 2010.

India’s irrigation is mostly groundwater well based. At 39 million hectares (67% of its
total irrigation), India has the world’s largest groundwater well equipped irrigation system
(china with 19 mha is second, USA with 17 mha is third).

Table 1: State wise total crop area, irrigated crop area by groundwater, canal and total

State Total crop area Groundwater Canal Total crop area

(million irrigation crop irrigation actually irrigated
hectares) area (million crop area (million hectares)
hectares) (million
hectares)
Andhra Pradesh 14.3 2.5 2.7 4.9
Arunachal 0.4 - 0.07 0.05
Pradesh
Assam 3.0 0.13 0.1 0.22
Bihar 6.4 2.2 1.3 3.5
Chhattisgarh 5.1 0.17 0.74 0.85
Goa 0.1 - 0.1 0.1
Gujarat 9.9 3.1 0.5 3.2
Haryana 3.6 1.99 1.32 3.26
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Himachal Pradesh 1.0 0.02 0.09 0.11

Jammu & Kashmir 0.9 0.02 0.38 0.37

Jharkhad 3.2 0.11 0.13 0.24

Karnataka 12.2 1.43 1.33 2.38

Kerala 1.5 0.18 0.21 0.39

Madhya Pradesh 15.8 2.74 1.70 4.19

Maharastra 19.8 3.12 1.03 3.36

Manipur 0.2 0.05 0.05

Meghalaya 0.3 0.06 0.06

Mizoram 0.1 0.01 0.01

Nagaland 1.1 0.1 0.07

Odisha 4.9 0.17 1.07 1.24

Punjab 4.0 3.06 0.94 3.96

Rajasthan 21.1 3.98 1.52 5.12

Tamil Nadu 6.5 1.61 1.43 2.66

Tripura 0.3 0.02 0.05 0.07

Uttar Pradesh 17.6 10.64 4.21 14.49

West Bengal 5.5 2.09 1.22 2.98

Uttarakhand 0.8 0.22 0.14 0.35

Skkim 0.1 0.01 0.01

All India 159.6 39.43 22.48 58.13

Note: The all India total includes land area for union territories of india that is not shown in the above table
 18

Table 2: State Wise Major Crops Area Under Irrigation In India 2013 – 14 ( Area in ‘000 ha)

State Wheat Rice Jowar Maize Pulses Sugarca Spices Fruit & Oilseeds Cotton
ne Vegetable
Andhra 0 2514 35 270 12 258 139 363 271 132
Pradesh
Assam 3 275 1 3 0 8
Bihar 2034 1984 0 483 27 204 6 304 75
Chhattisgarh 79 1407 0 11 134 23 8 75 13 0
Goa 14 8 1 2 7 3
Gujrat 1138 494 30 61 140 244 357 442 978 1479
Haryana 2487 1244 48 2 24 101 4 66 459 567
Himanchal 78 49 - 31 4 1 3 22 3 0
Pradesh
Jammu & 83 246 -`` 28 4 0 1 40 45
Kashmir
Jharkhand 65 58 0 4 6 1 1 84 17 0
Karnataka 117 1007 110 501 206 669 278 333 554 184
Kerla 154 0 2 52 67 166
M.P. 5638 557 2 21 2054 102 328 330 428 325
Maharastra 811 420 273 127 469 937 140 924 143 114
Manipur 69
Meghalaya 0 100 20 6
Mizoram 16

Nagaland 1 95 1 1 3

Orissa 1 13 4 31 14 6 23
79

Punjab 347 28 102 17 86 1 174 46 44

5 39 5

Rajasthan 318 84 1 14 765 5 79 157 300 36

5 5 9 5

Sikkim 0 11 0 0 0 1 0
Tamil nadu 0 1612 47 170 88 313 58 297 543 37
Telangana 7 1956 4 265 19 76 129 206 246 216
Tripura 0 83 1 16 1
Uttarakhand 202 180 0 5 105 0 20 6 0
Uttar Pradesh 9617 5013 1 293 634 2105 63 970 556 4
West Bengal 327 2586 0 62 35 14 82 1435 615 0
Union
Territory
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A .& N. Island 0 0 0 0
Chandigarh 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
D. & N. Haveli 0 4 1 0 0 2
Daman and
Diu
Delhi 19 6 1 0 0 0 1 0
Lakshadweep
Punducherry 16 0 0 2 0 1 1 0
Total 29369 26524 551 2449 4687 5267 2448 6368 8219 3868

Table 3: Irrigation Scenario in Chhattisgarh:

The entire Chhattisgarh state falls under Rice-agro-climatic zone, 80% population of the state is
rural and the main livelihood of the villagers is agriculture and agriculture based small
industries.

The economy of the state is mainly based on agriculture and forestry. The agriculture sector
contributes around 38% to the State’s Net Domestic Product. Of the total workforce of 8.3
million, 5.9 million (71%) are engaged in agriculture.

Large variation in the yearly rainfall directly affects the main crop i.e. Paddy. Obviously,
irrigation is the prime need of the state for its overall development and therefore the state
government has given top priority to development of irrigation potential.
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Net sown area of the Chhattisgarh state is 4.683 Million hectares and the gross sown area is
5.561 Million hectares.

It is estimated that about 75% of the gross sown area of the state can be irrigated with proper
use and management of available water resources. Irrigation potential was 1.328 Million
hectares at the time of formation of the state (i.e. on 1st November 2000) which was 23% of
the gross sown area. The irrigation potential has now been raised to 1.844 Million hectares at
the end of Mar 2012 which is 33.15% of gross sown area.

Apart from the state budget, irrigation projects are also being financially assisted by Central
Government (AIBP), ADB, and NABARD etc.

There is wide gap between potential created and actual irrigation in the state is mainly due to

1. Inadequate beneficiary participation in design and maintenance of irrigation project.

2. Infrastructure deterioration due to low allocations in maintenance.
3. Absence of water courses from outlets of irrigation canals to fields, construction of
water courses is being carried out for Major and Medium irrigation projects by
Ayacut Department.
4. Inadequate double cropping. Many of the projects are designed for Kharif as well as
some rabi irrigation and potential is highly unutilized as farmers are not taking rabi
crop.

Table 4: Water resources scenario of Chhattisgarh:

State/ Ave. Ultimate Irrigation Net Ground Ground
Region/ Rainfall Potential on Area Basis Irrigated Water water
Country (mm) (M ha) Area, Resources develop-
(M ha) on ment
Volume (%)
Basis
Surface
GW Total (M ha m)
Water

Chhattisgarh 1400 1.23 0.49 1.72 1.26 1.37 20.43

Eastern 1526 22.14 15.92 38.06 17.89 19.45 43.00

All India 1194 75.84 64.05 139.9 62.29 45.34 58.00

 21

Table 5: Source wise irrigated area in Chhattisgarh:

Sources Area in Lakh ha. %

Canals 8.95 66 %
Tanks 0.45 3%
Tube-wells 3.00 22 %
Wells 0.26 2%
Other Sources 0.89 7%
Total 13.55 100 %
Net Irrigated Area - 29 %
 22

Table-6 : Districtwise Irrigation Potential Created and utilised (March 2011):

Irrigation Potential Created Irrigation Potential Utilised
(Hectares) (Hectares)
S. No. District Kharif Rabi Total Kharif Rabi / Total
Summer
Paddy
1 Raipur 300552 24578 325130 232661 657 233318
2 Mahasamund 57028 7914 64942 45681 2532 48213
3 Dhamtari 97044 10523 107567 78304 0 78304
4 Durg 245298 8666 253964 188463 2373 190836
5 Rajnandgaon 106484 5904 112388 61846 1369 63215
6 Kabirdham 42402 7868 50270 26759 0 26759
7 Bastar 28846 6036 34882 5796 4969 10765
8 North Bastar (Kanker) 35615 5741 41356 14711 2178 16889
9 South Bastar(Dantewada) 15001 2405 17406 296 20 316
10 Bilaspur 150611 7483 158094 145240 1077 146317
11 Janjgir Champa 248211 163611 411822 212210 35338 247548
12 Korba 17323 4916 33239 11349 220 11569
13 Sarguja 59638 17596 77234 22665 6740 29405
14 Koriya 19148 6308 25456 2388 1421 3809
15 Raigarh 52290 15796 68086 30374 900 31274
16 Jashpur 25696 4800 30496 10276 1909 12185
17 Narayanpur 2524 400 2924 155 18 173
18 Bijapur 4935 234 5169 965 0 965
Total 1508646 300779 1809425 1090139 61721 1151860
 23

Table 7: Crop wise Gross Irrigation area in Chhattisgarh in 2013-14

S. no. Crop Area Under Irrigation (in ‘000 ha)

1. Rice 1407
2. Maize 11
3. Wheat 79
Total cereals & Millets 1497
4. Total Pulses 134
5. Sugarcane 23
6. Condiment & spices 8
7. Fruit &Vegetables 75
Total food crop 1738
8. Oil seed & Fodder crop 13 & 1
Total non- Food crops 14
Total Irrigated Area 1751

Conclusion:
In India beings an agricultural country mostly depends on monsoons rain that is very
uncertain, Spatial variation in rainfall, low winter rain etc.. It may cause many type of problems
like flood and droughts that should be responsible for crop loss.
Hence, irrigation is of at most importance for an agriculture based country like India. To
feed a population of over one billion people, there is a need for production of crop round the
year. But for this purpose, irrigation is needed. So for the production of food crop and cash
crops, for higher yield and proper cropping system irrigation is a must that should be help to
increase our India Economy.

References

 Reddy SR , 2007 . Irrigation Agronomy, Kalyani publication pp; 14-15.

 Irrigation in India , Wikipedia .
 Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Ministry of Agriculture and Farmer Welfare ,
India .
 National Water Development Agency (2014 ), Ministry of water Resources, Govt. Of
India.
 Indian Geography, Importance of Irrigation in India Agriculture .
 Chhattisgarh water resource department , Raipur ,Chhattisgarh.
 https://www.onlinegk.com
 Shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in
 24

CHAPTER-3
WATER ROLES AND SOIL WATER MOVEMENT
Introduction:
Water is known as universal solvent which is colourless, orderless and transparent in nature.
Water is essential for all living organisms and plants are no exception. In fact, most of the
actively growing plants may contain almost 90 per cent of water. It is generally stated that less
than one per cent of the total water used by the plant (consumptive use) is needed for its
metabolic activities.
Role of water in plants:
Ecological importance: The distribution of vegetation over the surface of earth is controlled by
the availability of water than any other single factor. In heavy rainfall area, flush vegetation
(forest) is observed.
Physiological importance: The ecological importance of water is result of physiological
importance.
 It is a constituent of protoplasm: Water is as important quantitatively as qualitatively
Constituting 80 to 90 Percent of fresh weight of most herbaceous plant parts and 50 percent of
the fresh weight of woody plant.
 It is a very good solvent: Water acts as a solvent in which gases, minerals (plant Nutrients) and
other solutes are dissolved. The dissolved plant nutrients are absorbed by Plant through soil
solution. It acts as a carrier of food nutrients.
 It controls the temperature of plant and soil.
 It is a reagent: Water acts as a reagent in many important processes,
such as photosynthesis and hydrolysis of starch and sugar.
 It maintains turgidity of plant: Maintenance of turgidity is essential for
cell Enlargement and growth. Turgidity is also important in opening of
the stomata, movement of leaves, flower, petals etc.
 It is a major part of plant body.
 So, water is applied externally, if availability seems limited through soil,
not sufficient to meet the requirement due to drought or excess losses.
We call the external application of water to the soil to supplement the requirement as
`Irrigation'.
Water’s Structure:
Water is a molecule made of two hydrogen atoms and
one oxygen atom. The Hydrogen atoms have a slightly
 25

positive charge and the Oxygen atoms have a slightly negative charge.
Properties of water:
 Water as a chemical it is a small molecule. Water has a low MW: 18, melting point : 0°C, boiling
point :100°C and it has apparent diameter of 2.5 Ao.
 Principle property of water is dipolar nature and hydrogen bonding.
 Structure which has both positive and negative charges on the same surface area are called as
Polar/bipolar/dipolar structure.
 Water has high specific heat, heat of vaporization and heat of fusion.
 Amount of energy required to raise the temperature by one gram of water by 1 oC is called
specific heat. Energy required 4.184 J.
 Amount of energy required to change one gram of liquid water to water vapour is called as
latent heat of vaporization. Energy required is 2452 J at 20 oC
 Amount of energy required to change one gram of liquid water to ice is called as latent heat of
fusion. Energy required is 335 J.
 Water shows very high adhesive and cohesive property. Attraction between the unlike
molecules [water and other charged molecules] or ability of a substance to have
intermolecular attraction between dissimilar particles are called adhesive property.
 Ability of substance to have high enter molecular attraction between similar molecules is
called cohesion property.

Due to adhesive and cohesive property of water, it develops other four

properties.

 Water develops high tensile strength: Ability of group of water molecules to withstand high
levels of tension or negative pressure without getting separated itself. This property helps in
bulk movement of water in plant system.
 Water has high surface tension: Force acting invert within the molecules to keep the surface
area as small as possible is called as surface tension.
 Water develops high capillary force: Ability of liquid to rise to different levels in tubes of
narrow diameter is called as capillary force.
 Water has low viscosity: Ability of liquid to flow from one region to other region due to
cohesion and adhesive property of water is called as viscosity.
 Water has high dielectric constant: It is the ability of substance to neutralise the charges
present on the surface of another substance is called as dielectric constant. Due this property
water is called as universal solvent
 26

Types of soil water:

(i) Gravitational Water:

It is the water that drains downwards through the soil. The level to which it drains is called
the water table. The water table of a place differs in depth due to rainfall. The gravitational
water lies far below and is generally
not available to plant roots. It is of
extreme importance as it causes
washing out of minerals and nutrients
from the soil called leaching. Part of
water that is retained by soil could be
hygroscopic water and/or capillary
water.

(ii) Hygroscopic Water:

It is the water that is retained as a thin
film around the individual soil
particles. Strong attractive forces
between the soil particles and the water molecules hold this water tightly. This is the water
least available to the plant and is generally the water left in the dry soils. In the clay soils, it
amounts to about 15% and in the sandy soils to about 0.5%.

(iii) Capillary Water:

The soil particles always have very fine pores in between, forming a very fine capillary
system as the water spreads, it fills the finer pores and is held round the soil particles by
capillary forces against the force of gravity, due to high surface tension of water. It is this
water, which is readily available and is easily utilized by the plant roots. The clay soil being
very fine textured holds much more water than sandy soil. When a soil is watered, it retains
good amount of capillary water and thus condition is known as field capacity.

Soil Water and Movement of Water in the Soil:

Soil Water:
• Since a constant supply of water in the soil is necessary for plant survival and growth,
the irrigation engineer is concern with how water moves in a soil, how much water a soil
can hold and how much of it is available to plants. Generally, the finer the soil particles
and larger the amount of organic matter, the more water a soil holds.
 27

Movement of Water in the Soil:

1. Infiltration:
When the water first enters or makes its downward movement through the soil surface. It is
called infiltration of water and the rate at which water is penetrating the surface of soil at any
given instant is called the infiltration rate, usually measured in cm/hr. infiltration rates may be
ranged from 2.5cm/hr to about 25 cm/hr hydraulic conductivity values.
2. Permeability or Hydraulic Conductivity:
It is the quality of soil that enables it to transmit air and water and is measured in cm/day.
Hydraulic conductivity depends on the properties of the soil. A soil that has high porosity and
coarse open texture has high hydraulic conductivity values.
3. Percolation:
The downward movement of water through the soil due to force of gravity is termed as
percolation. The percolation water goes into the soil unit it meets the free water table. On the
one hand, due to rapid percolation, there is practically no danger of soil suffering from bad
drainage, but on the other hand, there is a possibility of the dissolved plant nutrients like
calcium and magnesium being carried into deep into roots of common field crop. In sand soil or
open textured soil there is a rapid loss of water through percolation.
4. Capillary Movement:
Once flow due to gravitational force has ceased the water moved in the form of thin or capillary
film from a wet regions to dry region.

Pathways of Water Movements in Roots:

The following points highlight the two types of pathways of water passage from root hair to
xylem inside the root.
The types are: 1. Apoplast Pathway 2. Symplast Pathway.
1. Apoplast Pathway:
Here water passes from root hair to xylem through the walls of intervening cells without
crossing any membrane or cytoplasm. The pathway provides the least resistance to movement
of water. However, it is interrupted by the presence of impermeable lignosuberin casparian
strips in the walls of endodermal cells.
2. Symplast Pathway:
Water passes from cell to cell through their protoplasm. It does not enter cell vacuoles. The
cytoplasm of the adjacent cells are connected through bridges called plasmodesmata. For
entering into symplast, water has to pass through plasma lemma (cell membrane) at-least at
one place. It is also called trans membrane pathway. Symplastic movement is aided by
cytoplasmic streaming of individual cells. It is, however, slower than apoplastic movements.
 28

Both the pathways are involved in the movement across the root. Water flows via apoplast in
the cortex. It enters the symplast pathway in the endodermis where walls are impervious to
flow of water due to the presence of casparian strips. Here, only plasmodesmata are helpful to
allow passage of water into pericycle from where it enters the xylem. Mineral nutrients also
have the same pathway as that of water. However, their absorption and passage into symplast
mostly occurs through active absorption. Once inside the xylem, the movement is purely along
the pressure gradient.

Water movement:-There are two major ways to move molecules:

A.Bulk (or Mass) Flow:
This is the mass movement of molecules in response to a pressure gradient. The
molecules move from high to a low pressure, following a pressure gradient.
 29

B. Diffusion:
The net, random movement of individual molecules from one area to another. Another
way of stating this is that the molecules move from an area of high free energy (higher
concentration) to one of low free energy (lower concentration). The net movement stops when
a dynamic equilibrium is achieved.
The successively smaller branches of the root system of any plant terminate
ultimately in the root tips, of which there may be thousands and often
millions on a single plant. Most absorption of water occurs in the root tip
regions, and especially in the root hair zone. Older portions of most roots
become covered with cutinized or suberized layers through which only very
limited quantities of water can pass. Whenever the water potential in the
peripheral root cells is less than that of the soil water, movement of water from the soil into the
root cells occurs.

The major functions of roots are:

1. Absorption of water and inorganic nutrients.
2. Anchoring the plant body to the ground.
3. Roots also function in cytokinin synthesis, which supplies some of shoot needs.
4. They often function in storage of food.

Water Movement Through a Plant:

To start with the roots:
Most of the water absorption is carried out by the younger part of the roots. Just behind the
growing tip of a young root is the piliferous region, made up of hundreds of projections of the
epidermal tissue, the root hairs. Root hairs can be seen very clearly in newly germinated seeds,
the root hairs are short lived being constantly replaced as new growth takes place. The narrow
walled hairs greatly increase the surface area over which water absorption can take place.
Water in the soil spaces is taken into the root hairs by the process of osmosis, there being a
higher water concentration outside than within the root hair cells.

Absorption mechanism:
All absorption of water occurs along gradient of decreasing water from the medium in which
the roots are growing to the root xylem. However, the gradient is produced differently in slowly
and in rapidly transpiring plants. This results in two absorption mechanisms:
1. Active absorption or osmotic absorption in slowly transpiring where roots behave as
osmometers, and
 30

2. Passive absorption in rapidly transpiring plants where water is pulled in by the decreased
pressure or tension produced in the xylem sap through the roots, which function as passive
surfaces. It is operative in the form of root pressure, bleeding and guttation.
Root pressure:
Roots of plant absorb water from the soil. Water is thus exuded in the xylem ducts of the root
and stem under pressure, the pressure developed inside the roots due to absorption of water is
called the root pressure. It is believed to be a simple osmotic process, caused by accumulation
of sufficient solutes in the xylem ducts to lower the water potential of the xylem sap below that
of the substrate.

Root pressure occurs in the xylem of some vascular plants when the soil moisture level is high
either at night or when transpiration is low during the day. When transpiration is high, xylem
sap is usually under tension, rather than under pressure, due to transpirational pull. At night in
some plants, root pressure causes guttation or exudation of drops of xylem sap from the tips or
edges of leaves. Root pressure is studied by removing the shoot of a plant near the soil level.
Xylem sap will exude from the cut stem for hours or days due to root pressure. If a pressure
gauge is attached to the cut stem, the root pressure can be measured. Root pressure is caused
by active transport of mineral nutrient ions into the root xylem. Without transpiration to carry
the ions up the stem, they accumulate in the root xylem and lower the water potential. Water
then diffuses from the soil into the root xylem due to osmosis. Root pressure is caused by this
accumulation of water in the xylem pushing on the rigid cells. Root pressure provides a force,
which pushes water up the stem, but it is not enough to account for the movement of water to
leaves at the top of the tallest trees. The maximum root pressure measured in some plants can
raise water only to about 20 meters, and the tallest trees are over 100 meters tall.
 31

Role of endodermis:
The endodermis in the root is important in the development of root pressure. The endodermis
is a single layer of cells between the cortex to the outside and the pericycle. A waterproof
substance in the walls of endodermal cells, suberin, prevents mineral nutrient ions from moving
passively through the endodermal cell walls. Movement of water and ions in the cell walls is the
apoplast pathway. The suberin layer is termed the Casparian strip. Ions outside the endodermis
must be actively transported across an endodermal cell membrane to enter or exit the
endodermis. Once inside the endodermis, the ions are in the symplast pathway. They cannot
diffuse back out again but can move from cell to cell via plasmodesmata or be actively
transported into the xylem. Once in the xylem vessels or tracheids, ions are again in the
apoplast pathway. Xylem vessels and tracheids transport water up the plant but lack cell
membranes. The Casparian strip substitutes for their lack of cell membranes and prevents
accumulated ions from diffusing passively in apoplast pathway out of the endodermis. The ions
accumulating interior to the endodermis in the xylem create a water potential gradient and by
osmosis, water diffuses from the moist soil, across the cortex, through the endodermis and into
the xylem.

Passive water absorption:

This is the most prevalent method of water absorption. In this process the force concerned with
this type of absorption eminates the aerial parts of the plant especially leaves and causes a
tension in the xylem sap. From the root tip to the apical portion of the plant there is a
continuous column of water present in the xylem elements. These are in contact with the living
cell. As a result of the active transpiration of the leaves, water is drawn from the adjacent to the
intercellular spaces below the stomota and these do so from the xylem in turn. Water in the
xylem ducts is put into a great tension. This tension decreases water potential of the xylem sap.
Root hairs are present in the soil and are in touch with the water molecules to be absorbed. As
a result the tension of the xylem sap can be remedied in these root hairs.

Factor affecting passive water absorption:

Plant factors:
Root system:
 The number and length of root hairs as well as the length of root hair zone determine
the extent of water absorbed from the soil.
• Deeper portions of the roots are less efficient in the water uptake compared to the less
deep portions.
• The continuous formation and growth of root hair facilitate water uptake. Also
metabolism of the root hair influences the amount of water uptake.
 32

Resistance of conducting system:

 The rate of water absorption directly depends upon the resistance to the passage of
water.
 The latter is connected with the cell wall permeability, metabolic state of the
protoplasm, nature of endodermis, xylem vessels: their location, distribution and
diameter

Environmental factors:
Availability of soil water:
 The amount of water content of the soil influences the rate of the water absorption.
 Soil having poor aeration, low metabolism affect water uptake.

Concentration of salts:
• If the soil water has enormous quantities of minerals dissolved in it, this will increase the
osmotic pressure of the soil.

Soil air:
• The amount of aeration of soil greatly influences the water absorption.
• Water logged soil has less amount of dissolved oxygen.
• Also higher CO2 is detrimental to the absorption of water.

Transpiration:
• Water uptake is closely linked with the rate of transpiration.
• Since transpiration causes tension through the water loss.
• Therefore high rate of transpiration causes increased water absorption.

Soil temperature:
• Cold soils are physiologically dry.
• Low temperature affects root metabolism especially its permeability and its elongation.
• At temperatures between 15-25oc the absorption of water is maximal.
References:
1. Principles of agronomy – S.R. Reddy
2. http://plantsinaction.science.uq.edu.au/book/export/html/192
3. http://www.biologyreference.com/Ve-Z/Water-Movement-in-Plants.html
4. https://www.slideshare.net/PamodaJay/water-movement-through-a-plant-15933182
 33

CHAPTER-4
TRANSPIRATION, ABSORPTION AND SOIL-WATER-PLANT
RELATIONSHIPS

Overview of transpiration: Water is passively transported into the roots and then into the
xylem. The forces of cohesion and adhesion cause the water molecules to form a column in the
xylem. Water moves from the xylem into the mesophyll cells, evaporates from their surfaces
and leaves the plant by diffusion through the stomata.

Transpiration:
Transpiration is the process of water movement through a plant and its evaporation from aerial
parts, such as leaves, stems and flowers. Water is necessary for plants but only a small amount
of water taken up by the roots is used for growth and metabolism. The remaining 97–99.5% is
lost by transpiration and guttation.

Types of Transpiration:
Most of the transpiration occurs through foliar surface or surface of
the leaves. It is known as foliar transpiration. Foliar transpiration
accounts for over 90% of the total transpiration. Young stems,
flowers, fruits, etc. also transpire a lot. Mature stems transpire very
little. Transpiration from stems is called cauline transpiration.
Depending upon the plant surface transpiration is of the following
four types— stomatal, cuticular, lenticular and bark.
i. Stomatal Transpiration:
It is the most important type of transpiration. Stomatal transpiration constitutes about
50-97% of the total transpiration. It occurs through the stomata. The stomata are found mostly
on the leaves. A few of them occur on the young stems, flowers and fruits. Water vapours,
therefore, pass outwardly through stomata
by diffusion. More water evaporates from
the internal cells to replace the outgoing
water vapours. The stomatal transpiration
continues till the stomata are kept open.
ii. Cuticular Transpiration:
It occurs through the cuticle or
epidermal cells of the leaves and other
exposed parts of the plant. In common land plants cuticular transpiration is only 3-10% of the
 34

total transpiration. In herbaceous shade loving plants where the cuticle is very thin, the
cuticular transpiration may be up to 50% of the total. Cuticular transpiration continues
throughout day and night.

iii. Lenticular or Lenticellate Transpiration:

It is found only in the woody branches of the trees where lenticels occur. The lenticular
transpiration is only 0.1% of the total transpiration. It, however, continues day and night
because lenticels have no mechanism of closure. The lenticels connect the atmospheric air with
the cortical tissue of the stem through the intercellular spaces present amongst the
complementary cells.
iv. Bark Transpiration:
This type of transpiration occurs through corky covering of the stems. Bark transpiration
is very little but its measured rate is often more than lenticular transpiration due to larger area.
Like cuticular and lenticular types of transpiration, bark transpiration occurs continuously
during day and night.

Mechanism of Water Loss in Transpiration:

In order to form vapours, water present inside the exposed parts of the plant requires a
source of heat energy. It is the radiant energy during the day and heat energy from the
transpiring organ during the night. In both the cases the temperature of the transpiring organs
comes to lie 2-5 °C below that of the atmosphere.
The atmosphere is rarely saturated with water vapours. The dry air of the atmosphere
has a high DPD (or low water potential)-13.4 atm at 99% relative humidity or RH, 140 atm at
90% RH, 680 atm at 60% and 2055 atm at 20% RH.
Such a high DPD or low water potential can overcome various types of resistances water
molecules have to meet in changing from liquid phase to vapour phase and the movement of
water vapours out of the transpiring organ.
The intercellular spaces of the transpiring organ is almost saturated with water vapours.
When the stomata are open, the water vapours are drawn from the sub-stomatal cavities to the
outside air due to high DPD of the latter. This increases the DPD of the sub-stomatal air which
draws more water vapours from the intercellular spaces.
The latter in turn get water vapours from the wet walls of mesophyll cells. Stomatal
transpiration will continue till the stomata are open. Mechanism of lenticular transpiration is
similar to that of stomatal transpiration.
Cuticle is not much permeable to water. However, its molecules absorb water from the
epidermal cells by imbibition. The imbibed water is slowly lost to the atmosphere which has a
high DPD. Imbibition flow is reduced by the thickness of cuticle.
 35

Therefore, a thick cuticle does not allow transpiration to occur through it. Cuticle is
shrunken and thicker during the day but at night it expands and becomes loose. Therefore,
cuticular transpiration can be more at night. Mechanism of bark transpiration is similar to that
of cuticular transpiration.

Mechanism of Stomatal Movement:

Stomata function as turgor-operated valves because their opening and closing
move-ment is governed by turgor changes of the guard cells. Whenever, the guard cells swell
up due to increased turgor, a pore is created between them. With the loss of turgor the
stomatal pores are closed.
Stomata generally open during the day and close during the night with a few exceptions.
The important factors which govern the stomatal opening are light, high pH or reduced CO 2 and
availability of water. The opposite factors govern stomatal closure, viz., darkness, low pH or
high CO2 and dehydration.

There are three main theories about the mechanism of stomatal movements:

i. Hypothesis of Guard Cell Photosynthesis:

Guard cells con-tain chloroplasts. During day the chloroplasts perform photosynthesis
and produce sugar. Sugar increases osmotic concentration of guard cells. It causes absorption
of water from nearby epidermal cells. The turgid guard cells bend outwardly and create a pore
in between. However, photosynthetic activity of guard cell chloroplasts seems to be negligible.
ii. Classical Starch Hydrolysis Theory :
The main features of the theory were spelled out by Sayre (1923). It was modified by Steward
(1964). The guard cells contain starch. At low carbon dioxide concentration (in the morning
achieved through pho-tosynthesis by mesophyll and guard cells), pH of guard cells rises.
It stimulates enzyme phosphorylase. Phosphorylase converts starch into glucose 1-
phosphate. The latter is changed to glucose 6-phosphate which undergoes hydrolysis to
produce glucose and phosphoric acid. Glucose increases osmotic concentration of guard cells.
On account of it, the guard cells absorb water from neighbouring cells, swell up and create a
pore in between them.
Evening closure of stomata is brought about by increased carbon dioxide content (due
to stoppage of photosynthesis) of leaf. It decreases pH of guard cells and brings about
phosphorylation of glucose. In the presence of phosphorylase, glucose 1-phosphate is changed
into starch.
 36

As a result, osmotic concentration of guard cells falls. They lose water to adjacent
epidermal cells. With the loss of turgidity, the guard cells shrink and close the pore in between
them.
Objections:
1. Glucose is not found in guard cells at the time of stomatal opening,
2. Starch ↔ Sugar changes are chemically slow while opening and closing of stomata are
quite rapid,
3. Wide changes in pH of guard cells cannot be explained on the basis of carbon dioxide
concentration,
4. On-ion and some of its relatives do not possess starch or related polysaccharide that can be
hydrolysed to the level of glucose,
5. Blue light has been found to be more effective than other wavelengths for opening of
stomata. The same cannot be explained by starch hydrolysis theory,
6. Hydrolysis of starch theory cannot account for high rise in osmotic pressure found in guard
cells.
7. Development of High and Low Osmotic Pressures in Guard Cells

iii. Malate or K+ ion Pump Hypothesis (Modern Theory):

The main features of the theory were put forward by Levitt (1974). According to this
theory, pH of the guard cell can rise due to active H+ uptake by guard cell chloroplasts or
mitochondria, CO2 assimilation by mesophyll and guard cells. A rise in pH causes hydrolysis of
starch to form organic acids, especially phosphoenol pyruvate. Starch → Hexose Phosphate →
Phosphoenol Pyruvate.
Phosphoenol pyruvate can also be formed by pyruvic acid of respiratory pathway. With
the help of PEP carboxylase (PEP case), it combines with available CO2 to produce oxalic acid
which gets changed into malic acid.
Malic acid dissociates into H+ and malate. H+ ions pass out of the guard cells actively. In
exchange, K+ ions pass inwardly. Same CI– ions may also enter guard cells along with K+ ions.
Guard cells maintain their electroneutrality by balancing K+ with malate and Cl-.
.
Factors Affecting Stomatal Movements:
Stomatal movements are influenced by a number of environmental factors like light,
temperature, humidity, water availability and CO2 concentration. Internal or endogenous
factors include growth hormones, organic acids, K+, Сl– and H+ ions.
 37

i. Light:
In the majority of plants the stomata open in light and close in darkness. The light
intensity required for stomatal opening is quite low (250 ft. candles in Tobacco). Even moon
light is sufficient in some cases.
Both red and blue parts of light are effective though the latter is slightly more effective.
However, in suc-culents or CAM plants (crassulacean acid metabolism), the stomata remain
closed during daytime. They open only during dark, e.g., Agave, Opuntia, and Pineapple.

ii. Temperature:
Q10 for stomatal opening is two. At 38°- 40°C, stomata can open in complete darkness,
while at 0°C they remain closed even in continuous light. Normally high temperature above
30°C reduces stomatal opening in many species.

iii. Atmospheric Humidity:

In humid environment the stomata remain opened for longer periods while in dry
environment they remain closed for longer periods.

iv. Water Availability:

Plants undergo water stress if availability of water is less than the rate of transpiration.
Water stress (= water deficit = moisture deficit) brings about stomatal closure due to ABA and
rise in DPD of epidermal cells.

v. Mechanical Shock:
It causes closure of stomata.

vi. CO2 Concentration:

Low CO2 concentration usually induces opening of stomata while high CO2
concentration closes the same. In some plants mere breathing over the leaves causes stomatal
closure.
However, guard cells are sensitive to CO2 concentration only from their inner side (i.e.,
concentration in the leaf interior). Stomata of a plant transferred to dark CO2 free environment
will remain closed but they will open in light when internal CO2 is utilised.

vii. Oxygen:
It is essential for opening of stomata.
 38

viii. pH:
Rise in pH is known to be required for opening of stomata while a fall in pH induces
closure of stomata.
ix. Growth Hormones:
Cytokinins are essential for opening of stomata while abscisic acid takes part in stomatal
closure.
x. Minerals:
Stomatal opening depends upon availability of K+ ions from adjacent epidermal cells. A
number of other minerals are also essential for stomatal movements, e.g., P, N, Mg, Ca, etc.

Water Transport and Absorption in Plants:

In higher plants water is absorbed through root hairs which are in
contact with soil water and form a root hair zone a little behind the
root tips. Root hairs are tubular hair like prolongations of the cells
of the epidermal layer (when epidermis bears root hairs it is also
known as piliferous layer) of the roots. The walls of root hairs are
permeable and consist of pectic substances and cellulose which are
strongly hydrophilic (water loving) in nature. Root hairs contain
vacuoles filled with cell sap.

Water transport in plants

There is a difference in the water transport of vascular and non-vascular plants. The
process of transportation is much more developed in the vascular plants with specialized
systems called xylem and phloem. The non-vascular plants do not have specialized cells so the
process in inefficient.
Vascular plants:
While plants can absorb water from
many sources the best place for this is the
root system which is in contact with the soil
where most of the water is found. The root
system is usually extensive and has root hairs
which help increase the surface area for
water absorption.
Water enters the root hair cells and then
moves from cell to cell till it reaches the root
cortex it goes on to the xylem vessels to be transported to the leaves. The xylem system is like a
 39

bunch of drinking straws tucked between fibrous tissues. Water travels up in those straws. It is
your plant on the window sill taking in a sip of water! Interestingly, the xylem is made of dead
cells. It is a tubular type of structure and is well reinforced for its function. The process that the
xylem uses is called transpiration. It is a fascinating process because it involves a tissue made of
dead cells through which water defies gravity and moves upwards! Transport in the xylem only
occurs in one direction--up.
So what is phloem? Phloem also makes up the vascular bundles which move food from
the leaves to the rest of the plant. The phloem is made of living cells and the process it uses is
called translocation. The phloem takes substances such as sugars made during photosynthesis
from the leaves to growing tissues such as root tips and shoots. Phloem also takes nutrients to
be stored in the roots. Transport by the phloem occurs in two directions--up and down

Non-vascular plants:
If you have ever gone to the Pacific Northwest where a lot of rain falls, even the
sidewalks sometimes are covered with moss. These are the non-vascular plants trying to exist
where they can get water. Non-vascular plants tend to be small due to the lack of a vascular
tissue to transport water. These plants depend on diffusion and osmosis for their water supply.
This means that they are restricted to grow in moist environments. Due to the lack of an
internal transport system they do not develop true roots, stems and leaves.

Symplast and Apoplast Pathways:

Once the water enters the root hair cells it can go down two paths--
symplast or apoplast. In the apoplast path, the water goes through the cell walls till it reaches a
waxy strip, the casparian strip. Water cannot go through this so it makes its way to the
cytoplasm. In the symplast path, the water moves through the cytoplasm directly into the
xylem.

Processes involved in the transport of water in plants:

There are three key processes involved when water is transported in plants: imbibition,
diffusion and osmosis. All three processes are important for the plant to grow and it all starts
with the seed.
Imbibition:
The water transport system starts from the seed. When you take a seed that is non-
dormant and put it in that flower pot on the window sill, add a little water to it you have started
imbibition. The seed 'imbibes' or uptakes the water and germination starts.
When the seed uptakes water it gets hydrated. This hydration causes enzymes to become
active and start working with metabolic processes. The metabolic processes produce energy
 40

which are necessary for growth. The water also increases the turgor pressure in the cells and
the seeds enlarge. Eventually the radicle (embryonic root) emerges. The seed is
the imbibant and the process is imbibition.

Diffusion:
This is the random movement of water molecules from one area to another. The
molecules move from a high to low concentration gradient and continue till equilibrium is
reached. In plants the process of diffusion moves water through the walls of the cell and also
the intercellular spaces.
Diffusion Pressure Deficit (DPD):
DPD is called suction pressure. It is the net force which lets water into a plant. The
tendency of water movement is measured in diffusion pressure. To calculate DPD the equation
used is: DPD= Osmotic pressure - turgor pressure

Soil-Plant-Water relationships
Introduction:
Both soil and water are essential for plant growth. The soil provides a structural base to
the plants and allows the root system (the foundation of the plant) to spread and get a strong
hold. The pores of the soil within the root zone hold moisture which clings to the soil
particles by surface tension in the driest state or may fill up the pores partially or fully
saturating with it useful nutrients dissolved in water, essential for the growth of the plants.
The roots of most plants also require oxygen for respiration. Hence, full saturation of the
soil pores leads to restricted root growth for these plants. (There are exceptions, though, like
the rice plant, in which the supply of oxygen to the roots is made from the leaves
through aerenchyma cells which are continuous from the leaves to the roots). Since
irrigation practice is essentially, an adequate and timely supply of water to the plant root
zone for optimum crop yield, the study of
the inter relationship between soil pores,
its water-holding capacity and plant
water absorption rate is fundamentally
important.

Hence, the study of irrigation and water

management requires the clear knowledge
about the soil-plant-water relationships.
These relations are related to soil physical
 41

properties that affect the movement, retention and use of water.

Soil physical properties influencing irrigation:

Soil has three phase systems: Solid (mineral and organic matter), Liquid (soil moisture) and
Gaseous phase (soil air), these three proportions vary widely. The solid particles are made of
different sizes. The arrangement of these particles is known as soil structure and the relative
proportion of these primary separates is known as soil texture.

The important soil physical properties influencing soil water relation are:

A. Adhesion: Attraction between different particles is known as adhesion. Adhesion refers to

the concept of tight bondage between soil particles and water molecules. Soils with coarser
fraction (sand) have lesser adhesive force. The force with which water adhered to soil lies
between 31 – 10000 atmosphere and is not readily available to the crop plant.

B. Cohesion: Attraction between similar particles is known as cohesion i.e., between soil with
soil or water with water particle. Finer the size of particle, higher will be the cohesive force.
Here, the force with which water is held between 0.33 to 30 atm.
The property of adhesion & cohesion together responsible for surface tension which is
in turn essential for upward movement of soil moisture.
C. Capillarity: It is a phenomenon in which a liquid is attracted by the soil particles and rises due
to surface tension. The rise of water due to surface tension is inversely proportional to size of
pores. The size of the pores is directly proportional to the soil particle size. Hence, the clay soils
have higher capillarity than sandy soils.
The water held by cohesive force between 15-30 atm. shows sluggish capillarity while,
0.33 to 15 atm. shows active capillarity. Based on the exhibition of the capillarity, the pore
space of a given soil is classified as
a) Capillary pore space (Micro pores) < 0.06 mm
b) Non-capillary pore space (Macro pores) > 0.06 mm
Significance of Capillarity:
1. A soil with higher capillarity is able to help in upward movement of soil moisture from
deeper layers and help the crop to survive even when the upper layer is dry.
This phenomenon is useful in rabi rainfed crops like wheat, rabi jowar, safflower which are
exclusively grown on stored moisture
2. Frequent intercultivation/ Dust mulch
 42

D. Density: The weight of a substance per unit volume is called density and expressed in 2 ways

Sl.
Particle density (PD) Bulk density (BD)
No
1 It is defined as weight of unit volume of Weight of unit volume of dry soil which includes
soil solids excluding pore space both solid and pore space
Weight of soil Weight of soil
Particle density = Bulk density =
Volume of solid Volume of soil (Solid + Pores)
2 It is not affected by pore space Largely affected by pore space
3 The value normally vary between 2.50 The value normally vary between 1.40 – 1.80 Mg
– 2.75 Mg m-3 or g cc-1 m-3 or g cc-1
4 It is calculated by compressing all solids It is calculated by taking the total volume
to bottom
If the soil of 1 cc weighs 1.33 g 1.33
BD =
0.5 cc Pore space =1.33/0.5 1.0 cc 1.0
0.5 cc Solid = 2.66 g cc-1 = 1.33 g cc-1

Significance of BD:
1. It is a measure of compactness of the soil
2. To calculate the percentage of moisture on volume basis
3. To calculate the % porespace
Factors affecting BD:
1. Parent material
2. Organic matter status of soil
3. Machine induced compactness
4. Cultivation
Parameters being influenced by BD:
1. WHC
2. Weight of soil
3. Infiltration capacity
4. Penetrability of roots
5. Gemination of seeds
E. Porosity:
Porosity is defined as total space between soil particles.
The pore space of a soil is that portion that occupied by air & water. If the soil particles
are tend to be close as in sand, the total porosity is low. If they are arranged in porous
 43

aggregates as in medium & fine textured soil, pore space per unit volume is high. The pore
space is calculated by
% Pore space = 100 (1 – BD/PD)
Significance of Porosity:
1. Maximum capacity of the soil to hold the water
Factors affecting Porosity:
1. BD
2. Texture of soil
3. Structure of soil
Parameters being influenced by Porosity:
1. Soil aeration
2. Root penetrability
3. WHC
F. Volume wetness: Volume wetness refers to the volumetric share of water in total volume of
soil. It is helpful to calculate the volume of water held in known volume of soil. Volume wetness
under saturation is equal to pore space.
Volume of water Vw
Volume wetness (VW) = =
Volume of soil Vt
Vw
On percentage basis, VW = X 100
Vt
Water present in all soil horizons may not be useful for crop plant. It is essential to calculate the
volume wetness in the effective root zone. Effective root zone (ERZ) is defined as the depth of
soil from which the crop absorb moisture or the depth at which the active roots are
concentrated. It varies from crop to crop. With in the ERZ, the moisture extraction / absorption
varies greatly between different layers as
indicated below

G. Mass wetness: is the percentage weight of moisture in a given weight of soil.

Weight of moisture (Mf)
Mass wetness (MW) = X 100
Weight of soil sample (Mt)
 44

Forms of water in soil:

When water is added to dry soil, it is distributed around the soil particles where it is held
by adhesive and cohesive forces. Water displaces air in the pore spaces and eventually fills the
pores. Based on the force with which it is held, there are three main forms of soil water. They
are
i) Hygroscopic water (water of adhesion): Water held tightly (> 31 atmosphere) to the surface
of soil particle by adsorption forces. This is non-available for absorption of plants.
ii) Capillary water (water of cohesion): Water held by relatively at lower force (0.33 to 30 atm.)
as continuous film around soil particles in the capillary spaces. This is available for plant
uptake.
iii) Gravitational water: Water held very loosely (<0.33 atm.) that moves freely in response to
gravity and drains out of the soil.
Soil moisture constants: Based on the cohesion force and extent of filling of pore space,
different soil moisture constants are identified. These are considered Constants because of the
constancy nature associated with these values for specific soil condition. They won’t change by
climate, season or crop. The soil moisture constants are
1. Maximum water holding capacity (MWHC) or Saturation capacity: When all the pores of the
soil are filled with water, the soil is said to be under saturation capacity or maximum water
holding capacity. The tension of water at saturation capacity is almost equal to free water
surface (0 atm.). It is the ceiling, beyond which additional supply of water will only result in
runoff loss.
Features / characteristics of MWHC:
a) Constant for given soil
b) Indicates the limit to which water can be stored in soil
c) Includes the water - Percolation loss (Downward pulling)
d) Lead to runoff
Practical Significance:
a) Maximum irrigation Should not be more than MWHC
b) As the MWHC of different soils are different, the quantity of water used to saturate
different soils will have to be different
It may be noted that plants cannot extract the full available water with the same efficiency.
About 75 percent of the amount is rather easily extracted, and it is called the readily
available water. The available water holding capacity for a few typical soil types are given as
in the following table:
 45

Field Capacity Permanent Bulk Available water

Soil Texture (FC) percent Wilting Point Density(γs) per meter
(PWP) percent 3 depth of soil
Kg/m
profile(m)

Sandy 5 to 10 2 to 6 1500 to 1800 0.05 to 0.1

Sandy loam 10 to 18 4 to 10 1400 to 1600 0.09 to 0.16

Loam 18 to 25 8 to 14 1300 to 1500 0.14 to 0.22

Clay loam 24 to 32 11 to 16 1300 to 1400 0.17 to 0.29

Clay 32 to 40 15 to 22 1200 to 1400 0.20 to 0.21

2. Field capacity (FC): Also called as capillary capacity, field carrying capacity, normal moisture
capacity etc. At field capacity, the large soil pores (macro pores) are filled with air, the
microspores are filled with water and any further drainage is slow. The field capacity is the
upper limit of available moisture. The soil moisture tension at field capacity varies from soil to
soil, but generally ranges from 1/10 to 1/3 atmosphere.

Features / characteristics of FC:

a) Constant for given soil
b) Top soils have highest FC
c) Upper limit of available water to the crop – great practical significance
d) FC of soil may be slightly altered – regular application of manures

Practical Significance:
a) FC indicates the capacity of soil to hold the moisture without being available for
gravitational force
b) Supply water upto FC
c) Ceiling limit – waste (drained out)
d) Crop will not be able to experience the FC throughout the crop growth period
e) Indicates, different soils have different percolation and runoff capacities for a constant
quantity of water supplied

3. Wilting point: It is soil moisture condition at which the plants show the wilting symptoms. It
may be
a. Temporary wilting point (TWP): Here, the plants show the symptom of wilting but regains
their turgidity when they are exposed to humid chamber.
 46

b. Permanent wilting percentage (PWP): Also called as wilting co-efficient. It is the soil
moisture content at which plants can no longer obtain enough moisture to meet the
transpiration requirements and remain wilted unless water is added to the soil. The moisture
tension of a soil at PWP ranges from 7 to 30 atmosphere.
c. Ultimate wilting point (UWP): This is the stage at which the plants die and no longer regains
its turgidity even with external addition of water. Here, the moisture is held at a tension of
>31 atmp.
Features / characteristics of PWP:
a) Constant for given soil
b) It may vary with depth of soil
c) Lower limit of available water to the crop – great practical significance
d) PWP of soil is not alterable by any management methods including application of
manures
Practical Significance:
a) Lower limit of available water to the crop – upto which crop roots can absorb the
moisture
b) Once soil reaches PWP , the wilted plants may not recover even if the moisture is made
available to plants later

4. Available soil moisture (ASM) / water (AW): Soil moisture between field capacity and
permanent wilting point is referred to as available water. FC represents the upper limit of
available soil water and PWP represent the lower limit of AW. It is also referred to the moisture
available for plant use.
Available soil moisture is calculated using the formulae
FC – PWP
ASM = X BD X Depth of soil
100
Illustration: Calculate the available soil moisture for a crop with 60 cm ERZ using the following
data
Soil depth FC (%) PWP (%) BD (g cc-1) ASM (cm)
0 – 15 cm 24 9 1.30 2.93
15 – 30 cm 25 10 1.35 3.04
30 -45 cm 22 18 1.40 2.94
45 – 60 cm 26 18 1.60 3.36
Total Available soil moisture 12.27
Expression of soil moisture: Soil moisture of a give soil is expressed as
a) Gravimetric percentage (Volume wetness): Gram of water / moisture per unit weight (100
g) of soil. It is also called as weight basis (Pw).
 47

b) Volumetric percentage (volume wetness): Volume of water per unit volume of soil. It is
also called as volume basis (Pv).
c) Linear measurement of water / depth of soil: cm of water per 1 meter depth of soil.
d) Linear measurement: cm or mm or inch or litre.
e) Soil moisture tension: It is the measure of tenacity with which water is held / retained in
the soil and shows the force that must be exerted to remove unit quantity of water from
the soil.
The tenacity is measured in terms of potential energy of water. It is ‘0’ in free water and
negative in soil water. It is expressed as bars or atmospheres.
1 bar = 0.9869 atm. ≈ 1 atmp. (1 atm. = average air pressure at sea level).
Recently, Mega Pascals (M Pa) were also used. 1 M Pa = 10 bars
1 atmp. = 1036 cm of water = 7639 cm of Hg
1 bar = 106 dynes cm-2 = 1023 cm of water
Soil moisture tension is measured with ‘Tensiometer’.
f) pF: R.K. Schofield (1935) introduced a concept of free energy of water (pF) and defined as
“The tension with which water is held by the soil as the log of free energy of water.
pF = Log10 h h = height of water column
It is the logarithm of height in cm of a column of water, which represents the total stress
with which water is held by a soil.

g) Soil water potential: The tendency of water to move in any system is expressed in terms of
water potential. Soil water potential is the difference between the free energy of soil water to
that of pure water at reference stage (Pure water). Free energy of pure water is considered
“Zero”. Absorbed water or soil moisture is less free to move than water in free water body.
Hence, soil water has always a negative potential (< 0).
According to international Society of Soil Science, the total soil water potential can be defined
as the amount of work that must be done per unit quantity of pure water in order to transport
reversibly and isothermally an infinitesimal quantity of water from a pool of pure water at a
specified elevation at atmospheric pressure to the point under consideration.
Importance:
 Measure of the energy status of the soil water.
 Important because it reflects how hard plants must work to extract water.
 Units of measure are normally bars or atmospheres.
 Soil water potentials are negative pressures (tension or suction).
 Water flows from a higher (less negative) potential to a lower (more negative) potential

Total soil water potential is denoted as ‘ψ’ and has 4 components

 48

ψw = ψg + ψp + ψm + ψs
ψw = Total water potential ψg = Gravitational potential ψp = Pressure potential
ψm = Matric potential ψs = Solute or osmotic potential

Gravitational potential (ψg): is attributed to the gravitational force and is dependent on the
elevation. It is the amount of work required to move a unit quantity of water in an equilibrium
soil-water (or plant-water) system at an arbitrary level is capable of doing when it moves to
another equilibrium identical in all respects except that it is at a reference level. In soil surface
water flows down under the influence of gravity. Hence, ψg is positive and negligible in soil
water.

Pressure potential (ψp): is attributed to the atmospheric pressure. In unsaturated soil, ψ p is

considered ‘Zero’.

Matric potential (ψm): A Soil matrics / soil solid consist of sand, silt, clay and organic matter.
These solids having difference in adhesive & capillarity and reduces free energy of soil water.
Hence matric potential is always negative. It is also called Capillary potential.

Osmotic/solute potential (ψs): It is the portion of water potential that results from the solute
(exchangeable cations and soluble salts) present in the soil system. Dissolved salts reduce the
status of free energy status of water. Hence, ψs is always negative.
Water always moves from wet soil (higher water potential of less negative) to dry soil
(lower water potential or more negative potential).
Under normal condition, the soil water potential = -0.1 to -20 atm. or bars
The leaf water potential = -5.0 to – 50 bars or atmp.
Atmosphere = - 1000 to -200 bars or atmp.
This difference creates a gradient or driving force for movement of water from soil to leaf and it
escapes to atmosphere. This is known as Soil – plant – atmosphere continuum (SPAC).
Based on this relationship, the rate of uptake of water by the plant can be known by
q= Rate of water uptake Ψs : Soil water potential
ΨS - ΨL ΨL= Leaf water potential Rt: Total resistance offered to the
q=
Rt movement / flow of water (Resistance
offered by soil + root + shoot)
Soil moisture expressed in one unit could be converted in to other by knowing the fundamental
units.
 49

References:

1. Majumdar, D K (2000) Irrigation Water Management by, Prentice Hall of India.

2. SALISBURRY, F.B and ROSS,PLANT PHYSIOLOGY ,4TH EDITION
3. REDDY,S.R PRINCIPLES OF AGRONOMY
4. BRADDY,N.C and WELLS ,NATURE AND PROPERTIES OF SOIL
5. WWW.AGRIINFO.COM
6. WWW.GOOGLE.COM

7. Saha, A.K. and S. Anuradha.Textbook of soil physics (2012). kalyani publishers,

8. New Delhi. (2nd edition)
9. Reddy, S.R. Irrigation agronomy (2007).Kalyani Publishers, New Delhi.
 50

CHAPTER-5
WATER STRESS AND ITS ADAPTATION
Introduction:
Water plays an important role in part and parcel of every living organism life so as of
plants. Water chief source of hydrogen and oxygen which is the primary essential nutrient
source constituting 96% of requirement of plants. Water plays a central role in the metabolism
of plant, as a source of hydrogen for the reduction of carbon dioxide in photosynthesis and as a
product of respiration. Water is the solvent and hence the conveyor of transportable ions and
compounds into, within and out of all living plants. It is a major structural component, often
constitution more than 90 per cent of the vegetative biomass. Only a small fraction of water
absorbed by plants is used in photosynthesis from plant canopies.
Plant experience water stress either when the water supply to their roots becomes
limiting, or when the transpiration rate becomes intense. Water stress is primarily caused by a
water deficit such as drought or high salinity. In case of high soil salinity and also in other
conditions like flooding and low soil temperature, water exists in soil solution but plants cannot
uptake it – a situation commonly known as ‘physiological drought’. Drought occurs in many
parts of the world every year, frequently experienced in the field grown plants under arid and
semi-arid climates. Regions with adequate but non-uniform precipitation also experience water
limiting environments.
Energy status of water in plant cells is determined by three major factors:
 Turgor pressure (p)
 Imbibitional pressure (m)
 Solute or osmotic pressure (s).
The general effects of drought on plant growth are fairly well known. However, the primary
effect of water deficit at the biochemical and molecular levels are not considerably understood
yet and such understanding is crucial. All plants have tolerance to water stress, but the extent
varies from species to species. Knowledge of the biochemical and molecular responses to
drought is essential for a holistic perception of plant resistance mechanisms to water limited
conditions in higher plants.
Effect of water stress on plants:
Water stress affects particularly every aspect of plant growth: modifying anatomy,
morphology, physiology and biochemistry.
Some of the adverse effects of soil moisture stress on plant growth, development and yield
are:
 Loss of turgidity leading to reduced cell enlargement and stunted growth: Water stress
in plants reduces the plant-cell’s water potential and turgor, which elevate the solutes’
 51

concentrations in the cytosol and extracellular matrices. As a result, cell enlargement

decreases leading to growth inhibition and reproductive failure. This is followed by
accumulation of abscisic acid (ABA) and compatible osmolytes like proline, which cause
wilting.

 Decrease in photosynthesis due to decrease diffusion of CO2 with the closure of

stomata to conserve water and reduced leaf area:
Photosynthesis of higher plants decreases with the reduction in the relative water
content (RWC) and leaf water potential. Lower photosynthesis rate is a usual effect of
water stress in plants and has been attributed primarily to stomatal limitation and
secondarily to metabolic impairment.
There are some co-factors, which decrease plants' photosynthesis under water stress.
Of them, qualitative and quantitative changes in the pool of photosynthesizing
pigments, low CO2 uptake due to stomatal closure and resistance, poor assimilation
rates in photosynthetic leaves are prominent. Assimilation rates in photosynthetic
leaves decreases due to reduced photosynthetic metabolites and enzymes activity, low
carboxylation efficiency and inhibition of chloroplast activity at low water potential.
Among other co-factors of water stress, the damage of the photosynthetic apparatus
through the production of ROS such as superoxide and hydroxyl radicals, worth special
mention.
 Decrease in chlorophyll content,
 Increase in respiration resulting in decreased assimilation of photosynthesis,
 Breakdown of RNA, DNA and proteins: In general, proteins in the plant leave decrease
during water deficiency due to the suppressed synthesis, more pronouncedly in C 3 than
in C4 plants. Water stress alters gene expression and consequently, the synthesis of new
proteins and mRNAs.
 Inhibition of synthesis and translocation of growth regulators,
 Disturbance in association of lipids: Water stress can lead to a disturbance of the
association between membrane lipids and proteins as well as enzymes activity and
transport capacity of membranes. Drought results in the variation of fatty acid
composition, for example, an increase in fatty acids having less than 16 carbons in
chloroplasts.
 Hydrolysis of carbohydrates and proteins leading to increase in soluble sugars and
nitrogen compounds.
 52

 Morphological, anatomical and cytological changes:

 In the majority of the plant species, water stress is linked to changes in leaf
anatomy and ultrastructure. Shrinkage in the size of leaves, decrease in the
number of stomata; thickening of leaf cell walls, cutinization of leaf surface, and
underdevelopment of the conductive system - increase in the number of large
vessels, submersion of stomata in succulent plants and in xerophytes, formation
of tube leaves in cereals and induction of early senescence are the other
reported morphological changes.

 The root-to-shoot ratio increases under water-stress conditions to facilitate

water absorption and to maintain osmotic pressure, although the root dry
weight and length decrease as reported in some plants like sugar beet and
Populus. Higher root-to-shoot ratio under the drought conditions has been
linked to the ABA content of roots and shoots.

 Water stress is linked to decrease in stem length in plants such as Albizzia,

Erythrina, Eucalyptus and Populus with up to 25% decrease in plant height in
citrus seedling. Decreased leaf growth, total leaf area and leaf-area plasticity
were observed under the drought conditions in many plant species, such as
peanut and Oryza sativa.

 Although water saving is the important outcome of lower leaf area, it causes
reduced crop yield through reduction in photosynthesis. Decrease in plant
biomass consequences from the water deficit in crop plants, mainly due to low
photosynthesis and plant growth and leaf senescence during the stress
conditions. However, in some plants, higher yield was reported under-water
deficit condition.

 ABA accumulation

 The plant hormone ABA accumulates under-water deficit conditions and plays a major
role in response and tolerance to dehydration. Closure of stomata and induction of
the expression of multiple genes involved in defense against the water deficit are
known functions of ABA.
 The amount of ABAs in xylem saps increases substantially under reduced water
availability in the soil, and this results in an increased ABA concentration in different
compartments of the leaf.
 53

 Another well-known effect of drought in plants is the decrease in PM-ATPase activity.

Low PM-ATPase increases the cell wall pH and lead to the formation of ABA- form of
abscisic acid. ABA- cannot penetrate the plasma membrane and translocate toward
the gourd cell by the water stream in the leaf apoplasm.
 High ABA concentration around guard cell results in stomata closure and help to
conserve water.

 Mineral nutrition

 Water stress also affects plant mineral nutrition and disrupts ion homeostasis. Calcium
plays an essential role in structural and functional integrity of plant membrane and
other structures. Decrease in plant Ca2+ content was reported in many plants, for
example, approximately 50% decrease in Ca2+ in drought stressed maize leaves, while
in roots Ca2+ concentration was higher compared to control.
 Potassium is an important nutrient and plays an essential role in water relation,
osmotic adjustment, stomatal movement and finally plant resistance to drought.
Decrease in K+ concentration was reported in many plant species under water deficient
condition, mainly due to membrane damage and disruption in ion homeostasis. K+
deficient plant has lower resistance to water stress.
 Nitrogen metabolism is the most important factor that influences plant growth and
performance. Disruption in N metabolism is a crucial in-plant injury under the water
deficit conditions. Some studies showed the reduction of nitrate uptake and decrease
in nitrate reductase activity under water stress.

Plant response to the water stress:

 Plants’ strategies to cope with drought normally involve a mixture of stress avoidance
and tolerance strategies. Early responses of plants to drought stress usually help the
plant to survive for some time. The acclimation of the plant to drought is indicated by
the accumulation of certain new metabolites associated with the structural capabilities
to improve plant functioning under drought stress.

 The main aspects of plant responses to water involve the maintenance of homeostasis
(ionic balance and osmotic adjustment) counter action to resulted damages and their
quick repair such as scavenging of ROS and decrease oxidative stress and the regulation
and recovery of growth.
The complex plant response to water stress, alike other abiotic stresses, involves
many genes and biochemical and molecular mechanisms. Sequentially, they are: signal
 54

sensing, perception and transduction by osmosensors like AtHK1, kinases and

phospholipases as well as secondary messengers; transcriptional control by
transcription factors such as DREB (dehydration-responsive transcription factors); and
activation of stress responsive mechanisms such as detoxification of ROS by enzymes
such as SOD and CAT; osmoprotection by compatible solutes and free radicals
scavengers such as glutathione and proline; and water and ion homeostasis by
aquaporins and ion transporters. The results of these responsive pathways are the re-
establishment of cellular homeostasis and functional and structural protection and
finally stress resistance or tolerance.
Stomata closure is the well-known first responsive event of plants to water
deficiency. Stomatal closures are more closely related to soil moisture content than leaf
water status, and it is mainly controlled by chemical signals such as ABA produced in
dehydrating roots. A direct correlation between the xylem ABA content and stomatal
conductance has been demonstrated. Changes in plant hydraulic conductance, plant
nutritional status, xylem sap pH, farnesyl tranferase activity, leaf-to-air vapor pressure
deficit and decrease in relative water content are other factors working in stomatal
regulation plants. Although CO2 assimilation and net photosynthesis decreases due to
stomatal closure but attainment of low transpiration rate and prevention of water
losses from leaves is a good tradeoff for survival in exchange of growth.

 Stomata can completely close in mild to severe stress depending on plant species, and
tolerant species control stomata opening to allow some carbon fixation and improving
water-use efficiency. The increased stomatal resistance under stress levels indicates the
efficiency of a species to conserve water.

Plants resistance to water stress:

 Plants optimize the morphology, physiology and metabolism of their organs and cells in
order to maximize productivity under the drought conditions.
 The reactions of the plants to water stress differs significantly at various organizational
levels depending upon intensity and duration of stress as well as plant species and its
stage of development.
 Stress resistance in plant is divided into two categories, including stress tolerance and
stress avoidance.

 Drought avoidance is the ability of plant to maintain high tissue water potential
under drought conditions, while drought tolerance is a plant’s stability to maintain its
normal functions even at low tissue water potentials.
 55

 Drought avoidance is usually achieved through morphological changes in the plant,

such as reduced stomatal conductance, decreased leaf area, development of
extensive root systems and increased root/shoot ratios.

 On the other hand, drought tolerance is achieved by cell and tissue specific
physiological, biochemical, and molecular mechanisms, which include specific gene
expression and accumulation of specific proteins. The dehydration process of
drought-tolerant plants is characterized by fundamental changes in water relation,
biochemical and physiological process, membrane structure, and ultrastructure of
sub cellular organelles. Some plants are able to cope with arid environments by
mechanisms that mitigate drought stress, such as stomatal closure, partial
senescence of tissues, reduction of leaf growth, development of water storage
organs, and increased root length and density, in order to use water more efficiently.

 Many studies indicated that the accumulation of compatible solutes in plant's causes
resistance to various stresses such as drought, high temperature and high salinity.
Osmotic adjustment and turgor regulation are the well-illustrated functions of these
compounds in plants and algae since their high solubility in water acts as a substitute
for water molecules released from leaves. The primary function of compatible solutes
is to prevent water loss to maintain cell turgor and to maintain the gradient for water
uptake into the cell. These metabolite accumulations in cells leads to increase in the
osmotic potential and finally resulted in higher water uptake capacity by roots and
water saving in the cells. Natural osmolytes concentrations in plant cells can reach
200 mM or more, and such concentrations are osmotically significant. For example,
under water stress the proline concentration can reach up to 80% of the total amino
acid pool in some plants. Citrulline accumulates in leaves of wild watermelon plants
under drought.
Plants in their natural habitats adapt to drought stress in the environment through a variety of
mechanisms, ranging from transient responses to low soil moisture to major survival
mechanisms of escape by early flowering in absence of seasonal rainfall.
Water stress adversely impacts many aspects of the physiology of plants, especially
photosynthetic capacity. If the stress is prolonged, plant growth, and productivity are
severely diminished. Plants have evolved complex physiological and biochemical adaptations
to adjust and adapt to a variety of environmental stresses.

Physiological response Bio chemical response
•recognisation of root •Transient decrease in
signals photochemical efficiency
•Decrease in efficiency of
•loss of turgour and
rubisco
osmotic adjustment
Drought stress •decrease in stomatal
•Accumulation of stress
metabolities like MDHA,
conductance to co2 Glutathione ,Pro,Glybet
•decline in net ,polyamines and
photosynthesis alphatocopherol
•reduced growth rates •increase in anti oxidative
enzyme
•Reduced in ROS
accumulation
56
MOLECULAR response
•Stress responsive gene
expression
•Incerease expression
in ABA biosynthetic
genes
•Expression of ABA
responsive genes
•Synthesis of specific
proteins like LEA,DSP
RAB
•Drought stress
tolerance
57
 58

Conclusion:
 Due to the sessile life cycle, plants have evolved mechanisms to respond and adapt to adverse
environmental stresses during their development and growth. Plant growth is impaired by
severe drought stress due to a decrease in stomatal opening, which limits CO2 uptake and
hence reduces photosynthetic activity.
 Plant has evolved different mechanism for competing with the stress condition including
physiological biochemical molecular, but even these adaptations do not prove to be well
efficient to compensate the yield decrease but are hope.
 In order to develop strategies to maintain plant productivity, it is essential to understand the
various regulatory mechanisms that control and enhance adaptive responses to stress in
different plant species. In this review, we focused on the molecular mechanisms involved in
the plant responses to water stress and the concomitant growth adjustment. These
mechanisms include stomatal responses, ion transport, activation of stress signaling
pathways, and responses to protect photosynthesis from injury. Understanding these key
factors will enable us to improve plant productivity during water stress.

In parallel with the identification of the key molecular factors involved in these mechanisms,
new technologies to bioengineer superior plants will also enable the development of plants
with improved plant productivity. Early responses to water stress aid immediate survival,
whereas acclimation, calling on new metabolic and structural capabilities mediated by altered
gene expression, helps to improve plant functioning under stress (Bohnert and Sheveleva,
1998). Some of these responses occur at the leaf level in response to stimuli generated in the
leaf itself or elsewhere in the plant. They have a negative influence on carbon assimilation and
growth. However, it is the integrated response at the whole plant level, including carbon
assimilation and the allocation of photo assimilates to different plant parts and reproductive
ability that finally dictates survival and persistence under environmental stress.

REFERENCES:
 Basu Supratim, Venkategowda &Andy Preria Plant adaptation to drought stress, NCBI
article.
 Yuriko Osakabe,response of plants to water stress,frontiers in plant science, Annals of
botany.
 59

CHAPTER-6
Water requirement and factors determining water needs of crops
Water requirement:
Water requirement of a crop is the quantity of water needed for normal growth and yield and
may be supplied by precipitation or by irrigation or by both. Water is needed mainly to meet
the demands of evaporation (E), transpiration (T) and metabolic needs of the plants, all
together known as Consumptive Use (CU).

CU = E + T + Water needed for metabolic purposes.

Water used in the metabolic activities of plant is negligible and is often less than 1% of the
quantity of water passing through the plant. ET is, therefore, considered as equal to
consumptive use. Different losses like percolation, seepage, runoff etc., occur during transport
and application of irrigation water. Water is needed for special operations such as land
preparation, transplantation, leaching etc.

Water requirement of a crop (WR), therefore, includes evaporationspiration, application losses

and water needed for special purposes.

WR = ET + Application losses + Water for special purposes.

WR is a demand whereas the supply consists of contribution from irrigation water, effective
rainfall (ER) and soil profile contribution including that from shallow water table (S). The
approximate values of seasonal crop water needs/requirement given in below table:

Table: Approximate values of seasonal crop water needs/requirement

Crop water need Crop water need
Crop Crop
(mm) total growing period (mm) total growing period
Rice 900 – 2500 Tomato 600 – 800
Wheat 450 – 650 Potato 500 – 700
Sorghum 450 – 650 Pea 350 – 500
Maize 500 – 800 Onion 350 – 550
Sugarcane 1500 – 2500 Bean 300 – 500
Sugarbeet 550 – 750 Cabbage 380 – 500
Groundnut 500 – 700 Bannana 1200 – 2200
Cotton 700 – 1300 Citrus 900 – 1200
Soybean 450 – 700 Grape 500 – 1200
Tobacco 400 – 600 Pineapple 700 – 1000
 60

Irrigation requirement:
Irrigation requirement is the total amount of water applied to a field to supplement rainfall and
soil profile contribution to meet the water needs of crops for optimum growth.

Irrigation requirement: WR – (ER+ S)

The net irrigation requirement is the amount of irrigation water just required to bring the soil
moisture content in the root zone depth of the crops to field capacity. Thus the net irrigation
requirement is the difference between field capacity and soil moisture content in the root zone
before irrigation. Gross irrigation requirement is the total of net irrigation requirement and
other losses such as conveyance, distribution and water requirement of corps.

Soil, plant and meteorological factors determining water needs of

crops
The crop water need (ET crop) is defined as the depth (or amount) of water needed to meet
the water loss through evapotranspiration. In other words, it is the amount of water needed by
the various crops to grow optimally.

Factors influencing plant water need

There are 3 sets of factors that largely determine the frequency and amount of watering that
plants need:

Soil Factors: Water-holding capacity and usable depth

Weather Factors: Temperature, wind, humidity, and rainfall

Crop Factors: Type, depth of roots, stage of growth

Soil Factors Affecting Plant Water Needs:

A soil's water-holding capacity depends mainly on its texture. Compared with clayey
soils, sandy soils have more macropores (large pore spaces) which don't retain water as well as
micropores. In fact, sandy soils can hold only about half as much usable water per unit of depth
as clayey soils which mean that, sandy soils need more frequent but lighter waterings than
clayey soils.
 61

A soil's humus content also affects its water-holding capacity, but only on sandier soils.
Adding compost or manure to clayey soils won't improve their already high water-holding
ability (Humus is partly decomposed organic matter that has become dark and crumbly).

Usable soil depth is another important factor. Shallow soils or those with hardpans or
very compacted sub soils that restrict root depth will require lighter and more frequent
waterings than usual. Very acid subsoils (below a pH of 5.0-5.5.) can also restrict normal rooting
depth.

Soil Properties: The soil survey database provides information on important soil properties
such as texture, structure, depth, permeability and chemistry, all of which are important for
irrigation management.

Soil Texture: Soil texture is determined by the size and type of solid particles that make up the
soil. Soil particles may be mineral or organic.

Soil Structure: Soil structure refers to the grouping of particles of sand, silt and clay into larger
aggregates of various sizes and shapes. The processes of root penetration, wetting and drying
cycles, freezing and thawing, and animal activity, combined with inorganic and organic
cementing agents, produce soil structure. Structural aggregates that are resistant to physical
stress are important to the maintenance of soil tilth and productivity. Excessive cultivation or
tillage of wet soils disrupt aggregates and accelerate the loss of organic matter, thus causing
decreased aggregate stability. The movement of air, water and plant roots through a soil is
affected by soil structure. Stable aggregates result in a network of soil pores that allow rapid
exchange of air and water with plant roots. Plant growth depends on rapid rates of exchange.
Practicing beneficial soil management techniques such as using cover crops, reduced tillage,
crop rotations, organic matter additions and timely tillage practices can maintain good soil
structure. In sandy soils, aggregate stability is often difficult to maintain due to low organic
matter, clay content and resistance of sand particles to aggregation processes.

Soil Depth: Soil depth refers to the thickness of the soil materials that provide structural
support, nutrients and water for plants. The depth to a contrasting soil layer of sand and
gravel can affect irrigation management decisions. If the depth to this layer is less than 3 feet,
the rooting depth and available soil water for plants is decreased. Soils with less available water
for plants require more frequent irrigations.
 62

Soil Permeability and Infiltration: A measure of the ability of air and water to move through
soil is its permeability. It is influenced by the size, shape and continuity of the pore spaces,
which in turn are dependent on the soil bulk density, structure and texture.

Topography of the Field: topography, or the "lay of the land," has a large impact on whether a
field can be irrigated. Relief is a component of topography that refers to the difference in height
between the hills and depressions in the field. The topographic relief will affect the type of
irrigation system to be used, the water conveyance system (ditches or pipes), drainage
requirements and water erosion control practices.
Slope: slope is important to soil formation and management because of its influence on runoff,
soil drainage, erosion, the use of machinery and choice of crops. Slope is the incline or gradient
of a surface and commonly is expressed in percents. The percent of slope is determined by
measuring the difference in vertical elevation in feet over 100 feet of horizontal distance. For
example, a 5 percent slope rises or falls 5 feet per 100 feet of horizontal distance. Gravity
(surface) irrigation can be used only on simple slopes of 2 percent or less. In general, simple and
complex slopes greater than 1 percent should be irrigated only with sprinkler or drip systems.
Center pivot sprinkler irrigation systems can operate on slopes up to 15 percent, but generally
simple slopes greater than 9 percent are not recommended.

Climate factor affects crop water needs (ETo):

The major climatic factors which influence the crop water needs are:

Temperature: Plants use more water on hot days, plus evaporation losses from the soil surface
are also higher

Sunlight: Plants use more water on sunny days

than cloudy days. Unshaded soil will lose more
water on sunny days too.

Relative humidity: Water use by plants

increases as humidity decreases; the same is
true with evaporation.

Wind: It increases plant water usage as well as

evaporation losses.
 63

Table 1: Effect of major climatic factors on crop water needs

Crop water need

Climatic Factor
High Low
Temperature hot cool
Humidity low (dry) high (humid)
Windspeed windy little wind
Sunshine sunny (no clouds) cloudy (no sun)

The highest crop water needs are thus found in areas which are hot, dry, windy and sunny. The
lowest values are found when it is cool, humid and cloudy with little or no wind. From the
above it is clear that one crop grown in different climatic zones will have different water needs.
For example, a certain maize variety grown in a cool climate will need less water per day than
the same maize variety grown in a hotter climate. It is therefore useful to take a
certain standard crop or reference crop and determine how much water this crop needs per
day in the various climatic regions. As a standard crop or reference crop grass has been chosen.

Table 2, indicates the average daily water needs of this reference grass crop. The daily water
needs of the grass depend on the climatic zone (rainfall regime) and daily temperatures.

Table 2: average daily water need of standard grass during irrigation season

Climatic zone Mean daily temperature

low medium high
(less than 15°C) (15-25°C) (more than 25°C)
Desert/arid 4-6 7-8 9-10
Semi arid 4-5 6-7 8-9
Sub-humid 3-4 5-6 7-8
Humid 1-2 3-4 5-6

For example, the standard grass crop grown in a semi-arid climate with a mean temperature of
20°C needs approximately 6.5 mm of water per day. The same grass crop grown in a sub-humid
climate with a mean temperature of 30°C needs some 7.5 mm of water per day. This daily
water need of the standard grass crop is also called "reference crop evapotranspiration".
 64

What will be discussed in the next section is "how do the water needs of the crops grown on,
for an example, an irrigation scheme relate to the water need of the standard grass".

Crop Factors Affecting Plant Water Needs:

• Type of Crop: Among field crops, the millets are the most drought-tolerant, followed by grain
sorghum and peanuts. Cowpeas, while not as drought-tolerant as sorghum and peanuts, do
better than common beans and especially maize when moisture is low. Among the root crops,
manioc (cassava) is very drought-hardy, and sweet potatoes have some resistance. Tropical
yams (Dioscorea sup.) can tolerate short dry spells, but most types of true taro (Colocasia spp.)
require high soil moisture. However, the taro-like Xanthosoma sagittifolium (tannia, yautia)
tolerates drier conditions.

NOTE: In all cases, even drought-resistant crops like millet will yield much less under low
moisture. However, non-tolerant crops will often fail.

In general, vegetable crops don't have good drought tolerance, and both yield and quality can
be severely affected by moisture stress. However, watermelon and other deeper rooted veggies
like okra, eggplant, and tomatoes are more resistant to dry spells than the shallow-rooted
veggies like lettuce, onion, and the Crucifer family (cabbage, cauliflower, collards, broccoli,
radish, turnip, Brussels sprouts). These shallow-rooted crops need more frequent and lighter
waterings than deeper-rooted ones.

• Depth of roots: All plants will need more frequent and lighter waterings when young. As their
roots grow deeper, watering intervals can be spread out and larger amounts applied per
application.

• Stage of growth: Plant water needs increase with growth and reach a peak around flowering,
fruiting, or heading time. With most vegies, this peak use period continues until harvest time.
However, for field crops like maize, sorghum, and dry beans that are harvested at the fully
mature, dry stage, water needs taper off as maturity nears.

NOTE: While young plants can often fully recover from a period of moisture stress, a water
shortage during flowering, fruiting, or heading can severely affect yield and quality.
 65

Table 3: Rooting Depth of Crops When There's no Barrier to Penetration

(45-60 cm) (90-120 cm) (More than 120 cm)

Shallow Moderately Deep Deep

Broccoli Beans Asparagus

Brussels sprouts Beet Bean, lima

Cabbage Carrot Parsnip

Cauliflower Chard Pumpkin

Celery Cucumber Field Maize

Chinese cabbage Eggplant Sorghum

Garlic Muskmelon (cantaloupe) Squash, winter

Lettuce Mustard Sugarcane

Onion Pea, garden Sweet potato

Parsley Pepper Tomato

Potato Rice Watermelon

Radish Squash, summer

Spinach Turnip

Sweet maize

Influence of the crop type on the crop water needs:

The influence of the crop type on the crop water need is important in two ways:

1. The crop type has an influence on the daily water needs of a fully grown crop; i.e. the peak
daily water needs: a fully developed maize crop will need more water per day than a fully
developed crop of onions.
 66

2. The crop type has an influence on the duration of the total growing season of the crop. There
are short duration crops, e.g. peas, with a duration of the total growing season of 90-100 days
and longer duration crops, e.g. melons, with a duration of the total growing season of 120-160
days. And then there are, of course, the perennial crops that are in the field for many years,
such as fruit trees.

While, for example, the daily water need of melons may be less than the daily water need of
peas, the seasonal water need of melons will be higher than that of beans because the
duration of the total growing season of melons is much longer.

The influences of the crop type on both the daily and seasonal crop water needs are discussed
below.

Influence of Crop Type on the Daily Crop Water Needs:

In this section it will be explained how the daily water needs of other crops can be estimated
using as a basis the daily water need of the standard grass. It will be easy to understand that a
fully grown maize crop - with its large leaf area - will use more water per day than, for example,
a fully grown crop of radishes or onions; that is when the two crops are grown in the same area.

When determining the influence of the crop type on the daily crop water needs, reference is
always made to a fully grown crop; the plants have reached their maximum height; they
optimally cover the ground; they possibly have started flowering or started grain setting. When
the crops are fully grown their water need is the highest. It is the so-called "peak period" of
their water needs.

Table 4: Crop water needs in peak period of various field crops as compared to standard
grass

Column 1 Column 2 Column 3 Column 4 Column 5

-30% -10% same as standard grass + 10% +20%
citrus cucumber carrots barley paddy rice
olives radishes crucifers(cabbage, beans sugarcane
cauliflower, broccoli, etc.)
grapes squash lettuce maize banana
melons flax nuts & fruit trees
with cover crop
onions small grains
peanuts cotton
 67

peppers tomato
spinach eggplant
tea lentils
grass millet
cacao oats
coffee peas
clean cultivated nuts & fruit potatoes
trees e.g. apples
safflower
sorghum
soybeans
sugarbeet
sunflower
tobacco
wheat

EXAMPLE

Suppose in a certain area the standard grass crop needs 5.5 mm of water per day.

Then, in that same area, maize will need 10% more water. Ten percent of 5.5 mm = 10/100 ×
5.5 = 0.55 mm. Thus maize would need 5.5 + 0.55 = 6.05 or rounded 6.1 mm of water per day.

QUESTION:

Estimate the water needs of citrus, bananas, onions, cucumber, clean cultivated apple trees and
millet for an area where the water need of standard grass is 6.0 mm/day.

ANSWER

Citrus: -30% (compared to grass); thus the water need of citrus is 6.0 - 30% = 6.0 -1.8 =
4.2 mm/day
Bananas: +20%; thus the water need of bananas is 6.0 + 20% = 6.0 + 1.2 = 7.2 mm/day
Onions: same as grass; thus the water need of onions is 6.0 mm/day
Cucumber: -10%; thus the water need of onions is 6.0 - 10% =6.0-0.6 =5.4 mm/day
Apples same as grass; thus the water need of clean cultivated apples is 6.0 mm/day
(clean):
If the apples have a cover crop in between the trees, the water need would be
 68

20% higher than grass and thus: 6.0 + 20% = 6.0+1.2 = 7.2 mm/day.
Millet: +10%; thus the water need of millet is 6.0 + 10% =6.0+0.6 = 6.6 mm/day

Influence of Crop Type on the Seasonal Crop Water Needs:

The crop type not only has an influence on the daily water need of a fully grown crop, i.e. the
daily peak water need, but the crop type also has an influence on the duration of the total
growing season of the crop, and thus on the seasonal water need.

Data on the duration of the total growing season of the various crops grown in an area can best
be obtained locally. These data may be obtained from, for example, the seed supplier, the
Extension Service, the Irrigation Department or Ministry of Agriculture.

The duration of the total growing season has an enormous influence on the seasonal crop
water need. There are, for example, many rice varieties, some with a short growing cycle (e.g.
90 days) and others with a long growing cycle (e.g. 150 days). This has a strong influence on the
seasonal rice water needs: a rice crop which is in the field for 150 days will need in total much
more water than a rice crop which is only in the field for 90 days. Of course, for the two rice
crops the daily peak water need may still be the same, but the 150 day crop will need this daily
amount for a longer period. The time of the year during which crops are grown is also very
important. A certain crop variety grown during the cooler months will need substantially less
water than the same crop variety grown during the hotter months. Table 5 gives some
Indicative values or approximate values for the duration of the total growing season for the
various field crops. It should, however, be noted that these values are only rough
approximations and it is much better to obtain the values locally.

Table 5: Indicative values of the total growing period

Total growing period Total growing period

Crop Crop
(days) (days)
Alfalfa 100-365 Millet 105-140
Banana 300-365 Onion green 70-95
Barley/Oats/Wheat 120-150 Onion dry 150-210
Bean green 75-90 Peanut/Groundnut 130-140
Bean dry 95-110 Pea 90-100
Cabbage 120-140 Pepper 120-210
Carrot 100-150 Potato 105-145
 69

Citrus 240-365 Radish 35-45

Cotton 180-195 Rice 90-150
Cucumber 105-130 Sorghum 120-130
Eggplant 130-140 Soybean 135-150
Flax 150-220 Spinach 60-100
Grain/small 150-165. Squash 95-120
Lentil 150-170 Sugarbeet 160-230
Lettuce 75-140 Sugarcane 270-365
Maize sweet 80-110 Sunflower 125-130
Maize grain 125-180 Tobacco 130-160
Melon 120-160 Tomato 135-180

As can be seen from Table 5 there is a large variation of values not only between crops, but also
within one crop type. In general it can be assumed that the growing period for a certain crop is
longer when the climate is cool and shorter when the climate is warm.

Influence of the growth stage of the crop on crop water needs:

A fully grown maize crop will need more water than a maize crop which has just been
planted. As has been discussed before, the crop water need or crop evapotranspiration consists
of transpiration by the plant and evaporation from the soil and plant surface. When the plants
are very small the evaporation will be more important than the transpiration. When the plants
are fully grown the transpiration is more important than the evaporation.

Figure shows in a schematic way the various development or growth stages of a crop
 70

At planting and during the initial stage, the evaporation is more important than the
transpiration and the evapotranspiration or crop water need during the initial stage is
estimated at 50 percent of the crop water need during the mid - season stage, when the crop is
fully developed. During the so-called crop development stage the crop water need gradually
Increases from 50 percent of the maximum crop water need to the maximum crop water need.
The maximum crop water need is reached at the end of the crop development stage which is
the beginning of the mid-season stage. With respect to the late season stage, which is the
period during which the crop ripens and is harvested, a distinction can be made between two
groups of crops:

Fresh harvested crops: such as lettuce, cabbage, etc. With these crops the crop water need
remains the same during the late season stage as it was during the mid-season stage. The crops
are harvested fresh and thus need water up to the last moment.

Dry harvested crops: such as cotton, maize (for grain production), sunflower, etc. during the
late season stage these crops are allowed to dry out and sometimes even die. Thus their water
needs during the late season stage are minimal. If the crop is indeed allowed to die, the water
needs are only some 25 percent of the crop water need during the mid-season or peak period.
Of course, no irrigation is given to these crops during the late season stage.

Reference:

1) Reddy S.R. Irrigation Agronomy. Kalyani publishers, 2007

2) Tomar G.S. Agronomy basic and applied. Satis serial publishing , 2010
3) www.fao.org
 71

CHAPTER-7
SCHEDULING AND DEPTH OF IRRIGATION

Introduction:
Scheduling of irrigation is a process to decide ‘when to irrigate’ and ‘how much to irrigate’ to
the crops. Proper scheduling is essential for efficient use of irrigation water, inputs such as
seeds, fertilizers, labour etc. Appropriate scheduling of irrigation not only saves water, but also,
saves energy besides, higher crop yield. Farmers are generally irrigating their crops on either
time interval basis (say weekly interval, ten days interval) or based on the appearance of the
crops (based on wilting symptoms). There are several soil, plant and atmospheric
(meteorological) indicators in addition to combination approach, critical stage approach etc. to
decide when to irrigate? the crop. Similarly, based on the moisture content in the effective root
zone quantity of irrigation water (how much to irrigate?) to crops is decided.

Irrigation: Irrigation is the artificial application of water for the purpose of supplying moisture
essential for plant growth. (Hansen et al. 1980)

Irrigation scheduling: ‘It is the planning of when and how much water to apply in order to
maintain healthy plant growth during the growing season. OR Irrigation scheduling is the
process used by irrigation system managers to determine the correct frequency and duration of
watering. It is an essential daily management practice for a farm manager growing irrigated
crops.’

Aim of Irrigation scheduling:

The goal in irrigation scheduling is to apply enough water to fully wet the plant's root zone
while minimizing overwatering and then allow the soil to dry out in between waterings, to allow
air to enter the soil and encourage root development, but not so much that the plant is
stressed beyond what is allowable.

Advantages of Irrigation Scheduling:

a) It enables the farmer to schedule water rotation among the various fields to minimize crop
water stress and maximize yields.
b) It reduces the farmer’s cost of water and labour
c) It lowers fertilizer costs by holding surface runoff
d) It increases net returns by increasing crop yields and crop quality.
e) It minimizes water-logging problems
f) It assists in controlling root zone salinity problems
 72

g) It results in additional returns by using the “saved” water to irrigate non-cash crops.

Irrigation scheduling can be done on the basis of:

1. Soil water regime approach
2. Climatological approach
3. Plant indices.

1) Soil water regime approach:

These methods involve in determining moisture content of the soil and finding the deficit level
in available moisture. Based on pre-determined minimum water content, irrigation is given to
bring the soil to field capacity. The soil water content is determined either by direct
measurement or inference from measurements of other soil parameters such as soil water
potential or electrical conductivity. The available soil moisture in the root is a good criterion for
scheduling irrigation. When the soil moisture in a specified root zone depth is depended to a
particular level (which is different for different crops) it is too replenished by irrigation.

For practical purpose, irrigation should be started when about 50 percent of the available
moisture in the soil root zone is depleted. The available water is the soil moisture, which lies
between field capacity and wilting point. The relative availability of soil moisture is not same
field capacity to wilting point stage and since the crop suffers before the soil moisture reaches
wilting point, it is necessary to locate the optimum point within the available range of soil
moisture, when irrigation must be scheduled to maintain crop yield at high level. Soil moisture
deficit represents the difference in the moisture content at field capacity and that before
 73

irrigation. This is measured by taking into consideration the percentage (Gravimetric method),
availability, tension, resistance etc.

i: Feel and appearance method:

With experience, farmer can judge soil water content by the feel and also appearance of the
soil. Soil samples are taken with a probe or soil auger from each quarter of the root zone depth,
formed into a ball, tossed into air and caught in one hand. From the description given in Table
1, available moisture percentage is estimated for different textures of soils. Considerable
experience and judgment are necessary to estimate available soil moisture content in the
sample within reasonable accuracy.

Table 1: Guide for judging the amount of available moisture in soil

Available Coarse texture Moderately coarse Medium texture Fine texture

soil (loamy sand) texture (sandy (loamy and silt (clay loamy
moisture loamy) loamy) and silty clay
range loamy)
Field On squeezing, no Similar symptoms
capacity free water appears
(100%) on soil, but wet
outline is left on
hand

75 to Tends to stick Forms weak ball, Forms a ball, very Easily ribbons
100% together slightly, breaks easily, don’t pliable, slicks readily out between
sometimes forms slick fingers, has
a very weak ball slick feeling
under pressure

50 to 75% Appears to be dry Tends to form a ball Forms a ball Forms a ball,
don’t form a ball under pressure but somewhat plastic, ribbons out
with pressure seldom holds some-times slick between
together slightly with thumb and
pressure fore-finger
25 to 50% As above, but ball Appears to be dry, Some what crumbly Somewhat
is formed by don’t form a ball but holds together pliable, forms
squeezing very unless squeezed very with pressure a ball under
firmly firmly pressure
 74

0 to 25% Dry, loose, single Dry, loose, flows Powdery dry, Hard, baked,
grained flows through fingers sometimes slightly cracked,
through fingers crusted but easily sometimes
broken down into has loose
powdery conditions. crumbs on
surface.

ii: Tensiometer method:

 Irrigation can be scheduled based on

soil moisture tension.
 Tensiometers (Irrometers) are installed
at specified depth in the root zone.
 When the soil moisture tension reaches
to a specified values (0.5, 0.75 or 1.0
bars etc.) irrigation is scheduled.
 Tensiometers are generally used to
schedule of irrigation in orchards,
especially in coarse textured soils.
 This method however, fails to provide
the quantity of water to be irrigated.

iii) Depletion of the available soil moisture (DASM)

• In this method the permissible depletion level of available soil moisture in the effective crop
root zone depth is commonly taken as an index
• In general, for many crops scheduling irrigation’s at 20 – 25% DASM in the soil profile was
found to be optimum at moisture sensitive stages.
• While at other stages irrigations scheduled at 50% DASM were found optimum.
 75

2) Climatological approach:

Evapotranspiration mainly depends up on climate. The amount of water lost by

evapotranspiration is estimated from Climatological data and when ET reaches a particular
level, irrigation is scheduled. The amount of irrigation given is either equal to ET or fraction of
ET. Different methods in Climatological approach are IW/CPE ratio method and pan
evaporimeter method.

In IW/CPE approach, a known amount of irrigation water is applied when cumulative pan
evaporation (CPE) reaches a predetermined level. The amount of water given at each irrigation
ranges from 4 to 6 cm. The most common being 5 cm irrigation. Scheduling irrigation at an
IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 with 5 cm. Generally, irrigation is given at 0.75 to 0.8 ratios with 5 cm of
irrigation water.

Problem: Calculate cumulative evaporation required irrigation at 0.5 0.6 0.75 0.8 with 5 cm of
irrigation water.

Solution:

Cumulative pan evaporation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.5=IW/CPE=0.5

5 5 50
= ---------- = 0.5, CPE X 0.5 = 5 CPE = ------ = ------ 10cm
CPE 0.5 5

Irrigation of 5 cm is given when CPE is 10 cm

CPE at 0.6 ratio = 5/0.6 = 8.33cm

CPE at 0.75 ratio = 5/0.75 = 6.66cm
CPE at 0.8 ratio = 5/0.8 = 6.25cm
 76

In IW/CPE ratio approach, irrigation can also be scheduled at fixed level of CPE by varying
amount of irrigation water.

Problem: Calculate the amount of water for each irrigation for scheduling irrigation at 0.5 and
0.8 IW/CPE with 10cm of CPE.

Solution:

Amount of water to be given at IW/CPE ratio of 0.5=IW/10=0.5

IW=0.5 X 10= 5cm

Amount of water to be given at IW/CPE ratio of 0.8 =IW/10=0.8, IW=10 X 0.8=8cm

Estimating Evapo-Transpiration from Evaporation Data:

It is been observed that a close relationship exists between the rate of CU by crops and the rate
of evaporation from a well-located evaporation pan. The standard United States weather
bureaus class A pan evaporimeter or the sunken screen pan evaporimeter may be used for
measurement of consumption use.

U.S class A evopometer:

It is most widely used evaporation pan. It is made of 20 gauge galvanized iron sheet 120 cm. in
diameter by 25cm. in depth and is painted white and exposed on a wooden frame in order that
air may circulate beneath the pan. It is filled with water to depth of about 20 cm. The water
surface level is measured daily by means of hook gauge in a still well. Difference between two
daily readings indicates the evaporation if there is no rainfall. When there is rainfall, record it
separately with a rain gauge. Add that value to the initial water level in the still well.
Difference between this reading and subsequent reading of the water would indicate
evaporation. Water is added each day to bring the level to fixed point in the still well. A
measuring cylinder can also be used for this purpose.

Sunken Screen Evapometer:

The sunken screen pan evaporimeter developed by Sharma and Dastane (1968) at the I.A.R.T.,
New Delhi provides a simple device to make reasonable estimate of CU. The ratio between
evapo-transpiration and evaporation from U.S.W. class A pan (ET/E) is about 0.5 to 1.3 after
establishment of the crop. the same ratio is the sunken screen pan evaporimeter was observed
i.e. 0.95 to 1.05. in other words, it is claimed that the evaporation value obtained from it closely
approximates the evapo-transpiration.

It consists of three parts, namely an evaporation pan, a stilling well and a connecting tube. The
evaporation is 60 cm. in depth, is made of 20ngague galvanized iron sheet, and is painted
white. it is fitted with a screen of 1/24 or 6/20 mesh, which is held tight over the pan by
bending it at the rim and pressing hard. The stilling well is 15 cm. in diameter 45 cm. in depth
 77

and is fitted with a screen cover of the same mesh as that of the evaporation pan. It has a
pointer to its side of the wall and bent upward in the center at right angle. The evaporimeter is
installed by digging a pit of suitable size placing the pen and back filling the earth with due to
compaction the top edge of the protrudes (sickout) 10 cm. over the soil surface. This is
necessary to avoid run-off from the surrounding area entering the pan. The water level is
maintained at same height as the soil level outside. Thus, the tip of the pointer free water
surface in the pan and the pan and soil surface are at the same level.

The water level in the pan is brought in level with the pointed tip and pan is set at work.
Observations of falling water level are recorded at suitable intervals say 24 hours. This is done
by adding water with a measuring cylinder and recording the quantity of water added to bring
the water level back to the pointer tip. The volume of water (ml) added is converted in to depth
(mm) by dividing the area of pan plus that of stealing well.

The evaporimeter is installed in duplicate to enable leakage detection. The minimum distance
between two evaporimeter is 3 meter. The pan is cleaned occasionally and painted white once
in a year and cheeked scrupulously for leakages. The evaporimeter is located under natural
conditions in a field, which does not provide obstruction to wind. It is aligned perpendicular to
the main direction of wind to avoid mutual interference.

3) Plant basis or plant indices:

As the plant is the user of water, it can be taken as a guide for scheduling irrigation. The deficit
of water will be reflected by plants itself such as dropping, curling or rolling of leaves and
change in foliage colour as indication for irrigation scheduling. However, these symptoms
indicate the need for water. They do not permit quantitative estimation of moisture deficit.
Growth indicators such as cell elongation rates, plant water content and leaf water potential,
plant temperature leaf diffusion resistance etc. are also used for deciding when to irrigate.
Some indicator plants are also a basis for scheduling irrigation e.g. sunflower plant which is
used for estimation of PWP of soil is used in Hawaii as an indicator plant for irrigation sugar
cane.
i) Visual plant symptoms:
• In this method the visual signs of plants are used as an index for scheduling irritations.
• For instance, plant wilting, drooping, curling and rolling of leaves in maize is used as
indicators for scheduling irrigation.
• Change in foliage colour and leaf angle is used to time irrigations in beans.
• Water stress in some crops leads to appearance of carotenoid (yellow and orange colour)
and anthocyanin pigments.
• Shortening of internodes in sugarcane and cotton; retardation of stem elongation in
grapes;
• Leaf abscission and lack of new growth and redness in terminal growth points of almond.
 78

ii) Soil-cum-sand mini-plot technique or profile modification technique

• Commonly used for scheduling irrigations to crops.
• The principle involved in this technique is to reduce artificially the available water
holding capacity of soil profile (i.e., effective root zone depth) in the mini-plot by mixing
sand with it.
• When this is done plants growing on the sand mixed plot show wilting symptoms earlier
than in the rest of the field.
• An area of 1.0 x 1.0m is selected in the field and a pit of 1.0m depth is excavated.
• About 5% of sand by volume is added to the dug up soil and mixed well.
• The pit is then filled back with the mixture and while filling up every 15 cm layer is well
compacted, so that the soil in the pit retains the original bulk density as that of
surrounding soil.
• Crop is sown normally and is allowed to grow as usual with the rest of the field.
• As and when the plants in the mini-plot show wilting symptoms it is taken as a warning of
impending water need and cropped field is irrigated.

iii) Plant population:

• Increase in plant population by 1.5 to 2.0 times that of optimum
• This happens because when more plants are there per unit area, the available water
within that zone is depleted rapidly as compared to other area.
• This result in drooping or wilting of plants earlier, which can be taken as an indication of
water deficits and accordingly irrigations are scheduled to crops.

iv) Rate of growth:

• Growth of a plant is dependent on turgor, which in turn is dependent on a favorable soil
water balance.
• So fluctuations in the water balance are reflected by parallel fluctuations in the growth
rate of expanding organs.
• Stem elongation is markedly reduced when the available soil moisture level approaches
the critical level, but accelerates again after irrigation.

v) Indicator plants:
• In wheat, scheduling irrigations on the basis of wilting symptoms in maize and sunflower
gave the highest grain yields.
 79

vi) Critical growth approach:

In each crop, there are some growth stages at which moisture stress leads to irrevocable yield
loss. These stages are known as critical periods or moisture sensitive periods. If irrigation water
is available in sufficient quantities, irrigation is scheduled whenever soil moisture is depleted to
critical moisture level. Say 25 or 50 percent of available soil moisture. Under limited water
supply conditions, irrigation is scheduled at moisture sensitive stages and irrigation is skipped at
non-sensitive stages. In cereals, panicle initiation, flowering, and pod development are the
most important moisture sensitive stages.
Table: Moisture sensitive stages of important crops.
Sr. No. Crop Important Moisture Sensitive Stages
1 Rice Panicle Initiation, Flowering
2 Wheat Crown Root Initiation, Jointing, Milking
3 Sorghum Seedling, Flowering
4 Maize Silking. Tasseling
5 Bajara Flowering, Panicle Initiation
6 Nachani Panicle Initiation, Flowering
7 Ground Nut Rapid Flowering, Pegging, Early Pod Formation
8 Red Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
9 Green Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
10 Black Gram Flowering & Pod Formation
11 Sugarcane Formative Stage
12 Sesamum Blooming stage to Maturity
13 Sunflower Two weeks before & after flowering
14 Safflower From rosette to flowering
15 Soybean Blooming & seed formation
16 Cotton Flowering & Ball Formation
17 Tobacco Transplanting to Full Bloom
18 Chilies Flowering
19 Potato Tuber Initiation to Tuber Maturity
20 Onion Bulb Formation to Maturity
21 Tomato From the Commencement of Fruit Set

vii) Plant water status it self:

This is the latest approach for scheduling of irrigation. Plant is a good indicator of a soil
moisture and climate factors. The water content in the plant itself is considered for scheduling
irrigation. It is however, not yet common use for want of standard and low cost technique to
measure the plant water status or potential.
 80

DEPTH OF IRRIGATION WATER

The irrigation depth is the amount of water that needs to be applied to an irrigated system
when soil water is reduced to the specified depletion level. Depth of irrigation is the water that
is to be applied at one irrigation. It is the depth of water that can be retained in the crop root
zone between the field and the given depletion of the available moisture content but all water
retained in the soil between FC and PWP is not readily available to crops. Thus, depth of
irrigation is readily available portion of the soil moisture. Hence, Depth of irrigation can be
defined as the depth of irrigation water required to replenish the soil moisture to field capacity.
Calculating Depth of irrigation (d):
Net Irrigation Depth:
The net irrigation depth is best determined locally by checking how much water is given per
irrigation application taking into consideration the irrigation method and practice in place and is
given by,
dnet = As x D (FC - PWP) x P
Where, As = Apparent specific gravity of soil
D = effective root zone depth in m
FC = Water content of soil at FC
PWP = Water content of soil at PWP
P = Depletion factor
Gross Irrigation Depth:
The gross irrigation depth can be calculated using the net irrigation depth and the efficiency of
the irrigation. Part of the water applied to the field is lost through deep percolation and runoff.
To reflect this water loss, the irrigation efficiency (Ea) is used. The gross irrigation depth, in mm,
takes into account the water loss during the irrigation application and is determined using the
following formula:
Gross Irrigation Depth (mm) = net irrigation depth(mm) x 100/Irrigation efficiency
Or,
dgross = As x D (FC - PWP) x P/Ea
REFERENCE:
1. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/.../Irrigation-scheduling.pdf
2. https://www.slideshare.net/babukakumanu/irrigation-scheduling-72682103
3. https://athenaeum.libs.uga.edu/bitstream/handle/10724/34300/Irrigation%20Scheduli
ng%20Methods.pdf?sequence=1
4. irrigation.wsu.edu/Content/Calculators/General/Water-Depth.php
5. https://www.slideshare.net/virajain/chapter-3-efficiency
6. Irrigation and drainage, KALAYANI PUBLICATION by D.Lenka
7. Principles of Agronomy by S.R. Reddy
 81

CHAPTER-8
IRRIGATION METHODS
Introduction:
Irrigation may be defined as the process of supplying water by artificial means to
agricultural fields for crop production. If water available to the plants from rainfall is not
sufficient, it is supplemented by irrigation water. In order to achieve this objective, an irrigation
system is required to be developed that involves planning, design, construction, operation and
maintenance of various irrigation works:
• Source: River, Reservoirs
• Control structure: Barrages, Head Regulators
• Distribution system: Irrigation Canals
Types of Irrigation:
A. Surface Irrigation
B. Sub-surface Irrigation
C. Sprinkler Irrigation
D. Drip Irrigation

(A). Surface Irrigation:

Surface is grouped as Border, Check basin and Furrow irrigations. Border is again classified
in to two as straight and contour. Check basins may be of rectangular, contour or ring, whereas
furrow irrigation is classified as deep furrow and corrugated furrows. These may be again
straight or contour according to direction and leveled and graded as per their elevation

Types of Surface Irrigation:

1. Basin Irrigation
2. Border Irrigation
3. Furrow Irrigation
4. Flood Irrigation
5. Check besin Irrigation
Figure 1: Flood Irrigation
6. Ring Irrigation
1. Flood irrigation:
Flood irrigation is defined as the group of application techniques where water is applied and
distributed over the soil surface by gravity. It is by far the most common form of irrigation
throughout the world.

2. Basin Irrigation:
 82

Basin irrigation is the most common form of surface irrigation, particularly in regions with
layouts of small fields
 If a field is level in all directions, is encompassed by a dyke to prevent runoff, and
provides an undirected flow of water onto the field, it is herein called a basin.
 A basin is typically square in shape but exists in all sorts of irregular and rectangular
configurations.
Suitable Crops for Basin Irrigation:-
 Paddy rice grows best when it roots are submerged in water and so basin irrigation is the
best method to use for this crop.
 Not suited to crops which cannot stand in wet or waterlogged conditions for periods
longer than 24 hours (e.g. potatoes, beet and carrots, etc.)
Suitable Land Slopes for Basin Irrigation:
 The flatter the land surface, the easier it is to construct basins.
 On flat land only minor levelling may be required to obtain level basins.
Suitable Soil for Basin Irrigation:
 Loamy soils are preferred for basin irrigation so that waterlogging (permanent
saturation of the soil) can be avoided (which can occur on clayey soils).
 Coarse sands are not recommended for basin irrigation as, due to the high infiltration
rate, percolation losses can be high.

3. Border Irrigation:
 Border irrigation can be viewed as an extension of basin irrigation to sloping, long
rectangular or contoured field shapes, with free draining conditions at the lower end.
 Above figure illustrates a typical border configuration in which a field is divided into
sloping borders.
 Water is applied to individual borders from small
hand-dug checks from the field head ditch.
 When the water is shut off, it recedes from the
upper end to the lowerend.
Fig 2:Border irrigation
Advantages
 Border ridges can be constructed with simple farm implements like bullock drawn “A”
frame ridger or bund former.
 Labour requirement in irrigation is reduced as compared to conventional check basin
method.
 Uniform distribution of water and high water application efficiencies are possible.
 Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used.
 83

 Adequate surface drainage is provided if outlets are available.

4. Furrow irrigation:

 Furrow irrigation avoids flooding the entire field

surface by channeling the flow along the primary
direction of the field using ‘furrows,’ ‘creases,’ or
‘corrugations’.
 Water infiltrates through the wetted perimeter and
spreads vertically and horizontally to refill the soil
reservoir. Fig: Furrow Irrigation
 Used in the irrigation of row crops.
 The furrows are formed between crop rows.
 The dimension of furrows depend on the crop grown, equipment used and soil type.
 Water is applied by small running streams in furrows between the crop rows.
Advantages:
 Water in furrows contacts only one half to one fifth of the land surface.
 Labour requirement for land preparation and irrigation is reduced.
 Compared to check basins there is less wastage of land in field ditches.

5. Check basin irrigation:

 It is the most common method.
 Here the field is divided into smaller unit areas so that each has a nearly level surface.
 Bunds or ridges are constructed around the area forming basins within which the
irrigation water can be controlled.
 The water applied to a desired depth can be retained until it infiltrates into the soil.
 The size of the basin varies from 10m2 to 25 m2 depending upon soil type , topography,
stream size and crop.
Adaptability:
 Small gentle and uniform land slopes
 Soils having moderate to slow infiltration rates.
 Adapted to grain and fodder crops in heavy soils.
 Suitable to permeable soils.

Advantages:
 Check basins are useful when leaching is required to remove salts from the soil profile.
 Rainfall can be conserved and soil erosion is reduced by retaining large part of rain
 84

 High water application and distribution efficiency.

Limitations:
 The ridges interfere with the movement of implements.
 More area occupied by ridges and field channels.
 The method impedes surface drainage
 Precise land grading and shaping are required
 Labour requirement is higher.
 Not suitable for crops which are sensitive to wet soil conditions around the stem.

(B) Sub-surface irrigation

 In subsurface irrigation, water is applied beneath the ground by creating and
maintaining an artificial water table at some depth, usually 30-75 cm below the ground
surface.
 Moisture moves upwards towards the land surface through capillary action.
 Water is applied through underground field trenches laid 15-30 m apart.
 Open ditches are preferred because they are relatively cheaper and suitable to all types
of soil.
 The irrigation water should be of good quality to prevent soil salinity.
Advantages:
 Minimum water requirement for raising crops.
 Minimum evaporation and deep percolation losses.
 No wastage of land.
 No interference to movement of farm machinery.
 Cultivation operations can be carried out without concern for the irrigation period.
Disadvantages:
1. Requires a special combination of natural conditions.
2. There is danger of water logging.
3. Possibility of choking of the pipes lay underground.
4. High cost.

(C) Sprinkler Irrigation:

Sprinkler irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to natural rainfall.
Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the
air through sprinklers so that it breaks up into small water drops which fall to the ground.
Advantages:
 Low water loss (efficiency up to 80%)
 85

 Saving in fertilizer
 Suitable for any topography
 No soil erosion
 Better seed germination, free aeration of root zone
 Uniform application of water

Fig: sprinkler irrigation

Disadvantages:
 High initial cost, cannot adopt by ordinary farmers
 Poor application efficiency in windy weather and high temperature
 High evaporation losses
 Water should be free of debris
 Physical damage to crops by application of high intensity spray

(D) Drip Irrigation:

 Drip irrigation is sometimes called trickle irrigation and involves dripping water onto the
soil at very low rates (2-20 litres/hour) from a
system of small diameter plastic pipes fitted with
outlets called emitters or drippers.
 Water is applied close to plants so that only part of
the soil in which the roots grow is wetted, unlike
surface and sprinkler irrigation, which involves
wetting the whole soil profile.
 Suitable for high value row crops.
Fig: drip Irrigation
Advantages:
 Low water loss and hence saves water
 Enhances plant growth and plant yield
 Saves labor and energy
 Control weed growth
 No soil erosion
 Improves fertilizer application efficiency
Disadvantages:
 High skill in design, installation, and subsequent operation
 Clogging of small conduits and openings in emitters due to sand, clay particles, debris,
chemical precipitates and organic growth
 Not suitable for closely planted crops such as wheat and other cereal grains
 86

Choosing an Irrigation Method for Application of Irrigation Water:

To choose an irrigation method, the farmer must know the advantages and disadvantages of
the various methods. He or she must know which method suits the local conditions best.
Unfortunately, in many cases there is no single best solution: all methods have their advantages
and disadvantages. Testing of the various methods - under the prevailing local conditions -
provides the best basis for a sound choice of irrigation method. This chapter gives some very
broad guidance and indicates several important criteria in the selection of a suitable following
irrigation method.

1: Surface, Sprinkler or Drip Irrigation

2: Basin, Furrow or Border Irrigation

1: Surface, Sprinkler or Drip Irrigation:

The suitability of the various irrigation methods, i.e. surface, sprinkler or drip irrigation,
depends mainly on the following factors: Natural conditions, Type of crop, Type of technology,
Previous experience with irrigation, Required labour inputs and Costs and benefits.

NATURAL CONDITIONS:

The natural conditions such as soil type, slope, climate, water quality and availability, have the
following impact on the choice of an irrigation method:

Soil type: Sandy soils have a low water storage capacity and a high infiltration rate. They
therefore need frequent but small irrigation applications, in particular when the
sandy soil is also shallow. Under these circumstances, sprinkler or drip irrigation
are more suitable than surface irrigation. On loam or clay soils all three irrigation
methods can be used, but surface irrigation is more commonly found. Clay soils
with low infiltration rates are ideally suited to surface irrigation. When a variety of
different soil types is found within one irrigation scheme, sprinkler or drip
irrigation are recommended as they will ensure a more even water distribution.

Slope: Sprinkler or drip irrigation are preferred above surface irrigation on steeper or
unevenly sloping lands as they require little or no land levelling. An exception is
rice grown on terraces on sloping lands.
Climate: Strong wind can disturb the spraying of water from sprinklers. Under very windy
conditions, drip or surface irrigation methods are preferred. In areas of
 87

supplementary irrigation, sprinkler or drip irrigation may be more suitable than

surface irrigation because of their flexibility and adaptability to varying irrigation
demands on the farm.
Water Water application efficiency is generally higher with sprinkler and drip irrigation
availability: than surface irrigation and so these methods are preferred when water is in short
supply. However, it must be remembered that efficiency is just as much a function
of the irrigator as the method used.
Water Surface irrigation is preferred if the irrigation water contains much sediment. The
quality: sediments may clog the drip or sprinkler irrigation systems.
If the irrigation water contains dissolved salts, drip irrigation is particularly
suitable, as less water is applied to the soil than with surface methods.
Sprinkler systems are more efficient that surface irrigation methods in leaching
out salts.

TYPE OF CROP:

Surface irrigation can be used for all types of crops. Sprinkler and drip irrigation, because of
their high capital investment per hectare, are mostly used for high value cash crops, such as
vegetables and fruit trees. They are seldom used for the lower value staple crops. Drip irrigation
is suited to irrigating individual plants or trees or row crops such as vegetables and sugarcane. It
is not suitable for close growing crops.

TYPE OF TECHNOLOGY:

The type of technology affects the choice of irrigation method. In general, drip and sprinkler
irrigation are technically more complicated methods. The purchase of equipment requires high
capital investment per hectare. To maintain the equipment a high level of 'know-how' has to be
available. Also, a regular supply of fuel and spare parts must be maintained which - together
with the purchase of equipment - may require foreign currency.

Surface irrigation systems - in particular small-scale schemes - usually require less sophisticated
equipment for both construction and maintenance (unless pumps are used). The equipment
needed is often easier to maintain and less dependent on the availability of foreign currency.
 88

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE WITH IRRIGATION:

The choice of an irrigation method also depends on the irrigation tradition within the region or
country. Introducing a previously unknown method may lead to unexpected complications. It is
not certain that the farmers will accept the new method. The servicing of the equipment may
be problematic and the costs may be high compared to the benefits. Often it will be easier to
improve the traditional irrigation method than to introduce a totally new method.

REQUIRED LABOUR INPUTS:

Surface irrigation often requires a much higher labour input - for construction, operation and
maintenance - than sprinkler or drip irrigation. Surface irrigation requires accurate land
levelling, regular maintenance and a high level of farmers' organization to operate the system.
Sprinkler and drip irrigation require little land levelling; system operation and maintenance are
less labour-intensive.

COSTS AND BENEFITS:

Before choosing an irrigation method, an estimate must be made of the costs and benefits of
the available options. On the cost side not only the construction and installation, but also the
operation and maintenance (per hectare) should be taken into account. These costs should
then be compared with the expected benefits (yields). It is obvious that farmers will only be
interested in implementing a certain method if they consider this economically attractive.
Cost/benefit analysis is, however, beyond the scope of this manual.

In conclusion: surface irrigation is by far the most widespread irrigation method. It is normally
used when conditions are favourable: mild and regular slopes, soil type with medium to low
infiltration rate, and a sufficient supply of surface or groundwater. In the case of steep or
irregular slopes, soils with a very high infiltration rate or scarcity of water, sprinkler and drip
irrigation may be more appropriate. When introducing sprinkler and drip irrigation it must be
ensured that the equipment can be maintained.

2. Basin, Furrow or Border Irrigation:

This section discusses some of the important factors which should be taken into account when
determining which surface irrigation method is most suitable: basin, furrow or border irrigation.
Again, it is not possible to give specific guidelines leading to a single best solution; each option
has its advantages and disadvantages.
 89

Factors to be taken into account include: natural circumstances (slope, soil type), type of crop,
required depth of irrigation application, level of technology, previous experience with irrigation
and required labour inputs.

NATURAL CIRCUMSTANCES:

 Flat lands, with a slope of 0.1% or less, are best suited for basin irrigation: little land levelling
will be required. If the slope is more than 1%, terraces can be constructed. However, the
amount of land levelling can be considerable.
 Furrow irrigation can be used on flat land (short, near horizontal furrows), and on mildly
sloping land with a slope of maximum 0.5%. On steeper sloping land, contour furrows can be
used up to a maximum land slope of 3%. A minimum slope of 0.05% is recommended to
assist drainage.
 Border irrigation can be used on sloping land up to 2% on sandy soil and 5% on clay soil. A
minimum slope of 0.05% is recommended to ensure adequate drainage.
 Surface irrigation may be difficult to use on irregular slopes as considerable land levelling
may be required to achieve the required land gradients.
 All soil types, except coarse sand with an infiltration rate of more than 30 mm/hour, can be
used for surface irrigation. If the infiltration rate is higher than 30 mm/hour, sprinkler or drip
irrigation should be used.

TYPE OF CROP:

 Paddy rice is always grown in basins. Many other crops can also be grown in basins: e.g.
maize, sorghum, trees, etc. Those crops that cannot stand a very wet soil for more than 12-
24 hours should not be grown in basins.
 Furrow irrigation is best used for irrigating row crops such as maize, vegetables and trees.
 Border irrigation is particularly suitable for close growing crops such as alfalfa, but border
irrigation can also be used for row crops and trees.

REQUIRED DEPTH OF IRRIGATION APPLICATION:

When the irrigation schedule has been determined it is known how much water (in mm) has to
be given per irrigation application. It must be checked that this amount can indeed be given,
with the irrigation method under consideration.

Field experience has shown that most water can be applied per irrigation application when
using basin irrigation, less with border irrigation and least with furrow irrigation. In practice, in
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small-scale irrigation projects, usually 40-70 mm of water are applied in basin irrigation, 30-60
mm in border irrigation and 20-50 mm in furrow irrigation. (In large-scale irrigation projects,
the amounts of water applied may be much higher.)

This means that if only little water is to be applied per application, e.g. on sandy soils and a
shallow rooting crop, furrow irrigation would be most appropriate. (However, none of the
surface irrigation methods can be used if the sand is very coarse, i.e. if the infiltration rate is
more than 30 mm/hour.)

If, on the other hand, a large amount of irrigation water is to be applied per application, e.g. on
a clay soil and with a deep rooting crop, border or basin irrigation would be more appropriate.

The above considerations have been summarized in Table 1. The net irrigation application
values used are only a rough guide. They result from a combination of soil type and rooting
depth. For example: if the soil is sandy and the rooting depth of the crop is medium, it is
estimated that the net depth of each irrigation application will be in the order of 35 mm. The
last column indicates which irrigation method is most suitable. In this case medium furrows or
short borders.

LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGY:

Basin irrigation is the simplest of the surface irrigation methods. Especially if the basins are
small, they can be constructed by hand or animal traction. Their operation and maintenance is
simple.

Furrow irrigation - with the possible exception of short, level furrows -requires accurate field
grading. This is often done by machines. The maintenance - ploughing and furrowing - is also
often done by machines. This requires skill, organization and frequently the use of foreign
currency for fuel, equipment and spare parts.

Table 1: Selection of an irrigation method based on the depth of the net irrigation application

Soil Rooting depth of the Net irrigation depth per application

Irrigation method
type crop (mm)
Sand shallow 20-30 short furrows
medium 30-40 medium furrows, short borders
long furrows, medium borders, small
deep 40-50
basins
Loam shallow 30-40 medium furrows, short borders
medium 40-50 long furrows, medium borders, small
 91

basins
deep 50-60 long borders, medium basins
Clay long furrows, medium borders, small
shallow 40-50
basins
medium 50-60 long borders, medium basins
deep 60-70 large basins

Short, level furrows - also called furrow basins - can, like basins, be constructed and maintained
by hand.

Borders require the highest level of sophistication. They are constructed and maintained by
machines. The grading needs to be accurate. Machine operation requires a high level of skill,
organization and usually foreign currency.

PREVIOUS EXPERIENCE WITH IRRIGATION:

If there is no tradition in irrigation, the most simple irrigation method to introduce is basin
irrigation. The smaller the basins, the easier their construction, operation and maintenance.

If irrigation is used traditionally, it is usually simpler to improve the traditional irrigation method
than it is to introduce a previously unknown method.

REQUIRED LABOUR INPUTS:

The required labour inputs for construction and maintenance depend heavily on the extent to
which machinery is used.

In general it can be stated that to operate the system, basin irrigation requires the least labour
and the least skill. For the operation of furrow and border irrigation systems more labour is
required combined with more skill.

Some other criteria for selection of irrigation methods are given in table 2.

Table 2: Some other criteria for selection of irrigation methods:

Method of Soil Infiltration Land topography & Stream Crops

irrigation texture rate slope size(l/s)
Check basin Light or 0.5-10 Levelled, less than 0.1 Large more All crops
heavy than 15 except those
on ridges and
susceptible to
water logging
 92

Border strip Medium 1-2 Uniformly graded, 01.- Any, more All crops
0.3 than 12-15
Furrow Light to 0.5-2.5 Moderate 0.3-3.0 Small, Row crops and
moderate more than vegetables
12
Drip Light to 0.5 or more Levelled to undulating Any, more Widely spaced
heavy than 5 crops/
soils vegetables &
fruit crops
 93

CHAPTER-9
MICRO IRRIGATION AND FERTIGATION

Introduction:
Micro irrigation is one of the latest innovations for applying water and it represents a definite
advancement in irrigation technology. Frequent irrigation of small quantity of water directly,
above or below the soil surface usually as discrete drops, continuous drops, tiny streams or as
miniature sprays through mechanical devices calls emitters or applicators, located at selected
points along water delivery line. It can be defined as the application of water at low volume and
frequent interval under low pressure to plant root zone.

Concept of Micro Irrigation system:

Besides the land, water also an important factor in the progress of Agriculture. In vast country
like India with a geographical area of 328 million hectares less than 45% area is cultivated of this
cultivated area only 35% i.e. 65 million ha gets irrigation. Since water is the limiting factor today,
we must utilize it properly and maximum benefit can take as possible as India is second largest
country in world according to population. The expansion of area under irrigation is essential for
obtaining increased agriculture production required to feed India’s growing population. The
expansion could be done only by additional development conservation and efficient
management of the available water resources i.e. use of micro-irrigation means application of
optimum water according to plant requirement. This could be achieved by introducing advanced
and sophisticated methods of irrigation viz. drip irrigation, sprinkler, etc.

Types of Micro Irrigation Systems:

The micro irrigation system can be classified in respect to variety of parameters. The micro
irrigation encompasses several ways of water application to plants: drip, spray, subsurface and
bubbler irrigation.
Drip Irrigation
Drip or trickle irrigation is the newest of all commercial methods of water application. It is
described as the frequent, slow application of water to soils through mechanical devices called
emitters or applicators located at selected points along the delivery lines. The emitters dissipate
the pressure from the distribution system by means of orifices, vortexes and tortuous or long
flow paths, thus allowing a limited volume of water to discharge. Most emitters are placed on
the ground, but they can also be buried. The emitted water moves within the soil system largely
by unsaturated flow. The wetted soil area for widely spaced emitters will be normally elliptical
 94

in shape. Since the area wetted by each emitter is a function of the soil hydraulic properties,
one or more emission points per plant may be necessary.
Component of drip irrigation system: Pumping set, Filters, Mainlines, Sub-main, Laterals and
Drippers/emitters.

Pumping set: To create a pressure about 2.5 Kg/sq cm to regulate the

amount of water to be supplied.

Filter: To filter the water in Order to remove the suspended

impurities from water.

Main lines: It is a Distribution system in drip irrigation. Rigid PVC and

high density polyethylene pipes are used as main pipes to minimized
corrosion and clogging. Pipes of 65 mm diameter and with pressure
rating of 4 to 10 kg/sq. cm

Sub Main: It is usually connected to the main lines through a control

valve assembly. The function of its to distributes water uniformly to a
number laterals.

Drippers/emitters: It is fitted to a drip irrigation lateral and intended

to emit water in the form of drops or continuous flow at emitter
rates not exceeding 15 liters/hr. Drippers function as energy
dissipated, reducing the inlet pressure head in the lateral, which
generally range from 0.3 to 1.5 atmosphere.

Soil type and water movement by the application of water through drippers
 95

Spray Irrigation

Spray irrigation is a form of irrigation in which pressurized water is sprayed over plants
to provide them with water. This type of irrigation is also sometimes called sprinkler irrigation,
and it is very widely used all over the world. The spray irrigation sizes can be designed for all
size of farms, ranging from a home sprinkler to keep a lawn green to industrial sized sprinklers
used to irrigate crops. The application of water by a small spray or mist to the soil surface,
water travel through the air becomes instrumental in the distribution of water. In this category
two types of equipment are in use viz., micro-sprayers and micro-sprinklers. Micro-sprayers
and static micro jets are non-rotating type with flow rates ranging from 20 to 150 l/h, whereas,
micro-sprinklers are rotating type with flow rates ranging from 100 to 300 l/h.

Fig: Water application through micro sprinkler system

This system is similar to the way one may water lawn at home - stand there with a hose
and spray the water out in all directions. The systems can simply be long hoses with sprinklers
along the length or a center-pivot system that traverses a circle in the fields. With
a spray irrigation system, the irrigation sprinklers may be fixed in place, or located on movable
frames. Some sprinkler heads will only spray in one direction, requiring careful placement,
while others will rotate as they spray, and delivering water across a broader area. Rotating
heads are often preferred because it allows for the installation of a single sprinkler array to
cover a big area.
The center-pivot systems have a number of metal frames (on rolling wheels) that hold
the water tube out into the fields. Electric motors move each frame in a big circle around the
field (the tube is fixed at the water source at the center of the circle), squirting water. The
depth of water applied is determined by the rate of travel of the system. In high-pressure
systems, there can be very big water guns along the tube.
A more "modern" alternative to the high-pressure water guns is the low-pressure
sprinkler system. Here, water is gently sprayed downward onto plants instead of being shot
high in the air. Low-pressure systems are more efficient in that much less water evaporates or
is blown off the fields, if there is a strong wind present.
 96

Sources of water for spray irrigation vary. The utilization of treated wastewater should be
encouraged. This is an environmentally friendly choice which reduces the demand for fresh
water, nourishes the plants, and reduces wastewater runoff into waterways. Treated
wastewater can be used on ornamental crops and landscaping, but it may be banned for use on
crops. The source of water can be from wells, reservoirs, rivers, lakes, and streams.

Sub-Surface System:
It is a system in which water is applied slowly below the land surface through emitters.
Such systems are generally preferred in semi permanent/permanent installations.
Subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) is a low-pressure, high efficiency irrigation system that uses
buried drip tubes or drip tape to meet crop water needs. SDI technologies have been a part of
irrigated agriculture since the 1960s; with the technology advancing rapidly in the last two
decades. A SDI system is a flexible and can provide frequent light irrigations. This is especially
suitable for arid, semi-arid, hot, and windy areas with limited water supply. Farm operations
also become free of impediments that normally exist above ground with any other pressurized
irrigation system. Since the water is applied below the soil surface, the effect of surface
infiltration characteristics, such as crusting, saturated condition of pounding water, and
potential surface runoff (including soil erosion) are eliminated during irrigation. With an
appropriately sized and well-maintained SDI system, water application is highly uniform and
efficient. Wetting occurs around the tube and water moves out in all directions. Subsurface
irrigation saves water and improves yields by eliminating surface water evaporation and

reducing the incidence of disease and weeds. Water is applied directly to the root zone of the
crop and not to the soil surface where most weed seeds winter over. As a result, germination of
annual weed seed is greatly reduced, and lowers weed pressure on beneficial crops. In addition,
some crops may benefit from the additional heat provided by dry surface conditions, producing
more crop biomass, provided water is sufficient in the root zone. When managed properly,
water and fertilizer application efficiencies are enhanced, and labor needs are reduced. Field
operations are also possible, even when irrigation is applied.
 97

Bubbler System:
In this system the water is applied to the soil surface in a small stream or fountain. The
discharge rate for point source bubbler emitters is greater than the drip or subsurface emitters
but generally less than 225 l/h. Since the emitter discharge rate generally exceeds the
infiltration rate of the soil, a small basin is usually required to contain or control the water.
Bubbler systems do not require elaborate filtration systems. These are suitable in situations
where large amount of water need to be applied in a short period of time and suitable for
irrigating trees with wide root zones and high water requirements.

Fertigation:
The practice of supplying crops in the field with fertilizers via the irrigation water is called
fertigation (Bar-Yosef, 1991). Fertigation - a modern agro-technique, provides an excellent
opportunity to maximize yield and minimize environmental pollution (Hagin et al., 2002) by
increasing fertilizer use efficiency, minimizing fertilizer application and increasing return on the
fertilizer invested. In fertigation, timing, amounts and concentration of fertilizers applied are
easily controlled. In other word, fertigation is the process of application of water soluble solid
fertilizer or liquid fertilizers through micro irrigation system.
The incorporation of fertilizers into the irrigation system demands the following basic
requirements:
Equipment:
 In pressurized irrigation systems, the injected fertilizer solution has to be greater than that of the
internal pressure.
 A filter to prevent dripper clogging by any solid particles from reaching the dripper.
 A back-flow preventing valve.
Fertilizers:
 Solubility of the fertilizers in the indigenous water source: irrigation water contains various
chemical constituents some of which may interact with dissolved fertilizers with undesired
effects.
 The degree of acidity of the fertilizer solution has to be considered in relation to its corrosiveness
to the irrigation system components.

Fertigation equipment:
The choice of fertigation equipment has to take into account both crop requirement and
irrigation system capacity.
1. Gravity irrigation systems: This very simple method is only applicable to irrigation systems
working at atmospheric pressure in which water flows in open channels. The fertilizer solution
drips into the irrigation channel because the fertilizer tank is above the level of the channel. In
 98

order to obtain good mixing, the velocity of the irrigation stream must be high enough.
Pressurized irrigation systems Injection of the fertilizer consume energy in order to overcome the
internal pressure of the irrigation network.
2. Injection of the fertilizer consumes energy in order to overcome the internal pressure of the
irrigation network. Fertilizer injection equipment is classified into three principal groups,
according to the means employed to obtain the higher pressure for the fertilizer solution:
 Injection by a Venturi device: This is a unit that makes use of
the Venturi suction principle by using the pressure induced by
the flowing water to suck the fertilizer solution from the
fertilizer tank into the irrigation line. A conical constriction in
the pipe induces an increase in the water flow velocity and a
pressure decrease to an extremely low value which causes
fertilizer suction (through the filter screens) from the supply
tank through a tube into the irrigation system. A valve can be adjusted to control the
difference between the water velocities across the valves.

 Injection by differential pressure: This system utilizes an air tight pressure metal tank with
anti-acid internal wall protection in which a pressure differential is created by a throttle
valve that diverts part of the irrigation water into the tank. This is the only fertigation system
that enables the use of both solid and liquid fertilizers. The entire fertilizer amount in the
tank is delivered to the irrigation area. The concentration at the water emitter end is kept
constant as long as a solid fertilizer is present in the tank and solubility of the fertilizer is
quickly achieved. Once the solid fraction is completely dissolved the fertilizer concentration
is reduced at an exponential rate. In practice, when four
tank volumes have passed through it, only a negligible
amount of fertilizer is left in the tank. This equipment was
used in the early stages of fertigation development. A
limited area can be irrigated at a time according to the tank
volume. The use of solid fertilizers must be handled with
care. Fertilizers that have endothermic reaction when
dissolved, like KNO3 , Ca(NO3 )2 , Urea, NH4 NO3 , KCl and
5Ca(NO3 )2 ∙NH4 NH3 ∙10H2 O decrease the temperature in
the tank and when added during cold hours in the
early morning before irrigation, part of the solution
can freeze, leading to unexpected changes in the
nutrient concentrations.
 Injection by positive pressure: Injection pumps are
able to raise the pressure of the liquid fertilizer from a
stock solution tank at a predetermined ratio between
fertilizer solution volumes to irrigation water volume,
 99

hence achieving a proportional distribution of nutrient in the irrigation water. The

advantages of using injection pumps are the lack of pressure loss of the irrigation water, its
accuracy and the ability to provide a determined concentration through the irrigation cycle.
Two types of injectors are commonly used in fertigation: piston pumps and diaphragm
pumps. The most common power sources for fertigation pumps are:
 Hydraulic energy: The device uses the hydraulic pressure of the irrigation water to inject
nutrient solution while the water used to propel it (approximately three times the volume of
solution injected) is discharged. These pumps are suitable for fertigation in areas devoid of
sources of electricity.
 Electric dosing pumps: The device activates the fertilizer pump. These are common in
glasshouses and in areas where electricity is available and reliable.

Fertilizer dosing in fertigation:

According to Sne (2006), to apply the same doses of fertilizers during the specific phenological
stage of a plant, two different patterns of application can be made depending on the crop, soil
type and farm management system:
 Quantitative dosing: A measured amount of fertilizer is injected into the irrigation system during each
water application. Injection may be initiated and controlled automatically or manually.
 Proportional dosing: In this process, a constant predetermined ratio between the volume of the
irrigation water and the volume of the fertilizer solution is maintained, resulting in a constant nutrient
concentration in the irrigation water.

Suitability of fertilizers for fertigation:

A large range of fertilizers, both solid and liquid, are suitable for fertigation depending on the
physicochemical properties of the fertilizer solution. For large scale field operations, solid
fertilizer sources are typically a less expensive alternative to the commonly used liquid
formulations. The solubility of these fertilizers does vary greatly. When switching to a solid
fertilizer source, problems can be avoided in the nurse tanks by ensuring that ample water is
added to the stock solution. Four main factors in selecting fertilizers for fertigation should be
considered (Kafkafi, 2005):
 Plant type and stage of growth
 Soil conditions
 Water quality
 Fertilizer availability and price
The type of fertilizer for fertigation should be of high quality, with high solubility and purity,
containing low salt levels and with an acceptable pH, and it must fit in the farm management
program. The fertilizer characteristics as well as their effects on soils and crops are presented
later. Hagin and Lowengart-Aycicegi (1996) enumerated the main properties relating to the
suitability of the fertilizer to the injection method as follows:
 100

 Form: Soluble solid and liquid fertilizers are both suitable for fertigation depending on availability,
profitability and convenience.
 Solubility: High and complete solubility is a prerequisite for fertilizers used in fertigation. Fertilizer
solubility generally increases with temperature, depending on the fertilizer.
 Interaction between fertilizers in solution: When one type of fertilizer or more are prepared and
mixed by the grower, or in the irrigation line (but to a lesser extent), the compatibility between them
must be checked (Table 1 & 2). There are usually some basic precautions that must be taken: make
sure that the fertilizers used are compatible to prevent precipitation. Especially, avoid mixing fertilizer
solutions that contain calcium with solutions.
Table 1: Compatibility chart for different water soluble fertilizers:
Mono Mono
Ammonium Ammonium Calcium Potassium
Fertilizers Urea Ammonium Potassium
Nitrate Sulphate Nitrate Nitrate
Phosphate Phosphate

Urea C C C C C C

Ammonium
C C C C C C
Nitrate

Ammonium
C C LC C C LC
Sulphate

Calcium
C C LC NC NC C
Nitrate

Mono
Ammonium C C C NC C C
Phosphate

Mono
Potassium C C C NC C C
Phosphate

Potassium
C C LC C C C
Nitrate
C=COMPATIBLE, NC=NOT COMPATIBLE, LC=LIMITED COMPATIBLE
Table 2: Fertilizer evaluation for suitability to fertigation
Property NH4NO3 (NH4)2SO4 K2SO4 KCl KNO3 H3PO4 MAP

Solubility High Medium Low Medium Medium High Medium

Precipitation Low High High Low Low Low High

Compatibility Good Poor Poor Medium Medium Medium Good

Corrosion Medium Poor Poor Poor Good Poor Medium

(Source: http://www.ncpahindia.com/articles/article17.pdf)
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Table 3: Fertilizers Suitable for Fertigation Via Drip Irrigation System

Nutrient Water soluble fertilizers Nutrient content
Nitrogen Urea 46-0-0
Ammonium Nitrate 34-0-0
Ammonium Sulphate 21-0-0
Calcium Nitrate 16-0-0
Magnesium Nitrate 11-0-0
Urea Ammonium Nitrate 32-0-0
Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46
Monoammonium Phosphate 32-0-0
Phosphorus Monoammonium Phosphate 12-61-0
Monopotassium Phosphate 0-54-32
Phosphoric Acid 0-82-0
Potassium Potassium Chloride 0-0-60
Potassium Sulphate 0-0-50
Potassium Nitrate 13-0-46
Potassium Thiosulphate 0-0-25
Monopotassium Phosphate 0-52-34
NPK Polyfeed 19-19-19
20-20-20
Micronutrients Fe EDTA 13
Fe DTPA 12
Fe EDDHA 6
Zn EDTA 15
Ca EDTA 9.7
Rexolin CXK (B+Cu+Fe+Mn+Mo+Zn+Mg) ---

Important points:
 Free from chlorides and sodium
 No salt build up in the crop root zone
 Contain 100% plant nutrients
 Fast acting nitrate nitrogen, soluble phosphorus and soluble postassium
 Completely water soluble with any residues
 Most of the fertilizers are acidic in nature, hence no special chemical treatment is
required to check emitter plugging
 Maintain optimum soil pH contributing to more uptake of nutrients
 Most of the fertilizers are blended with micronutrients
 102

Table 4: Fertigation Schedule for Seasonal (12 months)/Ratoon Sugarcane

Days After Planting Nutrients (kg/ha/day)

N P2O5 K 2O
1-30 Days 1.20 0.10 0.20
31-80 Days 1.50 0.40 0.24
81-110 Days 2.00 1.00 0.40
111-150 Days 0.75 0.30 0.75
151-190 Days -- 1.50

Advantages of fertigation:
The fertigation allows to apply the nutrients exactly and uniformly only to the wetted root
volume, where the active roots are concentrated. This remarkably increases the efficiency in
the application of the fertilizer, which allows reducing
the amount of applied fertilizer. This not only reduces
the production costs but also lessens the potential of
groundwater pollution caused by the fertilizer leaching.
Fertigation allows to adapt the amount and
concentration of the applied nutrients in order to meet
the actual nutritional requirement of the crop
throughout the growing season. In order to make a
correct planning of the nutrients supply to the crop
according to its physiological stage, we must know the
optimal daily nutrient consumption rate during the growing cycle that results in maximum yield
and production quality. The optimal curve of consumption of nutrients defines the minimal
application rate of a certain nutrient that is required to maintain a constant nutrient
concentration in the soil solution.
Other advantages of the fertigation are: (1) the saving of energy and labor, (2) the
flexibility of the moment of the application (nutrients
can be applied to the soil when crop or soil conditions
would otherwise prohibit entry into the field with
conventional equipment), (3) convenient use of
compound and ready-mix nutrient solutions
containing also small concentrations of micronutrients
which are otherwise very difficult to apply accurately to
the soil, and (4) the supply of nutrients can be more
 103

carefully regulated and monitored. When fertigation is applied through the drip irrigation
system, crop foliage can be kept dry thus avoiding leaf burn and delaying the development of
plant pathogens.

Disadvantages: Potential contamination hazard from equipment malfunctions, Backflow

prevention devices required and Careful handling of liquid fertilizer required.

Drip and micro irrigation have a characteristic not shared by other irrigation methods:
fertigation is not optional, but is actually necessary. Fertigation provides the only good way to
apply fertilizers physically to the crop root zone. On high value drip irrigated crops, such as
lettuce, tomatoes, and peppers, the level of fertigation management for achieving high yields
and crop qualities exceeds to what is found with other irrigation methods and crops.

References:
1. Barber, S.A. 1984. Soil Nutrient Availability: A Mechanistic Approach.
2. Howell, T.A., D.S. Stevenson, F.K. Aljibury, H.M. Gitlin, I-Pai Wu, A.W. Warrick, and P.A.C.
Raats. (1980). Design and Operation of Trickle (Drip) Systems. (Chapter in: Design and
Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems (Jensen M.E.). ASAE Monograph 3. St. Joseph, MI.
3. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-spray-irrigation.htm 17th Aug, 2012
4. http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/irsprayhigh.html
5. SR REDDY, GK REDDY IRRIGATION AGRONOMY THIRD EDITION 2016
6. www.florence.ars.usda.gov/
7. www.betterpivots.com/how.html
8. http://weather.nmsu.edu/
9. www.nrw.gld.gov.au/
10. www.ag.ndsu.nodak.edu/abeng/
11. www.fertigationsystems.com
 104

CHAPTER 10
MANAGEMENT OF WATER IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENTS AND
POLYHOUSES

INTRODUCTION:
Polyhouse farming is an alternative new technique in agriculture gaining foothold in
rural India and can be successfully employed for niche areas of agriculture. The low cost
Polyhouse is economical for small and marginal farmers, who cannot afford huge cost of high-
tech poly house. A polyhouse is a special constructed structure like a building for growing plants
under controlled condition. It is covered with a transpiration material as such permits entry of
natural light. As the polythene material, being the most popular the green house come to know
as polyhouse in resent time. A polyhouse or green house is actually same thing. The
greenhouse technology which provides favorable environment condition to the plants. It is
rather used to protect the plants from the adverse climatic conditions such as wind, cold,
precipitation, excessive radiation, extreme temperature, insects and diseases. It is also of vital
importance to create an ideal micro climate around the plants. Different type of poly house in
general used; Low cast and natural ventilated polyhouse, Medium cost or partial climate
controlled polyhouse, High cost or fully climate controlled polyhouse, Plastic low tunnels and
Net house.
Water is a major factor in successful production of greenhouse plants. An adequate
water supply is needed for irrigation, pesticide application, evaporative cooling (if applicable),
growing media preparation and clean-up. Plants require an adequate supply of moisture for
optimum growth which is affected by many variables. The amount of water needed depends on
the area to be watered, crops grown, weather conditions time of year and the environment
control system. The design for the water supply needs to be made for the peak use time of the
year.
Irrigation in protected cultivation is essential due to the absence of natural
precipitation. High evapotranspiration, due to higher temperature and prolonged cropping
period, requires ample an adequate supply of water. The water supply in a greenhouse is solely
carried out by irrigation and thus enables full control over the water management of the
greenhouse soil.
METHODS OF IRRIGATION IN CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT:
Greenhouse crops are irrigated by means of applying water to the media surface
through drip tubes or tapes, by hand using a hose, overhead sprinklers and booms or by
applying water through the bottom of the container through subirrigation, or by using a
combination of these delivery systems. Overhead sprinklers and hand watering have a tendency
 105

to "waste" water and also wet the foliage, which increases the potential for diseases and injury.
Drip and subirrigation systems are the most efficient and provide greater control over the
amount of water applied. Also, since the foliage does not become wet there is a reduced
potential for diseases and injury.
In general the following methods used for irrigation; drip irrigation, overhead sprinkling system,
hand watering, movable irrigation boom, hydroponics, Water Trays and Saucers and sub
irrigation:
Drip Irrigation:
Drip irrigation can be a valuable tool for accurate growing medium moisture control. It
also saves water and labor, and reduces the potential for groundwater pollution. Drip irrigation
systems eliminate runoff of water missing the pot during overhead irrigation and the volume of
water applied to the pot can be controlled. In theory it should be
possible to greatly reduce or eliminate leaching from pots by
simply turning the system off as container capacity is reached.
Controlling drip systems with the use of a tensiometer placed in
the growing medium to sense moisture tension (level) and a small
computer programmed to turn the system on or off when preset moisture tensions are reached
has been shown to reduce runoff from potted chrysanthemums and poinsettias to nearly zero.
Vegetable crops when grown in ground beds, bags or pots are commonly watered with drip
tapes. Tubing is placed atop the ground or container or woven through the bags. The
importance of drip irrigation due to discharge rate of water per dripper is generally 1-8 lit./hr at
1.5 to 2.5 kg per square cm pressure, saving of water from 50-70% and it is most suitable for in
green house.
Sprinkler irrigation:
Sprinkling is the method of water to the soil surface in the
form of a spray which is somewhat similar to rain. Container size
and placement easy changed. Spray pattern can be adjusted. The
importance of this methods due to discharge rate is more than
1000 lit./hr, sprinkler pressure required 2.5-4.5kg/ square cm,
saving of water from 25-50%, water use efficiency 60% and it can
be use to protect crop against frost and high temperature.
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Hand watering:
Hand watering is most efficient for plug trays and flats,
small containers that are tightly spaced. Hand watering is least
efficient for potted plants, when they are at final spacing and the
canopy is closed, because it is harder to get the water to the
growing medium, and it takes longer to deliver water to each
container.
Booms:
Boom systems are useful for plug trays and flats. Mist nozzles can deliver water consistently at
a low rate, resulting in uniform wetting and good water retention. The spray is under low
pressure so compaction and washout is minimized. Booms can also be used for larger
containers, especially when pots are still tightly spaced. Booms typically have selectable nozzles
for different spray patterns, allowing them to be used for misting during propagation and for
higher-volume delivery for irrigation.

Hydroponic:
Irrigation system by which the root crops are
balanced nutrient solution dissolved in water with all the
chemicals necessary for the growth of plants, which can
be grown directly on the mineral solution or in a
substrate or medium inert.
Water Trays and Saucers:
In this system, water is applied to the surface and is collected under the container through
collection trays or saucers Water trays and saucers, depending on their shape and spacing on
the bench, can greatly reduce runoff and leaching by containing the water draining from pots
and holding the water which misses the pot during overhead watering. They are inexpensive
and reusable. Water which collects in them should be given adequate time to evaporate or be
absorbed by the plant before further irrigation. Avoid tight plant spacing and poor ventilation
to prevent disease problems when using this technique.
Sub irrigation:
Sub irrigation systems, also know as zero runoff, are an environmentally responsibly alternative
that conserves water and fertilizers. They are being installed by greenhouse growers to
improve product quality, achieve more uniform growth and increase production efficiency. In
subirrigation systems, water and nutrient solution provided at the base of the container rises by
capillary action through holes in the bottom and is absorbed by the growing media. These
systems are adaptable to crops grown in pots or flats.
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Advantages of sub irrigation systems:

 Water and nutrient solutions are contained and recycled
 Water and fertilizer usage decreases at least 50% over conventional systems
 Uniform watering of all containers
 Pot size and placement can be easily changed
 More vigorous plant growth
 Foliage remains dry
 Labor inputs is reduced
 Examples of Subirrigation Systems
Capillary mat systems:
In a capillary mat system the pots are set on a mat that is kept constantly wet with a nutrient
solution. Several styles of fabric mats are available from ¼” to ½” thick. The pots take up the
solution through holes in the bottom. The mat is places on a level bench over a layer of
plastic. Water is supplied from drip tubes laid on top of the fabric.
To keep algae under control, a layer of perforated film plastic is sometimes placed over the top
of the mat. Algicides are also used. Some growers turn the mat over when a new crop is
started. Containers holding nutrient solution and piping should be enclosed in black plastic or
painted black to eliminate light and algae formation.
Trough system:
In this system, plastic or metal troughs are placed on existing benches or supported overhead
from the greenhouse structure. The troughs are installed at a slight slope (3” to 6” per 100’)
from one end to the other. Pots are spaced along the trough. Nutrient solution, supplied from
spaghetti tubes, is pumped to the high end, flows past the base of the pots and is collected in a
cross gutter at the low end. The solution returns to a storage tank under the benches or below
ground to be recycled. One advantage to this system over other ebb and flow systems is the air
circulation that occurs between the troughs. Another
is the ability to space the troughs for different size pots. Trough systems tend to be less
expensive than bench systems and can be easily installed in existing greenhouses.
Ebb and flood benches and movable trays:
This system uses 4’ to 6’ wide watertight benches or water-tight movable trays to contain the
nutrient solution. The benches, usually of plastic or fiberglass construction are installed
perfectly level to maintain a uniform depth of liquid. They can be installed as either fixed or
movable depending on the crops to be grown. Channels in the bottom of the bench allow the
water to distribute evenly and to drain rapidly when the water supply is shut off. This allows
the bench top to dry reducing algae growth and disease potential.
In operation nutrient solution is pumped from a holding tank to a level of ¾” to 1” depth in the
bench and held there for 10 minutes or long enough for the media in the container to absorb
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the solution. A valve is then opened and the liquid is quickly drained by gravity back into the
tank. Low cost PVC pipe is used as it is not affected by the fertilizer in the water. A filter
removes any solid matter.
The holding tank, usually located in the floor below the benches should have a capacity
for about ½ gallon/sq ft of bench area. The nutrient solution is used over again but adjustments
in pH and soluble salts may have to be made as water is added. Water treatment with chlorine,
ultra violet (UV) light or ozone is used by some growers to prevent diseases. Control of the
nutrients and flow can be manual or with a controller. Watering may be once or twice a week
to several times a day depending on the weather and the size of the crop.
Flood Floors:
Flooded floors work on the same principle and with the same equipment as ebb and flow
benches. A watertight concrete is necessary for the floor surface and it must be installed as
smooth as possible to avoid pockets. A laser transit is used to get a perfect slope, usually ¼” in
10’. A concrete contractor having experience with flood floor system should be hired. Berms
may be installed at the post line in gutter-connected houses to create zones. PVC pipe with
slots or holes is usually installed in the floor in the center of the bay to supply and remove the
nutrient solution as quickly as possible.
Large holding tanks are necessary, usually made of concrete and lined with plastic or
coated with epoxy paint. Typically a 21’ x 200’ bay will require 2000 to 3000 gallons of solution.
In larger greenhouses, the tank has to be large enough to hold the liquid from several bays that
are operated as a single zone. New flood floors can register high alkalinity as bicarbonates in
the floor dissolve.
PVC piping is used to transport the nutrient solution as it is inert to fertilizers.
Monitoring of the nutrient solution is done by a computer. Fertilizer is added, usually as
individual elements, to maintain the desired nutrient level.
Best results are obtained if a floor heating system is installed. This provides uniform heat in the
root zone area and quickly dries the floor after the solution is drained to reduce algae
formation and lower disease potential. A horizontal air flow (HAF) circulation system will reduce
moisture in the plant foliage. To save handling labor, a fork lift transport and spacing machine
could be used.

The following factors can increase or decrease the amount of water needed:

1. Solar radiation. The level of radiation that reaches the plants is reduced by 10% to 40%
due to the glazing and the structural members in the greenhouse. This reduces the
transpiration.
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2. Shading. The use of shading outside or inside will reduce the radiation level on the
plants. Depending on the level of shade, this will reduce evapotranspiration and
therefore water needs.
3. Air movement. Fan ventilation and HAF systems increase the rate of
evapotranspiration. Depending on location and nearby greenhouses or other buildings,
sidewall vents and open-roof designs can also have an influence. A 5 miles/hour breeze
can increase evapotranspiration by 20%.
4. Type and size of the plants. Seedlings or small potted plants require less water than a
full-grown tomato or cucumber crop. A large root mass or heavy leaf canopy will
increase water needs.
5. Type of irrigation system. Only 20% of the irrigation water applied with an overhead
sprinkler system may reach the soil in a potted plant crop with a large foliar canopy. In-
pot drips systems are much more efficient as all the water applied with an in-pot drip
system gets to the soil. Subirrigation systems such as ebb and flood systems, flooded
floors and hydroponics conserve water by recycling and reusing the excess water.
6. Leaching. Traditionally, the recommendation that at least 10% of the water applied be
allowed to leach out to remove excess fertilizer salts increases water usage. Often
leaching accounts for a much higher percentage and can increase water needs
significantly. The type of growing mix used also affects the amount of water holding
capacity and therefore the frequency of watering.

Source of water:
The main sources for irrigation water are groundwater from wells, surface water, drainage
ponds, rain and municipal water.
Drilled wells are a clean source of water for many greenhouse operations however; the water
yield from drilled wells is usually limited. The flow of water from a well depends on the permeability and
size of the aquifer, its recharge area and the amount of rainfall. A well in one location may provide a
very low yield, while another area, may provide a high water yield. In most areas, well drillers keep an
accurate record of the depth and yield of wells they drill. Groundwater quality varies due to the parent
material. Elemental content and bicarbonate levels can also change with the seasons of the year, and
the amount of pumping from the wells.
Surface water includes streams, rivers, lakes and ponds which are dependent on runoff
from adjacent land or from ground water springs. These are dependent on rainfall rates that
vary from year to year. Surface water is subject to contamination from sources such as
sediment, chemicals and plant growth. High levels of particles can reduce the life of pumps and
clog irrigation systems and multiple filters may be required. It is also possible that surface
waters can become contaminated with road salt, industrial, agricultural chemicals, algae and
plant pathogens.
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Drainage ponds are usually a combination of rain water and run-off. Drainage ponds
commonly contain fertilizers or other agricultural chemicals. Because of the size and lack of
aeration, biological conditions such as algal growth may be a concern.
Rain water can be collected from greenhouses or building roofs without contacting the
ground and held in a concrete cistern, fiberglass or polyethylene tank, water silo or other
holding tank. It is clean except for any debris that gets into the system. Rain water will be very
low in elemental or chemical contamination unless there is industrial air pollution or fallout on
the roofs. The pH of collected rain may be low (4.0 – 5.0) but is not considered detrimental to
crops because it is not buffered (does not resist change in pH) and changes readily. Rain water
is an excellent and underutilized source of irrigation water. A basic system consists of a storage
tank, roof washer, inflow pipes, overflow pipes and a diverter to redirect the excess water
when the tank is full. Concrete or plastic tanks can be used but are usually limited to about
15,000 gallons.
Corrugated steel tanks can be built to almost any capacity as they are delivered in preformed
panels and assembled on site. Before the water is collected for irrigation, a device called a roof
washer is normally used to divert the first flush of water that is collected to remove debris from
the water. Also an overflow is needed to handle excess water. The excess water is diverted to a
drainage area where it will not flood neighboring property. Once rainwater is collected, it can
be distributed to the greenhouses through the normal irrigation system.
Municipal water includes water supplied by city, county or municipality. Either, ground,
rain, and/or surface water may be used. The cost and quality are typically high since much of
the water is for residential use and drinking water and is treated. The key concerns are whether
supply is guaranteed in times of shortages and what water treatment procedures are used that
may influence plant growth. Municipal water may have fluoride and/or chlorine added at rates
which is not a problem for most crops. Occasionally, sodium compounds are added to treat
hard water.

References:
1. Reddy and Reddy – principle of agronomy.
2. D.Lenka - Irrigation and drainage.
3. SR Reddy – irrigation agronomy.
4. https://www.wwdmag.com/water/greenhouse--incr.
5. https://ag.umass.edu/greenhouse-floriculture.
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CHAPTER 11
WATER MANAGEMENT OF CROPS AND CROPPING SYSTEMS

Cereals and Millets

Rice and wheat are the two major cereals of the country. Rice is cultivated through out The
country while wheat 15 the major crop of relatively cooler part of north India.Except maize, The
area of other millets under irrigation is relatively low.

1. Rice
Irrigated rice rice is largely cultivated under conditions of land submergence all through the
Country except in the states of West Bengal, Assam, Kerala and parts of Orissa, Madhya
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh where it is grown as a rainfed crop. Lowland (irrigated) rice requires
more Water than other crops of similar duration due to land submergence. Depending on the
environment In which the crop is cultivated, 50 to 70 per cent of the applied water is lost m
deep percolation And about 200 mm of water is necessary for land preparation.

Table: Water requirement of irrigated lowland rice (Kung 1971).

Losses Quantity
By water loss
Transpiration 1.5 to 9.8 mm/day
Evaporation 1.0 to 6.2 mm/day
Percolation 0.2 to 15.6 mm/day
Range of daily loss 5.6 to 20.4 mm/day
By field operation
Nursery 40 mm
Land preparation 200 mm
Field Irrigation 1000 mm
Total 1240 mm

The amount of water used at field level is 20,000 m3/t with poor water management and
3000 m3/t with good management. Irrigation agencies, generally, take only ‘laissez faire’
approach to measurement and control of water in canal command areas where rice is the
major Crop. A large proportion of the water making up the current system water requirements
is used In lieu of added control and management. Most irrigation system of rice producing
nations in Asia are operating at the left hand side of abscissa where the system water
requirement is much higher than the actual requirement. It is desirable to incur added costs in
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control and management to save added units of water (ha/cm) until last unit of water saved has
a cost equal to the cost of a replacement source of water.

Recommended Irrigation Practices

Great economy in irrigation water could be achieved if suitable measures are adopted to
minimise the deep percolation losses. Some of the recommended practices to economy in
irrigation water use in rice cultivation are:

 Rice cultivation on heavy soils with percolation below 5 mm/day.

 Since the seepage is proportional to perimeter of the area, rice should be grown in large
blocks instead of in isolated plots.
 Puddling to reduce soil permeability.
 Subsoil compaction to minimise deep percolation losses.
 Addition of bitumen, asphalt etc. to the soil.
 Application of tank silt to light soils.
 Scrupulous land levelling.

Adequate irrigation water availability to meet the crop needs

If irrigation water in not a limiting factor for rice cultivation, continuous shallow land
submergence with 5 cm water could be ideal to achieve the benefits of land submergence in
kharif, rabi and summer seasons.

Limited irrigation water availability

Under the conditions of limited supplies, the following phasic land submergence could be
optimum both for kharif and rabi crops

 Maintain not more than 2 cm water depth at transplanting.

 Up to 3 days after planting (establishment period), 5 cm land submergence is necessary.
 Maintain 2 cm depth of land submergence from 3 days after planting to panicle
primordial initiation.
 From panicle primordial initiation to 21 days after heading, maintenance of 5 cm.
 From 21 days after heading to harvest, gradual withholding of irrigation.

If the irrigation water is not adequate meet the above recommended schedule, the
following intermittent land submergence could be followed during kharif and rabi

 From transplanting to panicle initiation, irrigations could be 3 days after the

disappearance of ponded water.
 From panicle initiation to 21 days after heading, irrigation should be 2 days after the
disappearance of ponded water.
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 From21 days after heading to a week before harvest, irrigations may be given 5 days
after the disappearance of the ponded water.
Limited irrigation water availability for summer rice crop

A short duration rice crop is transplanted around mid-April under well irrigation, especially
in south India to meet the family needs. The recharging capacity of wells, generally, goes down
from April onwards, thus subjecting the crop to soil moisture stress around heading and grain
development stages. The following irrigation practices are suggested under such situations:

 Since there is no scope to apply around 5 cm depth of water every day to the entire rice
crop, about 2 cm of water may be applied every day to cover the entire area or
irrigation may be given on alternate days to cover the entire area.
 If the above practice could not serve the purpose,the crop may be irrigated 2 or 3 days
after the disappearance of the applied water depending on the recharging capacity of
the well.
 In case the above practices could not serve the purpose,the only alternate to save the
standing crop is to irrigating the crop by following check-flooding method of irrigation.
There is no scope for dividing the rice field into bed sand channels using machinery or other
farm equipment, without causing damage to standing rice crop, for check flooding. An
alternative is to use sand to demarcate plots and forming channels for irrigation. This practice
can minimise the deep percolation losses relative to wild flooding method of irrigation and aids
in irrigating larger area than that with wild flooding.

2. Wheat
Wheat season commence after withdrawal monsoon either as tainted crop on stored soil
moisture or as an irrigated crop. Studies on irrigation requirements of wheat are based on
depletion of available soil moisture (DASM), critical growths stages for irrigation and
climatological approaches.

Recommended Irrigation Practices

Based on the result of experiments, the following general conclusions can be drawn on
irrigation practices for wheat:

Critical stages approaches

In general, 4 to 6 irrigations are needed for optimum yield under different soil and weather
conditions as indicate in Table.
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Critical stages for soil moisture stress and irrigation needs depending on the availability of
water.

Available irrigations Critical stages

1 CRI
2 CRI + late jointing (LJ)
3 CRI + boot (B) + milk (M)
4 CRI + late tillering (LT) + LJ + flowering (F)
5 CRI + LT + LJ + F + M
6 CRI + LT + LJ + F + M + dough (D)

Climatological approach

As indicated already, this approach has been tested extensively under different conditions.

 Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratios of 0.9 to 1.05 with 6.0 cm depth is ideal for
optimum yield. Depending on the climatic conditions, 4 to 6 irrigations may be
necessary during the season.
 When the available irrigation water cannot meet the above schedule, irrigation may be
scheduled at 0.9 ratio at CR1 and at 0.6 during other stages for highest water use
efficiency.
 Under situations of acute water shortage, lW/CPE ratio of 0.6 requiring 3 irrigations at
critical stages (CR1, boot and milk stages) appears to be the minimum requirement for
reasonably good yield.
Depletion of available soil moisture approach

This approach is still the usual approach for scheduling irrigation.

 When irrigation water is not a limiting factor, scheduling irrigation at 25 per cent DASM
in the case of light soils and at 40 per cent DASM in the case of heavy soils could be ideal
for high yield.
 Under the conditions of limited irrigation water availability, scheduling irrigation at 40
and 60 per cent DASM could be adopted for the crops on light and heavy soils
respectively.
 The other alternative is to irrigate the crop around 50 per cent DASM at C111 and at 75
DASM during other critical stages.

3. Maize
Most critical stage for irrigation is flowering period (15 to 20 days) including tasseling,
silking and pollination. Greatest decrease in grain yield is caused by water deficits during this
stage, mainly due to reduction in grain number per cob. During the five weeks that follow
 115

tasseling water use is about 50 percent of the seasonal requirement.It has been shown that
when soil moisture is depleted to wilting point, even for a day or two during tasseling or
pollination, grain yield will decrease by around 20 percent and if the stress continuous for a
week. yield reduction will be around 50 per cent. Irrigation schedules based on IW/CPE ratio at
Madhepura and Pusa indicated that at 1.0 ratio, winter maize required4 and5 irrigations,
respectively for grain yield of 3.8 t/ha. At Morena, grain yield of 5.22 t/he was obtained at 0.9
ratio,requiring8 to 9 irrigations. Based on the results of experiments the following conclusions
can be drawn on water management practices for maize:

 If irrigation water is adequate, irrigations may be scheduled at 25 percent DASM or at

IW/CPE ratio of 0.9 or 1.0 throughout the growth period of the crop. Around12
irrigations are required depending on the soil type.
 Under conditions of limited irrigation water availability, the above schedules may be
followed at {lowering period (15 to 20 days) including tasseling, silking and pollination.
During other periods, irrigations may be scheduled at 50 per cent DASM or at an IW/
CPE ratio of 0.75. This practice may require about 8 irrigations.
 Even if irrigation water is adequate, it would be wiser to adopt critical stages approach
for increasing the area under irrigation without significant reduction in grain yield.

4. Millets
Among the millets, maize is grown as irrigated crop throughout the country, especially
during winter and summer seasons. Sorghum, fingermillet and pearlmillet are occasionally
grown as irrigated crops during rabi and summer seasons, especially in southern parts of the
country. As such, work on irrigation needs of millets, except maize, is limited.

a. Sorghum

This crop is mainly a rainy season crop on light soils or a post rainy season crop on stored
soil moisture of deep black soils. Very rarely it is grown as an irrigated crop during rabi and
summer seasons.

Seedling, primordial and flowering stages are the critical stages for soil moisture stress.
Summer crop gave highest grain yield when irrigations were scheduled at 50 percent DASM,
requiring 550 mm water in 9 irrigations. Optimum IW/CPE ratio and number of irrigations to
sorghum crop varied widely from region to region. Only one irrigation scheduled at 0.4 ratio
produced highest grain yield (4.02 t/ha) of kharif sorghum at Parbhani (Maharastra). On sandy
loam soils of Bhavanisagar, grain yield only 3.01 t/ha at 0.4 ratio, requiring 5 irrigations.

The following general conclusions may serve as a guide for irrigation water management of
sorghum under different soil and climatic conditions:
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 If irrigation water is adequate, irrigation schedules at 50 per cent DASM or at IW/CPE

ratio 0.75, all through the crop period, could be ideal for high grain and fodder yield of
sorghum during rabi and summer seasons. Depending on soil type and climate, 7 to 9
irrigations may be necessary.
 During years of deficit supplies, irrigation schedules at 50 per cent DASM or at IW/ CPE
ratio 0.75 at seedling, primordial and flowering stages and at 75 per cent DASM or at 0.4
IW/CPE ratio at other stages could be ideal for optimum grain and fodder yield during
MM and summer seasons. About 4 irrigations could be adequate with this irrigation
schedule.

The following water management practices could also serve the same purpose as that of
the above.

 If water supply is adequate for only one irrigation, it should applied at primordial stage.
 If water supply is adequate for two irrigations, they should applied at seedling and
primordial stages.
 If water supply is adequate for three irrigations, they should applied at seedling,
primordial and flowering stages.
 Four irrigations, one each at seedling, primordial, flowering and grain development
stages leads to optimum yield.
b. Pearlmillet

Area of pearlmillet, both under rainfed and irrigated conditions, has progressively
decreased during the last fifteen years due to introduction of more remunerative crops. Still,
considerable area exists under irrigation, especially in southern parts of the country during
summer season (April-June) as transplanted crop. Much attention has not been paid for
irrigation management of the crop. Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75/O.80 required
three irrigations for an yield of 2.8 t/ha during kharif at Kota in Rajasthan. At Hyderabad (AP),
rabi pearlmillet could produce 2.2 t/ha with 10 irrigations.

Flowering and grain development stages are most sensitive for soil moisture stress.
Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM during moisture sensitive stages and at 75 per cent
DASM during other stages appears to be optimum under several situations. Based on the
available information, the following conclusions can be drawn on irrigation practices for
pearlmillet

 Under conditions of adequate irrigation water availability, scheduling irrigation at 50

percent DASM all through the crop period, requiring 5 to 7 irrigations could be ideal for
high grain yield of transplanted crop during rabi and summer seasons. If scheduling is
based on IW/CPE ratio, 0.75 ratio all through the crop period could be as good as the
above for optimum grain yield.
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 At times of deficit water supplies, scheduling irrigations at 50 per cent DASM during
moisture sensitive stages and at 75 DASM during other stages or scheduling irrigations
at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 during moisture sensitive stages and at 0.4 ratio during other
stages could serve the purpose without significant reduction in grain yield.
 For transplanted summer pearlmillet, 6 irrigations, one each at planting, a week after
planting, three weeks after planting, panicle initiation, flowering and grain development
are ideal, if water supply is not a limiting factor.
 Under conditions of deficit supplies, three irrigations (planting, tillering and flowering)
can optimise the grain yield during summer season.
c. Fingermillet

Among the small millets, fingermillet is the only crop grown under irrigation to a considerable
extent during rabi and summer seasons, especially in south India. During rainy season, one or
two supplemental irrigations, at times of drought Spells, can double the yield of fingermillet.
Tillering, panicle initiation and grain development stages are sensitive to soil moisture stress.
The following irrigation schedules may serve as a guide for irrigation water management of
fingermillet under different situations:

 If irrigation water is not a limiting factor, 7 irrigations at 10 days interval during mini and
9 irrigations at 8 days interval during summer can meet the crop needs for high grain
yield.
 Under conditions of limited water supply, a minimum of 3 irrigations (tillering, panicle
initiation and grain development) are necessary for economic crop production during
rabi and summer seasons.
 Under conditions of adequate irrigation water availability, scheduling irrigation at 50
percent DASM all through the crop period could be ideal for high grain yield of
transplanted crop during rabi and summer seasons. If scheduling is based on IW/CPE
ratio, 0.75 ratio all through the crop period could be as good as the above for optimum
grain yield.
 At times of deficit water supplies, scheduling irrigations at 50 per cent DASM during
moisture sensitive stages and at 75 DASM during other stages or scheduling irrigations.
at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 during moisture sensitive stages and at 0.4 ratio during other
stages could serve the purpose without significant reduction in grain yield.

5. Pulses
Pulse crops have long tap root system, which aids in soil moisture use from deeper layers.
Hence, they can withstand prolonged soil moisture stress and are rarely irrigated during rainy
season. Pulses grown after kharif rice crop (rice fallow pulses) and those grown on black cotton
soils, as post rainy season crops are also not irrigated. Only rabi and summer crops, grown to a
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limited extent, are given limited irrigations depending on the availability of irrigation water.
Hence, not much progress has been made in water management practices for pulse crops.

a. Pigeonpea

Among the pulse crops, kharif pigeonpea may be the only crop, which receives irrigation
due to its longer duration, extending up to January February (post rainy season). The other
reason for irrigating the kharif sown crop is that it gives 2 or 3 flushes of crop harvests in 6 to 7
months.

On sandy soils of Morena, three irrigations (each 7.5 cm depth) at IW/CPE ratio of 0.9
resulted in seed yield of 2.0 t hal. However, at Rahuri, 10 irrigations (each 5 cm deep) scheduled
at 0.75 ratio produced optimum yield of 4.34 t/h from 3 flushes. At Navsari and Kota, optimum
ratio was 0.6 requiring 2 and 4 irrigations respectively. In the absence of timely rainfall, one
irrigation at flower initiation and another at pod development can double the yield of rainy
season crop. Response to irrigation is, generally, more consistent in post rainy season crop on
stored soil moisture. Three irrigations at monthly intervals can double the yield on light soils,
while more than two may not be necessary for the crop on medium and deep soils during post
rainy season.

Suggested water management practices for pigeonpea crop during post rainy season are:

 In the absence of adequate rainfall after October, one irrigation at flower initiation
(second or third flush of flowering) and another at pod development can double the
yield of kharif sown crop.
 Response to irrigation is, generally, more consistent in post rainy season crop on stored
soil moisture. Three irrigations at monthly intervals can double the yield on light soils,
while more than two may not be necessary for the crop on medium and deep soils
during post rainy season.
 Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 during post rainy season may require two
or three irrigations for optimum yield.
 If irrigation is scheduled based on DASM, 75 per cent depletion level requiring three
irrigations could be adequate for optimum yield.
b. Chickpea

Around 60 per cent of the chickpea area in the country is rainfed, especially as a post rainy
season crop on receding soil moisture in black soils. The crop responds to irrigation on light
soils of north India, particularly if winter rains are scanty. Even under drought conditions, more
than two irrigations are not necessary. Where evaporative demand is high as in Peninsular
India, irrigation can double the yield on relatively light soils. However, under conditions of low
evaporative demand as in north India, irrigation leads to excessive growth and lodging.
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Branching, 45 days after seeding (DAS), and pod formation (75 DAS) are the critical stages
for soil moisture stress. Suggested irrigation management practices are:

 If irrigation water is adequate, four irrigations (seeding, branching, flowering and pod
filling) appear to be adequate for a crop on light soils. Generally, irrigation is not
recommended for a crap on deep black cotton soils.
 Under condition of limited availability, two irrigations (branching and pod formation)
can give economic yield on light soils.
 Scheduling irrigation at 0.5 IW/CPE ratio or at 75 per cent DASM, requiring 2 to 3
irrigations is equally effective as that of critical stages irrigation.
 Chickpea is very sensitive to soil salinity. Irrigation water with saline water that has 10
mmhos/cm can reduce the yield by 60 per cent.
c. Greengram and Blackgram

These two crops are grown as rainfed crops during rainy season. As such, they will not
respond to irrigation unless there is prolonged dry spell at critical stages for soil moisture stress.
Post rainy season crops grown with stored moisture on black cotton soils also will not receive
any irrigation. These crops are grown as irrigated crops during summer in northern parts of the
country and in winter in southern parts. In delta areas of south India, these crops are grown as
relay crops with kharif rice without any irrigation.

Flowering and pod development stages are sensitive to soil moisture stress. In general,
rainy season crop did not respond to irrigation at several places. Summer crop required 3 to 4
irrigations at IW/CPE ratio of 0.60 for normal yield at different locations. Recommended
irrigation practices are:

 Under conditions of adequate irrigation facilities, four irrigations, one each at sowing,
branching, flowering and pod development are adequate for optimum yield during
winter and summer seasons.
 If irrigation water is limiting, a pre sowing irrigation followed by another irrigation at
flowering can result in near Optimum yield of winter and summer crops.
 Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM during flowering and pod formation and at 75
per cent DASM during other stages could be as effective as the above, at times of deficit
water supplies.
 There may not be any necessity for irrigating these crops during rainy season unless
prolonged dry spells occur during the critical storages for soil moisture stress.

Other pulse crops like cowpea, kidney bean and lentil are of little importance as irrigated
crops. The principle of irrigating these crops is same as that for greengram and blackgram.
 120

6. Oilseeds
Oilseed crop are largely grown as kharif rainfed crop . In recent years, considerable
emphasis has been laid on growing groundnut, sunflower, soybean and mustard under
irrigation.

a. Groundnut

Groundnut, largely a rainfed crop during kharif is not irrigated in major groundnut
producing states. In recent years, however, there is emphasis for rab! and summer irrigated
groundnut crops, which accounts for about 20 per cent of total production. Water management
for groundnut crop is complicated due to prolonged flowering period with two to three flushes
of flowering. It is not uncommon to observe the crop with flowers, pegs, developing pods and
mature pods at a time, especially when the crop is subjected to soil moisture stress at first or
second flush of flowering.

Flowering, pegging and pod developmental stages (flowering to pod development) are
considered sensitive to soil moisture stress. Results of experiments indicated necessity for
scheduling irrigations at 25 per cent DASM through out the crop period for high pod yield of
groundnut on sandy loam soils. lrrigating the crop at 25 per cent DASM from pegging to early
pod development and at 50 per cent DASM at other stages appears to be ideal for high water
use efficiency without significant reduction in pod yield An IW/CPE ratio of 1.0 at moisture
sensitive stages and at 0.6 during other stages leads to high water use efficiency.

At several situations, 10 to 12 irrigations at 10 days interval resulted in highest pod yield.

On sandy loam soils, seven irrigations: presowing, 25, 35, 45, 55, 70 and 90 DAS appears to be
optimum for high yield. From the results of experiments at several situations, irrigation
practices for groundnut can be summarised as indicated below:

Critical stages approach

 Presowing irrigation (stand establishment) and no irrigation up to three weeks after

sowing.
 Starting from three weeks after sowing (flowering to pod formation), five irrigations at 10
days interval.
 Last two irrigations (pod development) at 15 days interval.

DASM approach

 Irrigation at 25 per cent DASM, especially for a crop on sandy learn soils, throughout the
crap period if irrigation water is not a limiting factor.
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 No irrigation up to three weeks after sowing. From three weeks after sowing up to pod
development, irrigation at 50 per cent DASM followed by irrigation schedules at 75 per
cent DASM up to pod maturity.
IW/CPE approach

 Irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 10, especially for a crop on sandy loam soils, through out the
crop period if irrigation water is not a limiting factor.
 No irrigation up to three weeks after sowing. From three weeks after sowing up to pod
development, irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 followed by irrigation schedules at IW/CPE
ratio of 0.6 up to pod maturity.

b. Rapeseed and Mustard

Brassicas are responsive to irrigation due to scanty winter rainfall. About 60 per cent of the
total area under the crop is irrigated. Among the brassicas, raya is most responsive to irrigation.

Flowering and pod formation stages of mustard are most sensitive to soil moisture stress.
Irrigation at these stages increases the seed yield by 30 per cent.

Additional irrigation 30 DAS may be given, if irrigation water is not a limiting factor.
Scheduling irrigation at 75 per cent DASM was adequate on sandy loam soils of Punjab.
However, scheduling irrigation at 40 per cent DASM was beneficial. Scheduling irrigations at
IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 at Kharagpur and at 0.8 at Pusa resulted in higher mustard yield. As per
phonological stages, mustard needed one irrigation 30 DAS at Morena and Ludhiana, one
during flowering at Pantnagar and two at flowering and pod development at Navsari. Based on
the axailable information, the following irrigation management practices can be recommended
for rapeseed and mustard:

 Mustard crop needs only three irrigations, one each at 30 DAS, flowering and pod
formation, for high yield even if irrigation water is not a limiting factor.
 If irrigation water is a limiting factor, only two irrigations at flowering and pod
development can optimise the mustard yield.
 Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM at the above three stages is ideal. If irrigations
are scheduled based on IW/CPE ratio, 0.75 ratio could be optimum at most situations.
 Under the conditions of limited irrigation water, scheduling irrigations at 75 per cent
DASM or at IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 increases the water use efficiency.

c. Sunflower

Sunflower is, generally, sown during June in kharif September -October in rabi and in
January as summer crop. Sunflower will not respond to irrigation during rainy season unless
prolonged dry spells occur during critical stages for water deficits. Response to irrigation during
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rabi and summer varies depending on the soil type and weather conditions. Response is more
pronounced in summer than in rabi. Critical stages for irrigation are, bud initiation (30 to 40
USA), flower opening (45 to 55 DAS) and seed filling (60 to 85 DAS). Flower opening stage is the
most critical stage for soil

moisture stress. Three irrigations (6 cm depth) at these three critical stages resulted in highest
yield of 2.5 t/ha at several locations during rabi. Summer crap, however, responded to another
irrigation at disc formation stage (60 to70 DAS).

Irrigation at 50 to 60 per cent DASM was optimum both for rabi and summer crops at
several places. During rabi, sunflower crop required only two irrigations (7.5 cm depth) at
IW/CPE ratio of 0.6 on black soils as against four irrigations (6 cm depth) at 1.2 IW/CPE ratio on
light soils. In general, for a summer crop IW/CPE ratio of 0.80 (6 cm depth) appears to be
optimum at several locations. From the results of experiment at different locations, the
following irrigation practices can be suggested:

 Under conditions of adequate water availability, irrigation at 12 to 15 days interval in

black soils and at 10 to 12 days interval in light soils is Optimum for high yield.
 If irrigations are to be scheduled based on DASM, 40 per cent level of depletion will be
optimum when water supply is not a limiting factor. If the schedules are based on
IW/CPE ratio, 0.75 rate will be optimum.
 At times of deficit water supplies, three irrigations (6 cm depth) at three critical stages
of bud initiation, flower opening and seed filling could be optimum during rabi. Summer
crop, however, require another irrigation at disc formation stage.
 Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM or at 0.75 IW/CPE ratio during the three
critical stages and at 75 per cent DASM or at 0.5 ratio during other stages can minimise
the irrigation needs at deficit water supplies.

d . SOYBEAN

Soybean is a kharif rainfed crop in northern parts of the country. In central parts, it is
largely grown as summer irrigated crop. It is grown as post rainy season crop on stored soil
moisture in black cotton soils and as irrigated crop during summer in southern parts of the
country.

In general, kharif crop may not receive irrigation, except at times of prolonged drought, if
facility exists for irrigation. Critical stages for irrigation are flowering and pod development,
when the crop needs around 8 mm per day. Soybean has extended period of flowering. The late
flowers developing into mature pods can compensate early flower drop due to soil moisture
stress. Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM or at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is optimum for soybean.
At these levels, light soil needs irrigation once in 10 to 12 days and heavy soils once in 18 to 20
 123

days. Depending on the level of management, the water use efficiency ranges from 0.4 to 0.7
kg/m3. Recommended irrigation practices are:

 Where irrigation water is not a limiting factor, scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM
or at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio is optimum for rabi and summer soybean. At these levels, light
soil needs irrigation once in 10 to 12 days and heavy soils once in 18 to 20 days.
 At times of deficit water supplies, irrigation may be scheduled at 50 per cent DASM or at
0.6 IW/CPE ratio at critical stages and at 75 per cent DASM or at 0.4 ratio during other
stages.
 If water is available for only one irrigation, it should be applied at late flowering when
small pods begin to appear. If there is scope for two irrigations, first irrigation should be
a pre sowing irrigation for adequate stand establishment in addition to the above. A
third irrigation where possible will give best results if given at the beginning of pod
filling.

7. Commercial Crops
Sugarcane and cotton respond to irrigation because of their growth period beyond the
rainy season. Wider row spacing for these two crops is conducive to drip irrigation system for
efficient use of scarce irrigation water.

a. Sugarcane

Water use efficiency of sugarcane under field conditions is low (0.4 to 0.6 t/ha-cm). It can
be increased to 1.0 t cane ha-cm of water with appropriate water management practices.
Studies on critical stages of sugarcane of water at IISR, Lucknow indicated that tillering, grand
period of growth and early ripening stages are most critical for irrigation. Irrigating February
planted cane crop at 25 per cent DASM requires 10 irrigations and at 50 per cent, 7 irrigations.
Irrigation at 80 per cent leaf sheath moisture content produced highest cane yield at Caddalore.
Scheduling irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0. 7 was optimum for high cane yield Numerous studies
conclusively proved beneficial effect of trash mulch in minimising the irrigation needs of
sugarcane.

Studies on drip irrigation during late 1980s at Rahuri indicated saving of 64 per cent
irrigation water compared to furrow method and produced 12 per cent higher cane yield.

Table. Relative efficiency of drip and surface irrigation at Rahuri (Yadav 2000).

Irrigation Cane yield (t/ha) Water applied (cm)

Surface irrigation 130.4 166.0
Drip-one day interval 155.7 93.2
Drip-two day interval 151.4 93.2
Drip-three day interval 146.6 93.2
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Irrigation Interval of one day with drip method is better than daily irrigation or two to three
days interval Even three days interval gave higher yield than surface irrigation. Cane yield with
paired row planting in drip method was better than all surface treatments, indicating scope for
minimising cost for drop system with paired row system. Paired row planting required 26 per
cent less water without significant yield reduction. In spite of marginal yield advantage, pit
method require: substantial Iabour and hence not economical. Suggested irrigation practices
are:

 Pre monsoon is the crucial period for irrigation in tropical and subtropical regions.
 Tillering grand growth period and early ripening period are more sensitive to soil
moisture stress At times of deficit water supplies, irrigation must be provided at least
owing these stages.
 If irrigation water is not a limiting factor, sugarcane needs 8 to 12 irrigations during rainy
season and 8 to 14 during post rainy period in tropical regions. In subtropical regions,
irrigation is not necessary during monsoon period, while 2 to 3 irrigations are needed
during post rainy period.
 In general, scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent DASM or at IW/CPE ratio of 0.75 is ideal,
if that is no scarcity for irrigation water.
 Generally, a drying off period of 4 to 6 weeks prior to harvest has to be allowed.
 Alternate day drip irrigation increase the cane yield and decrease the irrigation needs by
more than 50 per cent compared with surface irrigation. Paired row planting
considerably bring down the cost of drip equipment and reduce the irrigation needs by
about 25 percent compared with surface irrigation.
b. Cotton

More than 75 per cent of the area under cotton in India is entirely depending on rainfall
during monsoon period while supplemental irrigation is available for about 25 per cent.
Supplemental irrigation is, generally, given for American and hybrid cottons, depending on the
availability of irrigation water.

To restrict the excessive vegetative growth during early phase, maintenance of relatively
dry soil moisture regime (75 per cent depletion level) is necessary. At flowering, soil moisture
regime should be regulated to control vegetative growth in relation to reproductive growth.
Water deficit from onset of flowering to peak flowering may cause more negative effect on
yield as compared to that occurring after peak flowering. With severe water deficits during late
flowering and early boll formation, boll shedding can be excessive. Moderate deficit during
flowering to restrict vegetative growth leads to good boll setting and higher yield despite a
reduction in flower number. Squaring to peak flowering is considered critical to soil moisture.
 125

The scope for water economy and yield advantage with drip irrigation was studied at
Parbhani (Yadav et al 2000). Paired planting pattern (60-60 x 120 cm) was adopted to reduce
the cost of drip system and compared with normal planting (90 x 90 cm) for cotton. Scheduling
irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 0.8 by drip system resulted in highest cotton yield About 10 per
cent saving in irrigation water and 10 to 21 per cent yield advantage was recorded with drip as
compared with furrow method. As indicate already, controlled moisture stress is advocated for
cotton since stress leads to early maturity. Results of experiments at Hisar indicated that such
controlled stress could be better managed with drip system than with furrow system. The
following irrigation practices can be advocated for cotton crop

 Squaring to peak flowering is considered critical to soil moisture

 Irrigation may be scheduled at 75 per cent DASM during vegetative phase to check the
waive vegetative growth. During flowering, 60 per cent depletion level can check
vegetative growth without significant reduction in final yield.
 Scheduling irrigation at 50 per cent depletion level during squaring (boll formation) and
manor: is necessary for high yield and quality fiber.
 At times of deficit water supplies, two irrigations during boll filling and maturation can
minimise the yield loss due to stress.
 Paired row planting and drip irrigation can bring down the irrigation needs considerably.
 126

CHAPTER-12
QUALITY OF IRRIGATION WATER
Introduction:
All irrigation waters are not pure and may contain some soluble salts. In arid and semi-
arid regions successful crop production without supplemental irrigation is not possible.
Irrigation water is usually drawn from surface or ground water sources, which typically contain
salts in the range of 200 to 2000 ppm. Irrigation water contains 10 – 100 times more salt than
rain water. Thus, each irrigation event adds salts to the soil. Crop removes water from the soil
to meet its water needs (ETc) leaving behind most of the salts to concentrate in the shrinking
volume of soil water. This is a continuous process. Application of saline water may hinder the
crop growth directly and may also cause soil degradation. Beyond its effect on crop and soil,
irrigation water of low quality can also affect environment by introducing potentially harmful
substances in to surface and ground water sources. Therefore, a salt balance in the soil has to
be maintained through proper water management practices for continuous and successful
cultivation of crops.

Criteria to determine the quality of irrigation water

1. Total soluble salts

Salinity of water refers to concentration of total soluble salts in it. It is the most
important single criterion of irrigation water quality. The harmful effects increase with increase
in total salt concentration. The concentration of soluble salts in water is indirectly measured by
its electrical conductivity (ECw). The quality of saline waters has been divided into five classes
as per USDA classification given in Table.

Salinity of irrigation water

Salinity class Electrical Conductivity

Micro mhos/cm Milli mhos/cm
C1 – Low <250 <0.25
C2 – Medium 25 - 750 0.25 – 0.75
C3 – Medium to high 750 – 2250 0.75 – 2.25
C4 – High 2250 – 5000 2.25 – 5.00
C5 – Very High >5000 >5.00

Adverse effects of saline water include salt accumulation, increase in osmotic potential,
decreased water availability to plants, poor germination, patchy crop stand, stunted growth
 127

with smaller, thicker and dark green leaves, leaf necrosis & leaf drop, root death, wilting of
plants, nutrient deficiency symptoms and poor crop yields.

2. Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR)

Sodium Adsorption Ratio of water indicates the relative proportion of sodium to other
cations. It indicates sodium or alkali hazard.

Na+
SAR =
Ca+ +Mg+
√
2
The ion concentration is expressed as meq per litre. Increase in SAR of water increases
the exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of soil.

Sodicity classes of water

Sodium Class SAR Value

S1 – low <10
S2 – Moderate 10-18
S3 – High 18-26
S4 – Very High >26
Harmful effects of sodic water include destruction of soil structure, crust formation,
poor seedling emergence, and reduction in availability of N, Zn and Fe due to increased soil pH,
Na toxicity and toxicity of B & Mo due to their excessive solubility.
3. Residual sodium carbonate (RSC)

Bicarbonate is important primarily in its relation to Ca and Mg. There is a tendency for
Ca to react with bicarbonates and precipitate as calcium carbonate. As Ca and Mg are lost from
water, the proportion of sodium is increased leading to sodium hazard. This hazard is evaluated
in terms of Residual Sodium Carbonate (RSC) as given below:

RSC = (CO−2 −
3 + HCO3 ) − (Ca
+2
+ Mg +2 )

RSC is expressed in meq per litre. Water with RSC more than 2.5 meq/L is not suitable
for irrigation. Water with 1.25 to 2.5 meq/L is marginally suitable and water with less than 1.25
meq/L is safe for use.

4. Boron content

Though boron is an essential micronutrient for plant growth, its presence in excess in irrigation
water affects metabolic activities of the plant. For normal crop growth the safe limits of boron content
are given in Table
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Permissible limits of boron content in irrigation for crops

Boron (ppm) Quality Rating

<3 Normal
3-4 Low
4-5 Medium
5-10 High
>10 Very High

Management practices for using poor quality water

Whenever, it is inevitable to use water of poor quality water for crop production
appropriate management practices helps to obtain reasonable yield of crops. Some of the
important management practices are as follows:

a) Application of gypsum

Chemical amendments such as gypsum, when added to water will increase the calcium
concentration in the water, thus reducing the sodium to calcium ratio and the SAR, thus
improving the infiltration rate. Gypsum requirement is calculated based on relative
concentration of Na, Mg & Ca ions in irrigation water and the solubility of gypsum. To add 1
meq/L of calcium, 860 kg of gypsum of 100% purity per ha m of water is necessary.

b) Alternate irrigation strategy

Some crops are susceptible to salinity at germination & establishment stage, but
tolerant at later stage. If susceptible stages are ensured with good quality water, subsequent
tolerant stages can be irrigated with poor quality saline water.

c) Fertilizer application

Fertilizers, manures, and soil amendments include many soluble salts in high
concentrations. If placed too close to the germinating seedling or to the growing plant, the
fertilizer may cause or aggravate a salinity or toxicity problem. Care, therefore, should be taken
in placement as well as timing of fertilization. Application of fertilizers in small doses and
frequently improve uptake and reduce damage to the crop plants. In addition, the lower the
salt index of fertilizer, the less danger there is of salt burn and damage to seedlings or young
plants.

d) Methods of irrigation

The method of irrigation directly affects both the efficiency of water use and the way
salts accumulate. Poor quality irrigation water is not suitable for use in sprinkler method of
 129

irrigation. Crops sprinkled with waters having excess quantities of specific ions such as Na and
Cl cause leaf burn. High frequency irrigation in small amounts as in drip irrigation improves
water availability and uptake due to microleaching effect in the wetted zone.

e) Crop tolerance

The crops differ in their tolerance to poor quality waters. Growing tolerant crops when
poor quality water is used for irrigation helps to obtain reasonable crops yields.

f) Method of sowing

Salinity reduces or slows germination and it is often difficult to obtain a satisfactory

stand. Suitable planting practices, bed shapes, and irrigation management can greatly enhance
salt control during the critical germination period. Seeds have to be placed in the area where
salt concentration is less. Salt accumulation is less on the slope of the ridge and bottom of the
ridge. Therefore, placing the seed on the slope of the ridge, several cm below the crown, is
recommended for successful crop establishment.

Relative salt tolerance of crops

Field crops Fruit crops Vegetables Forage crops

Tolerant Cotton, Date palm & Turnip & Berseem &
Safflower, Guava Spinach Rhodes grass
Sugarbeet,
Barley
Semi tolerant Sorghum, Maize, Fig, Grape & Tomato, Senji & Oats
Sunflower, Mango Cabbage,
Bajra, Mustard, Cauliflower,
Rice & Wheat Cucumber,
Carrot &
Potato
Sensitive Chick pea, Apple, Orange, Radish, Peas & -
Linseed, Beans, Almond, Lady’s finger
Greengram & Peach,
Blackgram Strawberry,
Lemon & Plum

g) Drainage

Provide adequate internal drainage. Meet the necessary leaching requirement

depending on crop and EC of water. This is necessary to avoid build of salt in the soil solution to
levels that will limit crop yields. Leaching requirement can be calculated from water test results
and tolerance levels of specific crops.
 130

h) Other management practices

 Over aged seedlings in rice

Transplanting of rice with over aged seedlings at a closer spacing results in better
establishment in salt effected soils than normal aged seedlings. In case of other crops like
finger millet, pearl millet etc., transplanting is better method than direct sowing of these
crops for proper establishment.

 Mulching

Mulching with locally available plant material help in reducing salt problems by reducing
evaporation and by increasing infiltration.

 Soil management

All soil management practices that improve infiltration rate and maintain favourable soil
structure reduces salinity hazard.

 Crop rotation
Inclusion of crops such as rice in the rotation reduces salinity.
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CHAPTER 13
MANAGEMENT OF PROBLEMATIC SOILS AND WATER

When rocks and minerals undergo weathering process large quantities of soluble salts
are formed. In humid regions these salts are washed down to the ground water and to the sea.
But in arid and semi arid regions they accumulate in the soil. Excessive irrigation and poor
water management are the two chief causes of water logging and salt accumulation. An
accumulation of salts in soil leads to unfavorable soil water-air relationship and effect the crop
production.
The following are the main causes which leads to development of salty soils (salinity or
alkalinity)

1. Arid climate

About 25% of earth surface is arid in which salt accumulation is a common problem. In
India about 25 million hectare is salt affected with different degree of degradation.

2. High subsoil water table

When the water table is with in capillary range, the water containing soluble salts rises
to surface. When the water evaporates the salts are deposited as encrustation. It is estimated
that in Punjab annually about 50,000 acres becomes saline because of raising water table.
3. Poor drainage
Due to poor drainage accumulation of water leads to water logging condition which
leads to salt accumulation.

4. Quality of irrigation water

Irrigation water containing more than permissible quantities of soluble salts with
sodium carbonate and bicarbonates make the soil salty.

5. Inundation with sea water

In coastal area, periodical inundation of land by sea water during high tides
makes soil salty. Besides deep bore wells are also the reason for saline soils.
6. Nature of parent rock minerals
The saline nature of parent rock minerals leads to salt accumulation
7. Seepage form canals
 132

The continuous seepage leads to salt accumulation.

Classification of problem soils

The soil problems can also be divided into

a) Chemical b) Physical

a) Chemical Problem

The salt affected soils can be classified based on their ESP, pH and EC as follows
ESP (%) EC mhos/cm pH
Saline < 15 >4 < 8.5
Saline alkali > 15 >4 < 8.5
Alkali/sodic > 15 <4 > 8.5

Management practices for chemical problems of soil

Reclamation of saline and alkali soils are not complete unless proper remedial measures
are under taken to restore the soil fertility and structure of the soil. The following are the
important management practices to overcome there problems.
 The saline soil can be easily improved with leaching of salts by using of good quality
water and by providing good drainage systems.
 Application of gypsum would improve the permeability of soil by making good soil
aggregates.
 In acidic soils, lime application should be adequate and excessive leaching should be
avoided.
 Salt resistant or saline resistant crop species should be selected for cultivation.
 Application ofamendments viz. gypsum and press mud is found to suppress the sodium
and chromium content in plant and soil.
 Growing resistant crops like ragi cotton, barley and rice can be advocated.
 Growing green manure crops like sunnhempanddaincha can be advocated.
 Growing resistant varieties like CoC 771 in sugarcane Co 43 in rice may be made.
 Adoption of drip irrigation for possible crop is also recommended to overcome chemical
problems.
 Liberal application of FYM
 Application of green manure
 133

 Excess phosphorous and application

 Proper drainage to keep the soil without adverse effect to plant systems.

Soil physical problems

Very coarse, very clayey texture, shallow depth and encrustation in soil surface are the
possible physical problems. Too frequent irrigation in clayey soils with very high water
retention results in poor drainage, water logging and crop damage. Excess irrigation or heavy
rain create hardening of soil surface in red lateritic soils with high Fe and Al hydroxides and low
organic matter. This leads to poor germination, restriction of shoot and development and slow
entry of water into the soil profile.

Water management practices for physical problem of soil

• In light soils shallow depth of water with more frequency should be adopted.
• To increase the infiltration rate of clay type soil, breeding of soil by mixing with coarse
textured soil or tank silt at the rate of 50 tonnes per hectare is advocated.
• Organic wastes like crop residue, farm waste, coir pith, filter cake, etc., at the rate of 20
tonnes per hectare once in every year can be applied.
• Poorly drained clay soils can be improved by providing tile drains and trenches
intermittently.
• To make the soil more permeable and to overcome poor drainage, addition of organic
wastes or sandy soil at the rate of 20 tonnes per ha or 50 tonnes per ha respectively is
advocated.
• Tank silt or heavy soil application is the only way to increase soil depth and water
holding capacity. Besides growth shallow rooted crop is advisable.
• The surface encrustation problem could be alleviated by incorporating organic matter
and adding montmorillonite clay containing silt.

Irrigation Water Quality

Whatever may be the source of irrigation water viz., river, canal, tank, open well or tube
well, some soluble salts are always dissolved in it. The main soluble constituent in water are Ca,
Mg, Na and K as cations and chloride, sulphate bicarbonate and carbonate as anions. However
ions of other elements such as lithium, silicon, bromine, iodine, copper, cobalt, fluorine, boron,
titanium, vanadium, barium, arsenic, antimony, beryllium, chromium, manganese, lead,
selenium phosphate and organic matter are also
present. Among the soluble constituents, calcium, sodium, sulphate, bicarbonate and boron are
important in determining the quality of irrigation water and its suitability for irrigation
 134

purposes. However other factors such as soil texture, permeability, drainage, type of crop etc.,
are equally important in determining the suitability of irrigation water. The following are the
most common problems that result from using poor quality water.
1. Salinity
If the total quantity of salts in the irrigation water is high, the salts willaccumulate in the
crop root zone and affect the crop growth and yield. Excess salt condition reduces uptake of
water due to high concentration of soil solution.
2. Permeability
Some specific salts reduce the rate of infiltration in to the soil profile
3. Toxicity
When certain constituents of water are taken up by plans which accumulates in large
quantities and results in plant toxicity and reduces yield.
4. Miscellaneous
Excessive Nitrogen in irrigation water causes excessive vegetative growth and leads to
lodging and delayed crop maturity. White deposits on fruits or leaves may occur due to
sprinkler irrigation with high bicarbonate water.

Factors affecting suitability of waters for irrigation

The suitability of particular water for irrigation is governed by the following factors.
1. Chemical composition of water (TSS, pH; CO3, HCO3, Cl, So4, Ca, Mg, Na, andB)
2. Total concentration of soluble salts or salinity (EC)
3. Concentration of sodium ions, in proportion to calcium and magnesium or sodicity (SAR)
4. Trace element boron may be toxic to plant growth, if present in limits beyond permissible.
5. The effect of salt on crop growth is of osmotic nature. If excessive quantities of soluble salts
accumulate in the root zone the crop has extra difficult in extracting enough water from
salty solution, thereby affecting the yields adversely.
6. Besides this, total salinity depends of the extent to which exchangeable sodium percentage
(ESP) of soil increase as a result of adsorption of sodium from water.This increase depends
on sodium percentage.
7. Soil characteristics like structure, texture, organic matter, nature of clay minerals,
topography etc.
8. Plant characteristics like tolerance of plant varies with different stages of growth. The
germinating and seedling stages are usually the most sensitive to salinity.
9. Climatic factors can modify plant response to salinity. Tolerance to saline water irrigation is
often greater in winter than in the summer. Rainfall is the most significant factor for the
leaching of salts from the plant root zone. Temperature also plays a vital role.
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10. Management practices also play great role. Wherever saline water is used for irrigation,
adoption of management practices which allow minimum salt accumulation in the root zone
of the soil is necessary.

The primary parameters that have to be considered to ensure effective irrigation

management for salt control are the water requirement of crop and quality of irrigation water.
Correct irrigation should restore any soil water deficit, to control salt levels.

Points to be considered for the management and use of poor quality water
1. Application of greater amounts of organic matter such as FYM, compost etc., tothe soil to
improve permeability and structure.
2. Increasing the proportion of calcium, through addition of gypsum (CaSO4) to the irrigation
water in the channel, by keeping pebbles mixed pure gypsum bundles in the irrigation tank.
3. Mixing of good quality water with poor water in proper proportions so that both the sources
of water are effectively used to maximum advantage.
4. Periodical application of organic matter and raising as well as incorporation of green manure
crops in the soil.
5. Irrigating the land with small quantities of water at frequent intervals instead of large
quantity at a time.
6. Application of fertilizer may be increased slightly more than the normally required and
preferably ammonium sulphate for nitrogen, super phosphate and Diammonium Phosphate
(DAP) for phosphorus application
7. Drainage facilities must be improved
8. Raising of salt tolerant crops such as cotton, ragi, sugar beet, paddy, groundnut, sorghum,
corn, sunflower, chillies, tobacco, onion, tomato, garden beans, amaranthus and lucerne.

REFERENCE –
1. https://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/.../Irrigation-scheduling.pdf
2. https://www.slideshare.net/babukakumanu/irrigation-scheduling-72682103
3. irrigation.wsu.edu/Content/Calculators/General/Water-Depth.php
4. https://www.slideshare.net/virajain/chapter-3-efficiency
5. Irrigation and drainage, KALAYANI PUBLICATION by D.Lenka
6. Principles of Agronomy by S.R. Reddy
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CHAPTER-14
WATER-USE EFFICIENCY
Water-use Efficiency:
The term "water use efficiency" originates in the economic concept of productivity.
Productivity measures the amount of any given resource that must be expended to produce
one unit of any good or service. In a similar manner, water use efficiency measures the quantity
of water taken up by the crop during its crop life to produce a unit quantity of the output i.e.,
crop yield. In general, the lower the water resource input requirement per unit of crop yield
produced, the higher the efficiency.

Further water use efficiency is closely related to water conservation. The growing water
scarcity and the misuse of available water resources are nowadays major threats to sustainable
agricultural development. Therefore, water use efficiency has a clear role to play in sustainable
development, in other words, the use of the earth's water resources by today's inhabitants
while assuring that future generations have sufficient capacity to meet their own needs.

Crop water use efficiency

Crop water use efficiency is a ratio between marketable crop yield and water used by the crop
in evapotranspiration.
Y
CWUE (kg/ha. mm) =
ETc

Where,
WUE = Water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm)
Y = Marketable crop yield in (kg/ha)
ETc = Crop evapotranspiration (mm)

Field water use efficiency

Field water use efficiency is a ratio between marketable crop yield and field water
supply which includes water used by the plant in metabolic activities, ET and deep percolation
losses.
Y
FWUE (kg/ha. mm) =
WR

Where,
FWUE = Field water use efficiency (kg/ha-mm)
Y = Marketable Crop yield (kg/ha)
WR = Water used in metabolic activities, ET and deep percolation losses (mm)
 137
Factors Influencing WUE

Climatic factors
Weather affects both crop yield and crop evapotranspiration. The amount of solar
radiation determines the rate of photosynthesis and hence the potential yield. Other
components of climate viz., temperature, day length, rainfall etc. influence vital physiological
processes and thereby determine the actual harvested yield. The lower the relative humidity is,
the greater will be the ETc. Therefore, low relative humidity in the atmosphere increases
transpiration without any corresponding increase in dry matter production and will reduce
WUE. Light and temperature that normally affect both transpiration and dry matter production
will either increase or decrease WUE according to which of the two predominates. High wind
velocity increase ETc without any concurrent increase in dry matter production hence decrease
WUE.

Genetic factors
Crop growth and yield is a result of interaction between their genetic constitution and
environmental conditions in which they grow. Plant species therefore differ widely in their
productivity i.e., crop yield and water use i.e., ET. Water use efficiency of C4 plant species such
as maize, sorghum, sugarcane, pearl millet, finger millet etc. is higher (3.14 to 3.44 mg dry
weight/g of water) when compared to C3 species (1.49 to 1.59 mg dry weight/g of water) such
as pulses, oilseed crops, wheat, barley, oats etc.

Crop varieties also differ in WUE. High yielding varieties, hybrids, GM crops etc. due to
their dwarf plant type, responsive to water & fertilizer, pest & disease resistance and high
harvest index exhibit higher WUE as compared to traditional varieties characterized by rank
vegetative growth, low harvest index, susceptible to lodging, pests & diseases.

Agronomic factors
Time of sowing
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Timely sowing ensures optimal temperatures, soil moisture availability and other soil
physical conditions favouring optimal crop growth and development with greater ability to
compete with prevalent weed flora, hence increases WUE.

Depth of sowing
Optimal depth of sowing affects seedling emergence, vigour and finally crop yield, hence
improves WUE.
Direction of sowing
North south row orientation of crop rows influences the interception and utilization of
incident solar radiation which in turn influences crop yield and improves WUE as compared to
east west direction of row pattern.
Plant population
Optimal plant population promotes uniform & rapid development of crop canopy
without any competition for growth resources viz., light, nutrients, water, CO2 etc. hence
improves WUE.
Fertilization
Fertilization of crops suffering from low nutrition under adequate soil water availability
increases crop yield considerably, with a relatively small increase in crop evapotranspiration,
therefore, markedly improves WUE.
Insect pests & diseases
Insect pests and diseases reduce crop yield as well as WUE to varying degrees
depending upon the intensity of infestation, because ETc or water requirement of crop will not
change to a significant level except in cases where premature death of plants occurs.
Irrigation method
Field water use efficiency in general is higher with overhead sprinkler, micro sprinkler
and drip methods of irrigation as compared to surface irrigation methods viz., furrow, border
strip, check basin etc. owing to higher crop yield and lower seasonal water application.
ET control measures
Use of mulches, anti-transpirants, shelterbelts and elimination of weeds etc reduce
water losses from cropped field in terms of soil evaporation and transpiration without any
reduction in crop yield, hence markedly improve WUE.

Water Productivity (WP)

The first task in understanding how to increase water productivity is to understand what
it means. The definition is scale-dependent. For a farmer, it means getting more crop per drop
of irrigation water. But, for society as a whole, concerned with a basin or country’s water
resource, this means getting more value per unit of water resource used. Increasing water
productivity is then the business of several actors working in harmony at plant, field, irrigation-
system and river-basin levels.
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Basic concept of water productivity

Productivity is expressed as a ratio of output to input. Therefore, WP is a measure of

output of a particular sector/use in relation to the water it consumes.

Water Productivity in Agriculture

Water productivity for agriculture is generally defined as crop yield per cubic metre of
water consumption. For the rainfed areas, it includes ‘green’ water (effective rainfall) and for
the irrigated areas it includes both ‘green’ and ‘blue’ water (water which is diverted from water
systems). The following is the method as used by International Water Management Institute
(IWMI)

WP (kg m-3) = p(kg)/WC(m3)

WC=BWC+NBWC=BWC/BE

WC includes beneficial water consumption (BWC) and non-beneficial water consumption

(NBWC).

P= AxY

A=A (BWC|ETC, crop prices, irrigation investment)

Y=Y (BWC|ETC. crop prices, input prices, Agricultural research investment)

Where A is the crop harvested area, Y is the crop yield and ETC is the crop evapo-transpiration
requirement.

Variations in methodology

The term water productivity (WP) is also defined and used in a variety of ways. While,
the most encompassing measure of productivity used by economists is total factor productivity
(TFP), which is defined as the value of all output divided by the value of all inputs. Other than
this, the concept of partial factor productivity (PFP) is also widely used.

The following are the measures of partial factor productivity

 Pure physical productivity is defined as the quantity of the product divided by the
quantity of the input. Examples include crop yield per hectare or per cubic metre of
water either diverted or consumed by the plant. This is followed by organizations such
as IWMI in their objective of ‘increasing the crop per drop’.
 Another is productivity which combines both physical and economic properties. It is
defined in terms of either the gross or the net present value of the product divided by
the amount of the water diverted or consumed by the plant.
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 Economic productivity is the gross or net present value of the product divided by the
value of the water either diverted or consumed by the plant, which can be defined in
terms of the value or opportunity cost in the highest alternative use.
Possible numerators for water productivity

 Yield (kg) of total biomass, or above ground biomass, or grain, or fodder.

 Gross value of product, or net value of product, or net benefit of irrigated production
compared with rainfed production.
 Any of the above valuations including those derived from raising livestock, fish or agro-
forestry.
 Monetary value of all direct and indirect economic benefits minus the associated costs,
for all uses of water in the domain of interest.

Reasons to improve agricultural water productivity

 To meet the rising demand for food from a growing, wealthier, and increasingly urbanized
population, in light of water scarcity.
 To respond to pressures to reallocate water from agriculture to cities and to ensure that
water is available for environmental uses.
 To contribute to poverty reduction and economic growth. For the rural poor more
productive use of water can mean better nutrition for families, more income, productive
employment, and greater equity. Targeting high water productivity can reduce investment
costs by reducing the amount of water that has to be withdrawn.

Key principles for improving water productivity

The three key principles for improving water productivity at plant, field and basin level,
which apply regardless of whether the crop is grown under rainfed or irrigated conditions are:

 Increase the marketable yield of the crop for each unit of water transpired by it.
 Reduce all outflows (drainage, seepage and percolation), including evaporative outflows
other than crop stomatal transpiration.
 Increase the effective use of rainfall, stored water and water of marginal quality.

Enhancing water productivity at plant level

Plant level options rely mainly on germplasm improvements

 Improving seedling vigour

 Increasing rooting depth
 Increasing the harvest index( economic yield as part of total biomass)
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 Enhancing photosynthetic efficiency

Raising water productivity at field level

Improved practices at field level relate to changes in crop, soil and water management they
include

 Selecting appropriate crops and cultivars

 Planting methods (raised beds, broad bed and furrow)
 Minimum/conservation tillage
 Irrigation at most sensitive growing periods
 Nutrient management
 Micro irrigation and improved drainage for water table control
 Timely plant protection etc.
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CHAPTER-15
WATER LOGGING

Introduction:

An adequate supply of soil water is essential for plant growth and for transporting plant
nutrients to roots, but excess water in the root zone is a problem for most crops. Excess soil
water can result in reduced yields in a variety of ways. If the seeds are planted in relatively wet
soils, the seeds may fail to germinate or may die soon after germination. If waterlogging (when
soil pores are filled with water for an appreciable length of time) occurs after germination, the
young plants may not survive. High water tables in the field will restrict the growth of roots,
rendering plants more susceptible to disease, nutrient deficiency, and drought. Two particular
problems could be the deficiency of nitrogen due either to leaching or to denitrification and the
development of toxic substances, both caused by lack of oxygen in the soil.

The impact of excess water on crop growth and yield is influenced by crop type, soil
characteristic, duration of excess water, and initial soil water and nitrogen status of the soil
before flooding, crop stage, soil and air temperature and other factors.

Adopting proper irrigation management strategies can reduce the negative impacts of
over irrigation and provide a balance between the crop water requirements and available
water. Over-irrigation leads to water loss, increases energy use for pumping, causes leaching of
nitrogen and other micronutrients.

Causes of water logging

 Excessive use of water when the water is available in abundance or cheaply due to the
belief that more water contributes better yield.
 Improper selection of irrigation methods
 Percolation and seepage from lands canals and reservoir located at nearby elevated
places
 Improper lay out and lack of outlets
 Presence of impervious layer with profile impeding percolation
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 Upward rise of water from shallow ground water table or aquifer.

Effects of water logging

Direct effects
 Replacement of soil air which is the main source of oxygen for the roots as well as soil
microbes. Disturb the oxygen balance of the root zone, drowns roots, reduces plant
water uptake, and thus stresses plants.
 Due to high amount of CO2 in soil air high CO2 concentration under water logged
condition will kill plant roots.
 Reduces the exchange of air between the soil and atmosphere, and causes reductions in
root growth and less transport of water and nutrient through the roots to the upper
parts of the plants.
 Sometimes superficial root system or air space in root system will develop.
 Due to poor aeration intake of water and nutrient will be reduced.
 Increases the potential for root diseases.
 Causes a decreases in soil temperature, thus reducing root growth, which creates a
shallow root structure.
 Leaches nutrients and pesticides from the root zone to groundwater.
 Increases microbial growth which can cause the formation of sulphides and butyric acid
that are toxic to plants.

Oxygen content and Microbial Activities under Wet Soil Conditions

Maintaining adequate oxygen in the crop root zone is critical for healthy crop growth
and yield. Plant roots need oxygen. When soil is too wet or waterlogged, the oxygen content is
reduced and minimal oxygen is absorbed by the plant roots. When oxygen is limited,
microorganisms compete with plant roots for available oxygen. Also, since the oxygen is
limited, microorganisms may turn to pathways of metabolism that can affect the availability
and uptake of certain plant nutrients.

Wet soils are usually unfavourable for most beneficial bacteria because when pore
spaces fill with water, soil aeration reduces. The nitrogen may also be lost from soil by the
process of bacterial denitrification.in this case nitrate nitrogen is converted to gaseous
nitrogen, which in turn escapes from the soil to the atmosphere.
 144

Inadequate Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide balance affect Crop Yield

Reduced oxygen concentrations in soil due to wet conditions can cause stomatal closure
of plants, which causes stress because plants cannot transpire water at an optimal rate
although water is available. Most crops are sensitive to very wet conditions and yields cab be
impacted significantly. Flooding causes greater crop yield losses when it occurs early in the
season. The degree of this impact varies with the crop and many other conditions.

Indirect effects

 Nutrients are made un-available due to leaching

 Toxic elements will be formed under anaerobic condition
 Composition of organic matter under anaerobic condition results in production of
organic acids like butyric acid which is toxic to plants.
 Reduces the availability of N, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, mb,
 Reduces soil temperature
 Reduces the activity of beneficial microbes
 Destruct soil structure
 Difficult for cultural operations
 Incidence of pest, disease and weeds

Changes for some elements in water logged condition

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CHAPTER-16
DRAINAGE
Introduction:
Itis generally assumed that in the arid regions drainage is not necessary and water logging is not
a problem. Even in arid region due to over irrigation and seepage from reservoirs canals etc.,
drainage becomes necessary. Irrigation and drainage are complementary practice in arid region
to have optimum soil water balance. In humid region drainage is of greater necessity mainly
due to heavy precipitation. Removal of excess water from the surface or below the surface of
the soil so as to create favourable conditions for plant growth is known as field drainage.

Drainage – Definition
Agricultural drainage is the artificial removal and safe disposal of excess water either
from the surface or sub surface, more specifically, the removal and safe disposal of excess
gravitational water from the crop root zone to create favourable conditions for crop growth to
enhance agricultural production.

Benefit of drainage

 It provides better soil environment for plant growth by creating favourable soil aeration
conditions.
 It improves the soil structure and in turn increase the soil infiltration.
 High infiltration capacity reduces soil erosion.
 It promotes increased leaching of salts and prevents accumulation of salts in the crop
root zone.
 In well drained soils, less time and less labour are required for tillage operations.

Problem or effects of ill-drainage

 Limitation of aeration.
 Accumulation of CO2 and toxic substance like H2S, ferrous sulphide in the crop root
zone.
 Reduces water uptake due to reduced activity of roots as a result of oxygen stress.
 Reduced nutrient uptake.
 Development of soil salinity and alkalinity.
 Anaerobic condition and prevalence of plant disease.
 Stunted plant growth and development which results in reduced yield.

Drainage is required under the following condition

 146

 High water table

 Water ponding on the surface for longer periods.
 Excessive soil moisture content above field capacity, not draining easily as in clay soils.
 Areas of salinity and alkalinity where annual evaporation exceeds rainfall on capillary
rise of ground water occurs.
 Humid region with continuous of intermittent heavy rainfall.
 Flat land with fine texture soil.
 Low lying flat areas surrounded by hills.

Characteristics of good drainage system

 It should be permanent.
 It must have adequate capacity to drain the area completely.
 There should be minimum interference with agronomic operation.
 There should be minimum loss of cultivable area.
 It should intercept or collect water and remove it quickly within shorter period.

Method of field drainage –

There are two methods as follows

1. Surface method
2. Sub surface method
Drainage

Surface Sub surface

method method
Random drain Mole drainage Tile drainage
system system system
Parallel field
drain system Random system
Parallel open Herringbone system
ditch system
Gridiron and parallel systems
Bedding
system Double main system
Intercepting system
 147

Surface Method
Safe removal and disposal of excess water primarily from land surface or cropped area
by a net work of surface drains or constructed channels and through proper land shaping is
known as surface drainage. This is designed primarily to remove excess water from the surface
of soil. This can be done by developing slope in the land so that excess water drains by gravity.
It is suitable for

 Slowly permeable clay and shallow land

 Region of high intensity of rainfall
 The field where adequate outlets are not available
 The land with less than 1.5% slope

It can be made by

a) Land smoothing

b) Making field ditches

There are four general type of surface drainage system used in flat areas having a slope of <2%
viz.,

a) Random drain system

b) Parallel field drain system

c) Parallel open ditch system

c) Bedding system

a) Random drain system

 This system is usually adopted in areas where the ground surface is characterised by a
series and depression (undulating land surface) and where small depressions are to be
drained off.
 Depending upon the possibility the field drains are designed in such a way to connect
one depression to another and water is safely conveyed to lateral drains.
 These lateral drains ultimately guide the water to main outlet drain.
 The field drains besides occupying the land area are likely to interfere with farm
operations.
 148

b) Parallel field drain system

 The parallel field ditch system is used in places where the surface is uniform and has few
noticeable ridges or depressions
 In this system the surface of individual fields is graded in such a way so that the runoff
water drains into field drains, which in turn discharge water into field laterals bordering
the field and finally the laterals in turn lead water into the main outlet ditch t
 Laterals and mains should be deeper than field drains to provide free out-fall.
 Maximum spacing of parallel field drains is about 200 m for sandy soils and about 100 m
for clay soils.
 It is the most desirable surface drainage method and is well suited both for irrigated and
rainfed areas

b) Parallel open ditch system

 The parallel open ditch system is similar to parallel field drain system in all respects
except that the drains are replaced by open ditches which are comparatively deeper
and have steeper side slopes than the field drains.
 Maximum length of grade draining to ditch should not be>180m.
 The spacing of the ditches depend upon the soil and water table conditions and may
vary from 60- 200m.
 This system is applicable in soils, which require both surface and sub surface drainage.
 149

c) Bedding system

 This system is usually adopted in fields with very little slope, usually 0.5% or less and
slowly permeable soil.
 It is essentially a tillage operation where in the land is ploughed into series of parallel
bed separated by dead furrows, which run in the direction of greatest slope lateral
drains are located perpendicular to slope.
 The ploughing operation is to be carried out parallel to the furrows.
 The bed width and length varies between 8 to 30mand 300m respectively depending
upon field condition i.e., land use, slope, soil permeability and farming operation.

Advantages of surface drainage

 Easy for inspection

 Low initial cost
 Effective in low
 Permeability area

Disadvantage of surface drainage

 Low efficiency
 Loss of cultivable land
 Interference of cultural operation
 150

 High maintenance cost

2. Sub- surface drainage system

The removal and safe disposal of excess water that has already entered the soil profile is
considered sub- surface drainage. Through several sub surface system are available, the most
commonly used and effective one are tile drainage and mole drainage system.

a) Tile drainage system

 Tile drains removes excess water from the soil though a continuous line of tiles
(pipes) laid at specific depth and grade. The pipes are made of either concrete or
burnt clay.
 Free water through the tile joints and flows out by gravity, so that the watertable is
lowered below the root zone of the plants.
 The common tile drainage system layout followed
 Random system
 Herringbone system
 Gridiron and parallel systems
 Double main system
 Intercepting system
1) Random system

The random system is used in areas that have scattered wet areas somewhat isolated
from each other. Tile lines are laid more or less at random to drain the wet patches.

2) Herringbone system

The system is applicable in places where the main or sub-main is located in a narrow
depression i.e., in areas that have a concave surface or a narrow depression with the land
 151

sloping to it from both directions (Fig. 31.6). The parallel laterals enter the sub-main from both
sides. It is less economical, because considerable double drainage occurs where the laterals and
mains join.

3) Gridiron and parallel systems

The gridiron and parallel systems are similar to that of herringbone system except that
the laterals enter the main or sub-main from only one side. It is the most economical
arrangement than herringbone system because one main or sub-main serves as many laterals
as possible.

4) Double main system

The double main system is a modification of the gridiron system. It may be used where
the sub-main is in a broad, flat depression, which frequently is a natural watercourse and
sometimes may be wet because of small amounts of seepage water from nearby slopes.
 152

5) Intercepting system

This system involves the interception of seepage water that flows over the surface of an
impervious sub-soil. The tile line is placed approximately at the impervious layer along which
the seepage water travels, so that water will be intercepted and wet condition is relieved. The
tile line should be located in such a way that there is at least 60 cm of soil cover over the top of
the tile.

b) Mole drainage system

 Mole drainage is a semi- permanent method of sub-surface drainage, similar to tile drain
in layout and operation.
 Instead of permanent a continuous circular mole drain(channel) is prepared below the
ground surface in the soil profile at desiredepth and spacing using a special implement
known as mole plough.
 The depth of the mole drain varies from 4.5 to120cm depending on the moleing
equipment and water table.
 Diameter of the mole varies from 7.5 to 15cm. The life of the mole drain is 10 to 15
years.
 It is adaptable to a particular type of soil stability is more important in this type of sub
surface drainage.

Advantages of sub surface drainage system

 153

1. There is no loss of cultivable land.

2. No interference for field operation
3. Maintenance cost is less
4. Effectively drains sub soil and create better soil environments.

Disadvantage of sub surface drainage system

1. Initial cost is high.

2. It requires constant attention.
3. It is effective for soils having low permeability.

Drainage coefficient

It is defined as the depth of water (cm) to be removed in 24 hours period from the
entire drainage area. It ranges from 0.6-2.5cm/day and in extreme cases 10 cm/day.

References:

1. Chandrakar, b., Annadurai, K., and Somasundaram, E. A textbook of Agronomy. New age
International(p) Limited, Daryaganj, New Delhi.2010.

2. Rao,V.P., Suneetha, K.B. and Hemlatha. Irrigation water management. Department of

Agronomy, College of Agriculture, Rajendranagar, Hyderabad 2010.