W2 Lec 1

Clarification: Subring vs Ideal

 A subring: closed under addition, subtraction, multiplication, contains 1.

 Ideal: closed under addition, robust against multiplication. Only one ideal contains 1.

Proposition: Let F be a field. Every ideal in the ring F [ x ] of polynomials in one variable x over
F is a principal ideal. A nonzero ideal I ⊆ F [ x ] is generated by the unique monic polynomial of
lowest degree that it contains.

Proof: If I =( 0 ) , then it is principal. Let I ≠ ( 0 ) be an ideal in F [ x ]. Let f ∈ I be a polynomial of

minimal degree among nonzero elements of I . We can assume that f is monic since F is a field
(if not, we can divide f to get a monic polynomial). We want to show that I =( f )={ gf |g ∈ F [ x ] }.
Now, since f ∈ I , we know that ( f ) ⊆ I . Let h ( x ) ∈ I . Then ∃ q , r ∈ F [ x ] s.t. h=qf +r , where r =0
or deg ( r )< deg ( f ) . Now, since h ∈ I and qf ∈ I , it follows that r =h−qf ∈ I and thus r =0 or we
reach a contradiction as deg ( r )< deg ( f ) . Therefore, h ∈ ( f ) and thus I ⊆ ( f ). If f 1 , f 2 are two
monic polynomials of minimal degree in I which are not equal, then deg ( f 1−f 2 ) <deg ( f 1 ) which
contradicts the minimality of deg ( f 1 ) . Therefore, f 1=f 2 and thus such monic polynomial is
unique.

Idea of the proof: similar to proving Z has principal ideals. Except that now the divisor instead
of being nonzero, needs to be a polynomial with unit leading coefficient. If it is monic then it is
unique.
Idea: All ideals will contain a lowest degree monic polynomial. It will generate the whole ideal
thanks to division with remainder. Since it’s monic, it is unique. The requirement of a field is so
that division with remainder is possible as well as the ideals having the monic polynomial is
possible. Here, a polynomial has a unit leading coefficient is the same as an integer being
nonzero in Z for division with remainder to be possible.

Quotient ring

Let I ⊆ R be an ideal in a ring R . We denote R / I to be the set of (additive) cosets of I in R . That

is,

R / I = { a+ I|a ∈ R }
Definition:

( a+ I ) + ( b+ I )=a+b+ I
( a+ I ) ( b+ I )=ab+ I
Lemma

a+ I =a1 + I ⇔ a=a1+ c 1 , for somec 1 ∈ I

Proof:

 ⇒ Now a ∈ a1 + I so a=a1 +c 1 for some c 1 ∈ I

  ⇐ Now elements of a+ I can be written as a+i=a1 +c 1 +i ∈ a1 + I since I is closed under
addition. So a+ I ⊆ a1 + I . Likewise, elements of a 1+ I can be written as
a 1+i=a−c1 +i∈ I . Thus a 1+ I ⊆ a+ I .

To check that multiplication is well-defined, we need to check that the set ab+ I does not
depend on the choice of representative ab .

If a+ I =a1 + I and b+ I =b1 + I then we need to show that ab+ I =a1 b1 + I . But

ab= a1 +c⏟1 b1 + d⏟1 =a1 b1+ ⏟

a1 d 1+ c 1 b1 + c1 d 1
( ∈I
)( ∈I
) ∈I
∴ ab+ I =a 1 b1 + I

Exercise: check that addition is well-defined.

Identity

Note that a+ I =0+ I if a ∈ I

See that b+ I +0+ I =b+ I and ( 0+ I ) ( b+ I )=0+ I so 0+ I is the additive identity.

See that ( 1+ I )( b+ I )=b+ I so 1+ I is the multiplicative identity.

Exercise: Check that R / I is a ring with the above operations.

Definition: The ring R / I is called the quotient ring.

Example:

 Z/mZ
 R [ x ] / ( x 2 +1 ) ≅ C

Lemma: Let R be a ring. Give an ideal I ⊆ R , the natural projection map

Π : R→ R / I , a ↦ a+ I ≔ á ( called the residue of a )

Is a surjective ring homomorphism with ker ( Π ) =I .

Proof: Let a , b ∈ R . Then

Π ( a+b )=a+ b+ I =( a+ I ) + ( b+ I )=Π ( a )+ Π ( b ) Π ( ab ) =ab+ I =( a+ I ) ( b+ I )=Π ( a ) Π ( b )

Π ( 1 )=1+ I
So Π is a homomorphism.

For any a+ I ∈ R / I , we have Π ( a )=a+ I so Π is surjective.

Finally,

ker ( Π ) ={ a ∈ R|Π ( a )=0+ I }¿ { a ∈ R|a ∈ I }¿ I

Π is called the canonical map

It’s only natural that Π is surjective. After all, R / I is a smaller ring than R .

This lemma also shows that the cosets are exhaustive and since they’re also disjoint, quotienting
form an equivalence relation on R .

Theorem: Mapping properties of quotient rings

Let φ : R → R ' be a ring homomorphism and I ⊆ R be an ideal.

a) Suppose that I ⊆ker ( φ ). Then there exists a unique homomorphism φ́ : R / I → R' s.t.
φ́ ∘ Π =φ .
(Insert diagram here)

Proof: φ́ ( a+ I )= φ́ ∘ Π ( a )=φ ( a )

We need to show that this does not depend on the choice of a .

If a+ I =b+ I then a−b ∈ I ⊆ker ( φ ) . Thus, φ ( a−b )=0 ⇒ φ ( a )=φ ( b ).

Exercise: check that φ́ is a ring homomorphism.

Idea of the theorem: if I ⊆ker ( φ ), then φ cannot separate equivalent points (points in the same
coset). The reason for this is that φ sends everything in I to a single element. Thus, elements of
any cosets, say a+ I , are just elements of I but shifted by some element a . So, they’ll all be sent
to where a is sent since all of I is sent to the same thing.