Logic Models and Outcomes For Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Report to the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
Logic Models and Outcomes

for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
By
Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.
Zakia Redd, M.P.P.
Project Director, Kristin Moore, Ph.D.
September 17, 2001

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Executive Summary................................................................................................................................... 3
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms............................................................................................. 5
Introduction................................................................................................................................................ 6
Background................................................................................................................................................ 6
Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth development?. 7
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs
and youth outcomes................................................................................................................................ 10
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?.......................................10
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs............12

Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model.......................................................................................................12
What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?.........13
Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations................................................17
Outcome Measurement.......................................................................................................................... 17
Summary, Integration and Conclusions................................................................................................ 18
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth
Investment Trust Corporation.................................................................................................................... 19
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth...................................24
Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in Entrepreneurship Programs...............................................25
Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic
Model......................................................................................................................................................... 26
Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs......................................................31
References............................................................................................................................................... 37
Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Executive Summary
The primary purpose of this report is to provide a revised logic model and measurable outcomes
for the youth entrepreneurship programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
(DCCYIT). The logic model was revised from the initial draft of the Board of Directors of DCCYIT using
the framework and terminology developed by the United Way Foundation of America. 1 The report
combines both an academic and applied research perspective on youth development, and is intended to
complement, not duplicate in any way, the work that has already been completed by the DCCYIT in this
program area.
The report focuses on youth entrepreneurship and contains a brief overview of the research
literature that informs our conceptualization of the logic model and proposed outcomes. The proposed
outcomes cover a range of domains. Valid measures may differ by age and by the purpose of the
program. This report can be used as a tool by individual programs to determine which outcomes and
measures are most pertinent.
We recommend that funders and practitioners embrace modest expectations for some of
these program outcomes; no single program strategy can accomplish all of the outcomes that
these programs have been implemented to address. Also, though progress made can be substantial
over the long-term, expectations should be tempered regarding immediate change for any one outcome.
We urge programs of the DCCYIT to track appropriate outcomes in order to assess program
effectiveness. This process should help to improve program quality.
The outcomes identified here are not exhaustive, and they can be measured in many ways. The
indicators we have suggested range from simple to advanced assessments. What is easiest to document
may not be the most meaningful and accurate measure. In addition, outcome monitoring must take into
consideration the issues regarding the different data collection strategies required for children. A large
part of the decisions regarding which outcomes are monitored will depend on this factor as well as the
costs associated with the various alternatives.
Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of
entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development
experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although some of the programs target specific
demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, low-income youth, minority youth, high school dropouts, single
mothers age 14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for a
productive and independent adulthood. Several outcomes for programs in this area may be used by the
DCCYIT for performance tracking. Initial outcomes focus primarily on changes in participants’ knowledge
1
United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America
Press. See glossary of outcome measurement terms for details.

3
and attitudes. Intermediate and longer-term outcomes are related to new skills acquired, educational and
economic achievements, and positive behaviors.
Initial outcomes for youth in entrepreneurship programs are expected to include increases in knowledge
and changes in attitudes with regard to the following:
 Entrepreneurship
 Work readiness and employability
 Civic engagement
 Interpersonal skills
 Academics
Intermediate/longer-term outcomes for youth in youth entrepreneurship programs include increases in:
 Life skills
o Problem-solving skills
o Interpersonal communication skills
o Technology skills
 Employability and work readiness
 Employment and earnings
 Academic achievement
 Educational Attainment
 Positive interpersonal relationships
 Health status
 Reduction in risky behaviors
o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency activities
o Fewer arrests
 Positive psychological well-being
o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders
o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self
We have selected these outcomes using a combination of theory and pragmatism. Many of these
outcome measures have established scientific validity and reliability, and are sturdy enough to provide
guidance to the practitioners of DCCYIT funded programs who wish to use them for assessment.

4
Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms2
Inputs are resources that are dedicated to or consumed by programs. Examples include facilities, staff
time, volunteer time, money, and supplies. Inputs also include constraints such as laws and regulations.
Activities are what the program actually does, using inputs, in order to fulfill its mission. For example,
providing classes for youth in order to disseminate knowledge/information about job preparation skills, or
providing entrepreneurship activities for youth.
Outputs are the direct products of program activities. They are usually measured by the amount of work
accomplished, for example, the number of entrepreneurship classes taught, or the number of youth who
participated in vocational activities.
Outcomes are benefits for the people served by the program during or after participation. Outcomes
include changes in knowledge, skills, attitudes, or behavior, and can be divided into three categories:
Initial outcomes are the first changes for participants, and are very closely influenced by the
program. Initial outcomes are often changes in knowledge, attitudes, or skills. For example, an initial
outcome for youth who participate in an entrepreneurship class might be an increase in knowledge about
the requirements for the establishment of a new business.
Intermediate outcomes are the step between initial outcomes and longer-term outcomes. They
can be changes in behavior that result from the acquisition of new knowledge and skills. To follow from
the previous example, an intermediate outcome might be that youth are establishing their own businesses
or are self-employed.
Longer-term outcomes are the ultimate outcomes a program wants to achieve. They can be
changes in participants’ condition or status. For example, if an intermediate outcome is that youth are
establishing their own businesses, a longer-term outcome might be that youth are employed have a
sense of mastery and self-reliance, and are economically independent.
Indicators are used to help a program know whether the desired level of inputs, activities, outputs, and
outcomes are being achieved. They are observable, measurable changes, and they must be
unambiguous. For example, terms such as “adequate” and “substantial” (i.e., “participants show
substantial improvement”) are not specific enough, but finding a change in the number and percent of
participants achieving an outcome is specific and measurable.
2
United Way of America (1996). Measuring Program Outcomes: A Practical Approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America
Press.

5
YOUTH ENTREPRENEURSHIP PROGRAMS
Introduction
This section of the report provides revised logic models and outcomes for youth in
Entrepreneurship Programs. We describe why and how youth program interventions focused on
entrepreneurship and vocational training are important for adolescent development. We also describe the
pathways through which entrepreneurial and vocational training impact youth development, as well as the
outcomes that are most likely to be affected by such intervention programs. This theoretical review
provides a basis for the identification of outcomes for entrepreneurship and vocational programs that can
be tracked and monitored over time by the DCCYIT.
Background
The research on school-to-work transitions and youth entrepreneurship has consistently

demonstrated the usefulness and importance of job-readiness and vocational programs for youth
development.3,4 Data show that about 50 percent of high school graduates continue on to college, and
that 25 percent of those that do, actually obtain college degrees. 5 Without any goals or sense of what is
required to achieve such goals, many young people end up jobless or in low-wage jobs with little
advancement opportunities. It is important for youth to be able to recognize and to create opportunities
and to be prepared for them when presented. Increasingly, policy-makers have also recognized the need
for youth to attain employment- readiness skills, an education that covers basic skills and prepares youth
for work. Such initiatives as the Future Entrepreneurs of America Act 6, and the passage of the School-to-
Work Opportunities Act 7, have also been introduced to empower youth. Other relevant policy initiatives of
the school-to-work transition include Education for All Handicapped Children Act, Rehabilitation Act, Carl
D. Perkins Vocational Education Act, and the Job Training and Partnership Act (JTPA). 8
According to the Census Bureau’s Current Population Survey data, unemployment rates for youth
are much higher than rates for other age groups. Fourteen percent to 20 percent of youth aged 15-19 are
currently unemployed. Low-income youth as well as Black and Hispanic youth also tend to have much
higher unemployment rates.9 DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs address this unemployment,
and work-readiness issues through training and preparing youth for work.
3
National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
4
Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black youth: An empirical
investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.
5
Panel on High-Risk Youth. (1993). Losing generations: Adolescents in high risk settings. Commission on Behavioral and Social
Sciences and Education, National Research Council. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
6
The Future Entrepreneurs of America Act (H.R. 1331) was introduced in the 106 th Congress to promote entrepreneurship
education in grades 7 through 12.
7
The School-to-Work Opportunities Act was passed in 1994 with the goal of reinvigorating entrepreneurship and vocational
education programs which include coops, youth apprenticeships, and mentoring programs in which students participate in paid
employment.
8
Lowry, C. M. (1990). Helping at-risk youth make the school-to-work transition. ERIC Digest. Columbus, OH: ERIC Clearinghouse
on Adult Career and Vocational Education.
9
U.S. Department of Labor. Report on the Youth Labor Force. Revised, November 2000. Washington, D.C.: Author.

6
The nine youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT have varying degrees of
entrepreneurial activities, but all of them provide career, vocational and personal development
experiences for youth between the ages of 12 and 21. Although many of the programs target specific
demographic groups (e.g., disabled youth, high school dropouts, low-income youth, single mothers aged
14-21), these programs share at their core the desire to prepare adolescents for productive adulthood.
DCCYIT programs provide opportunities and supports that help its participants gain the competencies
and knowledge needed to make a successful transition from school to employment or self-employment.
These experiences form a basis of knowledge about the function and operation of a business, help young
people develop new attitudes towards business and some level of familiarity and comfort with the
business environment. In addition to providing youth with the tools and skills needed to start their own
businesses or to find gainful employment, many of the programs have the goal of empowering youth by
enabling them to provide needed goods and services to the distressed, underserved neighborhoods in
which they live. DCCYIT programs provide a combination of training and employment opportunities for
youth, such as business start-up training and apprenticeships. They offer youth opportunities to work and
interact with caring adults in professional settings. Detailed summaries of these programs are provided in
Table 3.1.
Why and how are youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs important for youth
development?
The existing research, though limited, shows that school-to-work, entrepreneurship and
vocational programs provide a variety of opportunities for youth. 10 The research findings on the impact of
11
such programs on youth are few, and many programs have met with mixed success. There is evidence
however, that if these programs are well organized, they can work to positively benefit youth. While
anecdotal information is available on the effectiveness of many entrepreneurship programs, rigorous
evaluations of the effects of entrepreneurship program participation on youth have yet to be conducted.
However, it is clear that these programs provide many opportunities for young people: for example, they
provide an environment for youth to interact with caring adults in actual work settings; they incorporate
training and on-the-job learning experiences; and they focus on the present employment needs in young
people’s lives, as well as on long-term career and life goals. Youth entrepreneurship interventions also try
to nurture other skills in youth, including leadership skills (e.g., planning and implementing projects,
positive risk-taking, and problem-solving), self-esteem and efficacy (a sense of being able to make a
difference), and teamwork.
As stated above, few evaluations of entrepreneurship programs have been conducted. However,
there have been rigorous evaluations of other employment initiatives targeted towards youth. Many of the
DCCYIT have activities that are vocational or employment-based, so we feel that these studies are
relevant to the DCCYIT programs. It is important to note, for example, that vocational educators have
10
Kourilsky & Esfandiari, 1997.
11
Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The Effects of Entrepreneurial Training and Venture Creation on Youth Entrepreneurial Attitudes and
Academic Performance. College of Business Administration, University of South Florida: Florida.

7
come to recognize that starting a business is a natural outgrowth of vocational skills training. 12 There are
also longitudinal studies that have examined short-term and early adult outcomes of adolescent
employment. Experiences from the field have shown that youth who are involved in vocational and
entrepreneurial activities through programs or in education settings may experience a variety of positive
outcomes:
 Improvements in academic performance. Early evidence from New York City’s Career Magnet
Schools13 indicates that the schools give students a career focus and improve their achievement in
core subjects including reading and math.14 Similar evidence of improved grades was found in other
school-based programs.15
 Increased problem-solving ability.16
 Educational expectations. Students participating in the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects had
a higher percentage than those in a comparison group reporting that they expected to finish high
school. However, the same proportion of youth in comparison and program groups reported that they
expected to attend a post-secondary institution.17
 Educational attainment. Youth employment appears to be a predictor of high school graduation,
however, it is not clear if this relationship is causal or if people who are highly motivated tend to work
while in high school.18 Studies evaluating the effect of program participation on student educational
attainment outcomes have had mixed findings, yet some are able to positively impact high school
graduation, GED attainment and/or college enrollment. 19 It is possible that programs increasing
employment among youth may have no effect or even a negative effect on educational attainment
outcomes. Several studies indicate a positive relationship between moderate amounts of work (20
20
hours per week or less), and higher levels of subsequent educational attainment.
 School attendance. School-to-work and vocational programs have been effective in increasing
school attendance. 21
12
Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship Education: Current Development, Future
Promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
13
Crain, R. Heebner, A. & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The Effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet schools: An evaluation of ninth
grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley, CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
14
Jobs for the Future. (1995). Promising Practices. A Study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge, MA: Author.
15
Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000). Evidence of positive student outcomes in JROTC career academies. Santa
Monica, CA: RAND; Hughes, K., Baily, & Mechur, M.J. (2001). School-to-work: Making a difference in education. New York:
Institute on Education and the Economy, Teacher’s College, Columbia University.
16
Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact of youth development
programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.
17
Farkas, G., Sit, D., Stromsdorfer, E., Trask, G., & Jerret, R. (1982). Impacts from the Youth Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects:
Participation, work, and schooling over the full program period. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Farkas,
G., Olsen, R., Stromsdorfer, E., Sharpe, L., Skidmore, F., Smith, D., & Merrill, S. (1984). Post-program impacts of the Youth
Incentive Entitlement Pilot Projects. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.
18
D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of Education, 57, 152-164; U.S.
Department of Labor (2000, November). Report on the Youth Labor Force. Washington, D.C.: Author.
19
Jekielek, et al. (2001).
20
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational attainment and labor market
experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics.
http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylfhome.htm

8
 Practical skills. Such programs also improve skills in teamwork, problem-solving, money
management, decision-making, personal responsibility and public speaking. 22
 Growth in the development of leadership.23
 Job readiness. Evaluations of entrepreneurship and vocational programs have shown that such
programs can contribute to positive outcomes among youth, including life skills, employment
readiness and skills.
 Improvements in student’s knowledge of entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial attitudes .24 The New
Youth Entrepreneur is an experience-based program for middle and high school age youth with a
curriculum that is anchored by core entrepreneurship concepts including opportunity recognition, the
marshaling of resources, and initiating a business venture in the face of risk. Programs such as this
have been known to enhance self-esteem and build positive attitudes towards entrepreneurship
among youth.25
 Short-term economic advantages. Programs that provide employment to those who would not be able
to find employment are important. Findings on the short-term and long-term earnings and
employment effects of evaluated employment initiatives are mixed. 26 However, clear evidence exists
that programs are able to increase short-term and long-term employment and earnings for various
disadvantaged subgroups, although such outcomes vary by program and by subgroup. 27
 Consistent gains in factual knowledge related to the actual experience .28 This experience encourages
young people to think about their future occupational goals as well as encourage reflection on issues
of greater significance for vocational development. 29
 Social development. Such programs have been know to contribute to social development and
30
maturity (e.g., a sense of social responsibility and political efficacy). The performance of work place
tasks, in cooperation with adults, can promote a sense of contribution, being “grown up” and
egalitarianism.31
21
Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http: www.
Reeusda.gov/4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm; Kemple, J.J. & Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and
work-based learning activities through employer partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G.
& Quint, J. (1990). Career Beginnings impact evaluation: Findings from a program for disadvantaged high school students. New
York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Elliot, M.N., Hanser, L.M., & Gilroy, C.L. (2000).
22
Valiquette (1998).
23
Hamilton (1990).
24
Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and small business. Journal of
Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.
25
Ibid.
26
Jekielek, S., Hair, E., Moore, K., & Cochran, S. (2001). Employment initiatives and youth development: A synthesis. Draft Report
prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, DC: Child Trends; Panel on High Risk Youth (1993).
27
Schochet, P.Z., Burghardt, J., & Glazerman, S. (2000). National Job Corp study: The short-term impact of Job Corps on
participants’ employment and related outcomes. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Labor ; Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z.,
McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary
of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc; Farkas, et al. (1984); Kemple, J.J., Poglinco, S.
& Snipes, J.C. (1999). Career academies: Building career awareness and work-based learning activities through employer
partnerships. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation; Cave, G., Bos, H., Doolittle, F., & Toussaint, C. (1993).
Jobstart: Final report on a program for school dropouts. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corporation.
28
Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for Adulthood. New York: Free Press.
29
Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11, 131-166.
30
Hamilton (1990).
31
Mortimer, et al. (1996).

9
 Enhanced social psychological development (self-esteem, ego development, self-efficacy) . Such
programs can not only help students see the relevance of what they are studying, but also helps them
gain the self-confidence many youth lack though their capability to accomplish tasks. 32
 Improvements in interpersonal relationships. Such programs can reduce the negative influence of
peers by exposing young people to constructive adult peer groups. 33
 Perceived health status. Early evidence from the National Job Corp program indicates that program
participants had significantly fewer reports of being in poor or fair health. 34
In sum, there is substantial evidence that entrepreneurship, school-to-work and vocational

programs can positively influence youth development. Such programs can promote positive economic,
intellectual, social and psychological outcomes. These types of programs can have positive influences on
academic success as a result of “hands-on” experiences which help build self-esteem, feelings of self-
efficacy, leadership skills, interactions with others, and promoting an overall decrease in problem
behaviors.35 Youth entrepreneurship programs can also encourage career exploration, decrease overall
youth unemployment, and improve self-confidence. 36 Although there is evidence programs have been
able to improve youth outcomes, much of the evidence of the effectiveness of past evaluated programs in
doing so is mixed. That is, the evaluated programs vary in their effectiveness in improving outcomes of
their youth and young adult participants in comparison to non-participants, and these programs vary in
their activities and in their target populations. It is also important to emphasize the point that longitudinal
youth employment studies can demonstrate a predictive relationship between such programs and youth
outcomes, but cannot prove causality.
Prior research: A framework for assessing the relationship between entrepreneurship programs
and youth outcomes
What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?
The question of how youth entrepreneurship and job-readiness interventions affect adolescent
development is embedded within a broader set of issues about the nature of youth development, and the
growth of competence and responsibility during this phase of life. 37 Employed teens may feel themselves
to be more dependable and responsible than those who are not employed and are perceived to be more
independent. 38 In general, vocational education during adolescence has generally been felt to be a
32
Lerman, R.I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D.J. Besharov (Ed.), America’s Disconnected Youth:
Towards a Preventative Strategy. Washington, DC: American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.
33
Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a U.S. youth apprenticeship system. In I. Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld,
& S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172). Washington DC: The Brookings Institute.
34
Burghardt, et al. (2001).
35
Leffert, et al. (1996).
36
Leffert, et al. (1996).
37
Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals of Child Development , 11,
131-166.
38
Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child Trends.

10
character-building exercise, and youth who work during this phase of life evidence changes in domains
such as self-reliance, self-esteem, and practical knowledge, while showing reductions in problem
behaviors such as delinquency and alcohol use. There are three major avenues through which potential
entrepreneurship may be influenced: self-perception as a potential entrepreneur; educational preparation;
and socialization.
Self Perception as a Potential Entrepreneur: One avenue through which entrepreneurship may be
encouraged among youth is through the creation of positive perceptions of entrepreneurship. Once young
people perceive themselves as having the potential to be an entrepreneur, the foundation for becoming
an entrepreneur is laid. Social psychological models39 have emphasized that a necessary preexisting
condition for becoming an entrepreneur is to be prepared to accept an opportunity. Some researchers
have found that preparation is the key element for developing potential entrepreneurs because
40
opportunities can be seized by individuals who are prepared to seize them. One pathway, therefore, for
increasing the number of entrepreneurs is to increase the pool of youth who see themselves as “potential”
entrepreneurs. The supply of entrepreneurs can, therefore, be strongly affected by providing youth at
early ages with positive and self-enabling perceptions about their potential to be an entrepreneur. This
supports the realization that entrepreneurship may be feasible as well as personally and socially
desirable. 41
Educational Preparation: Entrepreneurship education is important at the pre-college ages and is

an important avenue for achieving impacts on potential entrepreneurs. 42 Such programs provide a
business-management –oriented curricula and “hands-on” experience. The participants often construct
their own knowledge, make decisions, and bear the consequences of their decisions; to enable these self-
actuated processes, students are often guided through firsthand, real-world entrepreneurship experiences
by an instructor, who takes on a facilitator roles for the curriculum. 43 Models of entrepreneurial potential
emphasize that education improves the perceived feasibility of entrepreneurship by increasing
knowledge, building confidence, and promoting self-efficacy 44. Such education and exposure also
improves the perceived desirability for entrepreneurship by showing youth that this activity is highly
regarded and socially desirable. When conducted at younger age groups in a supportive environment, it
increases youth interest in entrepreneurship, their preparation for it, and enhances self esteem. 45 This
39
Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D. Sexton, & K. Vesper (Eds). The
encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
40
Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurship Theory and
Practice, 18(2), 91-104.
41
Walstad & Kourilsky (1996).
42
Ibid
43
Ibid.
44
Krueger & Brazeal (1994).
45
Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business Education Forum, 50(10), 11-
15.

11
educational exposure is particularly important for at-risk and disadvantaged youth since in many cases it
46
provides entrepreneurial role models and opportunities to prepare youth to start a business.
Socialization: Career theories 47 emphasize that socialization plays an important role in

contributing to entrepreneurial careers. The schooling years provide a key opportunity to introduce
students to entrepreneurship as a career option and as an alternative to more traditional occupations. 48
Socialization and education in entrepreneurship may therefore be of great value because they highlight
career options that may not be usually realistically considered. For at-risk youth, it may develop the skills,
knowledge, and attitudes that make youth more productive citizens, regardless of what occupation is
eventually chosen.49
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model
Youth entrepreneurship and vocational education programs are built on validated models derived
from learning theory and based on the premise that education can be used as an intervention tool to
influence youth attitudes toward entrepreneurship as a career option. 50 While research in this area is
limited, the foundation for the design of entrepreneurship and vocational programs are grounded in the
notion that if students can improve their motivation to achieve, their locus of control and self-esteem, as
well as demonstrate creativity, the more likely they are to avoid self-destructive behaviors such as teen-
age pregnancy, drug-abuse, violence and gang participation. 51 Therefore, to be effective in preparing
youth for a changing society, vocational education and entrepreneurship education must be
complementary. Such programs offer students an incentive for thinking creatively about an industry, and
broadening their understanding of career opportunities. 52 Entrepreneurship and vocational education
therefore provide students with the opportunity to learn that (1) although a job may be successfully
accomplished one day by performing a given set of tasks, different skills and strategies may be required
to tackle a new set of tasks the next day; and (2) because businesses are always changing, workers need
to find new ways to do a given job or new ways to do a given job better. 53
The conceptual model that provides a simple framework of how program participation may lead to
positive outcomes is provided in Figure 3.1. As aforementioned, evidence exists that many program
goals are able to be achieved through the delivery of key training and services to youth and young adults.
46
Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults towards business ownership.
Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S. Department of Commerce.
47
Dyer, W.G. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 19(2), 7-21.
48
Kourilsy (1995).
49
50
Rasheed (2000).
51
Ibid.
52
Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational Education and Small Business Development.
Digest No.118. (On-line) Available: www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html
53
Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 64(8), 28-29.

12
As is outlined in the conceptual model, DCCYIT youth entrepreneurship programs provide entrepreneurial
training, vocational training, employment preparation and career services, academic support, and
opportunities to work with community business leaders and workers in a given field through shadowing
and mentoring relationships, and hands-on work experience. Through the provision of these services,
youth may be enabled to increase their 1) knowledge of how to start a business; 2) tools for searching,
gaining, and maintaining employment; 3) work readiness skills and employability; and, 4) educational
credentials and basic academic preparedness necessary for working successfully.
What youth outcomes are most often influenced by entrepreneurship and vocational programs?
There are a limited number of studies that have examined outcomes for youth in
entrepreneurship and vocational programs, although many proponents of vocational education have
argued that such experiences are generally positive for adolescents. The limited number of experimental
studies in this area makes it difficult to draw definitive conclusions, however several domains that may be
influenced by such programs can be identified. In an effort to identify outcomes for youth that may be
influenced, we also borrow extensively from the literature on work and adolescent development. The
outcomes that we have identified may be short term or longer term in nature for youth.
 Entrepreneurial Skills
Some studies have indicated that entrepreneurial training among youth can change the
psychological tendencies and propensities associated with business ownership. 54 Students receiving
entrepreneurial training have been found to have significantly higher motivation to achieve, a higher
sense of personal control, a higher self-esteem, are more innovative, have more personal control and
higher achievement motivation. Studies have also show that actually starting a business as well as
experiencing entrepreneurial education increases creativity in students. 55
 Job-Readiness Skills
Research findings concerning work and practical skills indicate that young people may learn
practical skills and work habits from vocational programs as well as exposure to work. These are often
skills that are not usually acquired in schools, and include the development of interpersonal
competencies-a stronger sense of personal responsibility, learning how to deal with customers, how to
get along with co-workers, how to follow directions—and those involving knowledge of the world of work,
such as being able to find a job.56 Findings concerning work and money management are mixed.
Although some studies have shown that exposure to work may help speed the development of knowledge
54
Rasheed (2000).
55
56
Steinberg & Cauffman (1995).

13
about money management and personal finances,57 in some cases, such wages may be spent on drugs
and alcohol.58
In the 1990s, the U.S. Department of Labor sponsored the Secretary’s Commission on Achieving
Necessary Skills (SCANS) to define the skills needed for employment, and propose acceptable levels of
proficiency.59 The development of these necessary skills among youth has become the focus of many
entrepreneurship programs. Work entails an interplay among a three-part foundation and five
competencies. The three-part foundation consists of basic skills, thinking skills, and personal qualities:
 Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening
and speaking.
 Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing
how to learn and reasons.
 Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management,
integrity and honesty.
The five competencies are:
 Resources: The ability to identify, organize, plan and allocate resources (e.g., time, money,
materials, facilities and human resources).
 Interpersonal skills: The ability to work with others (e.g., leadership, negotiation, work with
diversity).
 Information: The ability to acquire and use information (e.g., acquire and evaluate
information, organize and maintain information).
 Systems: The ability to understand complex relationships (e.g., to understand systems,
monitor and correct performance, improve and design systems).
 Technology: The ability to work with a variety of technologies (e.g., select technologies, apply
technology to task).
At this point, it is still too early to determine the success rate of programs that have attempted to achieve
these outcome among youth in their programs.60 However, efforts in this direction are promising.
 Economic Outcomes and Subsequent Labor Market Experience

Some studies have indicated that there is a positive relationship between youth employment and
subsequent labor market experiences. Outcomes in this domain are mainly short-term and are often
visible in the first few years immediately following graduation from high school. 61 There is ample evidence
57
Jonston, Bachman, & O’Malley (1982).
58
Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of adolescent employment. New
York: Basic Books.
59
U.S. Department of Commerce (2000). What work requires of schools: A SCANS report for America 2000. The Secretary’s
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S. Department of Labor.
60
Lerman (1999).
61

that adolescents who acquire more work experience earn higher wages in subsequent years. 62 For
example, the lack of work experience among young black males accounts for about half of the differences
between their wages and those of young white males, five years after graduating from high school. 63
Other research has also pointed to the fact that first school year employment is associated with short-term
economic advantages, both with respect to earnings and the likelihood of employment immediately
following high school.64 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program, it was also
found that youth in this program generated employment and earnings gains. Impacts were found to be
similar for both males and females.65
 Psychological Well-Being
There are inconsistent findings on the effects of work and job-readiness programs on youth
feelings about themselves and their competencies. Some studies report that work negatively affects self-
reliance and self-esteem,66 while others report different and positive effects for males and females. 67
Several writers have suggested the impact of such programs on adolescent psychosocial development
may vary as a function of the characteristics of the adolescent’s employment. 68 Some findings also show
that adolescent’s sense of mastery is influenced by the quality of work, although effects are different for
males and females. 69
 Education and Academic Achievement

The early research on the effects of working on the educational outcomes of adolescents in
school has yielded mixed findings.70 In some cases, such programs reduce study time and school
aspirations for youth. 71 In other cases, such work programs have been found to foster high achievement
orientation in boys.72 Findings from the High School and Beyond73 study for example have shown that
work during the last years of high school affects such outcomes as going to college, high school
attendance, parent involvement, senior educational aspirations, and standardized test scores. Of 22
62
Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper. Washington, DC: U.S.
Bureau of Labor Statistics (Report: NLS 96-32).
63
Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity on adolescent mental
health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.
64
Mortimer et al. (1996).
65
Burghardt (2001).
66
Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence: Replication and elaboration.
Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.
67
Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on adolescent achievement and well-
being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.
68
Greenberger, E., & Steinberg, L.D. (1986). When teenagers work. New York: Basic Books.
69
Mortimer et al. (1992).
70
Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.I. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school seniors. Ann Arbor, MI:
Institute for Social Research.
71
Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and Society, 28(4), 464-498.
72
Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’ orientation to the future. The
Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.
73
Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic goals? Sociology of
Education, 64, 172-189.

outcomes examined in this study, 17 were significantly affected by working; all but one of these outcomes
were negative. In a recent study that examines the influence of the Job Corps 74 vocational training
program on youth, it was found that this intervention increases educational attainment. Participants in this
program exhibited improvements in literacy and numeracy skills. Involvement in this program also
increased the receipt of GED and vocational certificates, although the program had no effects on college
attendance.
 Risky Behaviors
Studies of the effects of work and mental health do not find strong effects on internalized distress
for youth.75 In general, youth who are exposed to work are neither more nor less depressed than non-
workers, once pre-existing psychological states are accounted for. Drug and alcohol use has however
been found to be higher among working than non-working youth, especially among those who work long
hours. 76 Several studies suggest that working may also be associated with increases in antisocial
behavior such as aggression,77 school misconduct, and minor acts of delinquency. This behavior may
also be a consequence of menial, repetitive, unchallenging work that is done in the absence of close adult
supervision.78 In a recent study that assesses the impact of the Job Corp program on youth, it was found
that this program significantly reduces involvement with crime. Participants had reduced convictions,
incarcerations resulting from a conviction, and crimes committed. 79
 Social Relationships
Little research has examined the effects of adolescent work on social relationships. However,
some studies have shown that working long hours distances adolescents from their parents and results in
diminished emotional closeness. 80 However, it is difficult to know whether these findings signify that
adolescents who seek autonomy tend to self-select into jobs that require long working hours, or if working
long hours, especially in settings where the young people are working mostly with adults, actually leads to
premature independence and decreased parental control. 81 Also, we cannot assume that working and
participating in a youth entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes. DCCYIT
programs that have young people participate in entrepreneurial training or activities in a group setting with
peers may have somewhat different effects on social relationships. These programs may encourage
parental involvement or try to enhance parental knowledge so that they may assist their children in finding
74
Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen, J., & Jackson, R. (2001).
Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study. Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
75
National Research Council (1998).
76
Ibid.
77
Ibid.
78
Ibid.
79
Burghardt (2001).
80
Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.
81

employment opportunities. In contrast, it may be expected that these programs would improve parent-
adolescent relationships if parent involvement in their child’s activities is increased.
It is important to note that youth entrepreneurship and vocational programs, such as those
sponsored by the DCCYIT, try to provide enriching experiences for young people in which they are
exposed to workers in the field who are caring adults who sought to work with or volunteer to teach young
people. DCCYIT programs provide mentors and shadowing opportunities for young people. Through
these mentoring and shadowing relationships, young people will be exposed to new opportunities and will
develop their personal contacts, which are important for attaining employment. Furthermore, research
has shown that caring relationships with non-parental adults can lead to positive outcomes for youth.
Young people who seek to participate in the youth entrepreneur programs may be considered to be
motivated, so participation in the program may improve the peer networks by connecting them with other
young people who are interested in participating in productive activities, such as learning entrepreneurial,
global employment, and academic skills. Although it may be expected that peer relationships outside of
work or outside of the program may be affected by program participation, the effect that a program may
have is unclear. One study, for example, found that working had little effect on the quality or quantity of
adolescents’ time with friends. 82 Again, we cannot assume that working and participating in a youth
entrepreneurship or vocational program will lead to the same outcomes.
Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations
The Youth Entrepreneurship logic model has been revised using the framework provided by the
United Way of America83 and is theoretically driven. The DCCYIT provided us with preliminary logic
models to which we added inputs, activities, outputs, and outcomes. Additional information required to
revise the logic model was obtained from DCCYIT program descriptions. Readers are advised to refer to
the glossary of outcome measurement terms for an understanding of the terms used in the logic models.
Similar to what was done for the identification of early childhood outcomes, and out of school time
outcomes, we have used a combination of theory, research and pragmatism to guide our choice of
outcomes and measures. In these models, youth outcomes are linked to program activities, goals and
objectives. The development of outcome measures in this field of research is rudimentary at best, so we
have identified few measures that have been evaluated (not using rigorous randomized trials.) The
revised logic model for youth entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT is presented in Table 3.2.
Outcome Measurement
The measures selected reflect the goals of the programs. Wherever possible, we have selected
measures with established validity and reliability, and for which norms are available. While some of these
82
Greenberger et al. (1980).
83
United Way of America (1996). Measuring program outcomes: A practical approach. Alexandria, VA: United Way of America
Press.

measures are currently being used in local and national studies, others are not. However, we
recommend a wide range of measures, ranging from simple to more advanced assessments.
What is easiest to document in terms of time and cost (e.g., knowledge and attitude changes concerning
youth skills, measured through the use of paper-and-pencil questionnaires) may not be the most
meaningful or the most accurate measure. For example, tracking changes in youth knowledge or attitudes
about entrepreneurship may not be as important as monitoring changes in entrepreneurial activity. We
therefore recommend outcomes that require various techniques for assessment, including standardized
tests, and youth reports of their own behaviors or attitudes. The measurement of outcomes may include
youth self-administered questionnaires, interviews with teachers, instructors and mentors, observations of
youth activities and interactions with peers/co-workers, and reports by independent observers.
Assessments of youth outcomes may include standardized tests, as well as multiple measures or sub-
scales of a single test. The more precise the measurement technique, the more valid and reliable, the
more well-known in the research literature, and usually the more costly. A description of selected outcome
measures is provided in Table 3.3.
Summary, Integration and Conclusions
The workplace represents an important setting for the development of youth. Vocational and
youth entrepreneurship programs represent an essential vehicle through which the economic self-
sufficiency of youth may be improved. Research on this topic is relatively new, and clearly further
empirical research is need to clarify some of the mixed result reported in many studies. It is challenging to
identify outcomes for performance tracking based on mixed findings. Our review of the small number of
evaluations of youth entrepreneurship programs provides preliminary support for the identification of
outcomes in the following domains: entrepreneurial skills; job-readiness; academic
achievement/performance; psychological well-being; risky behaviors; service activities; and social
relationships.
These outcome measures are consistent with the program’s overall objectives and the
mechanisms that are targeted for change. For outcome monitoring, we suggest combining information
from standardized assessment tools, staff (mentors) assessments, and participant feedback, to assess
outcomes.

18
Table 3.1: Summary Table of Youth Entrepreneurship Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation
Program Program Objective Activities Population Type of Length/Intensity

Served Intervention of Intervention
East of the River To provide Summer program offers:  Ward 8 youth  Classes  6 week summer
Community Development entrepreneurship training  Training and employment in the fresh  Field trips program
Corporation and employment for produce market  Buying and selling of
youth produce
Chinatown Service To provide services to  Training in computer basics (word  Asian immigrant Classes in computer labs. Job Skills/Interview Skills
Center Asian immigrant families. processing, spreadsheet and graphic families and children. course (4 weeks).
To teach students about presentations and applications)  Families with limited
computer basics,  Training in computer maintenance English proficiency and low
maintenance. To assist (troubleshooting, maintaining, financial resources
students with job upgrading of personal computers and  Goal of 20-25
searches and interviews. small-scale local networks) students at a time, serving
 Training in job search and interview 140 students over the
skills course of a one year
period
WVSA Arts Connection To provide youth with  Develop Individual Objectives Plans  Youth with disabilities Training  Intense 12 week
disabilities training in  Training in global work behavior,  Ages 14-21 Apprenticeships with training
applied arts, fine arts, work-readiness, and technology-  Up to 40 youth entrepreneurs and in  12 week
basic technical skills. To oriented skills. businesses apprenticeships and 10
provide training that  Fine arts training Assisted employment week part-time
improves functional  Business start-up training Part-time employment employment experiences
literacy and that helps  Apprenticeships One-to-five ratio  Follow-up
them to master  Parent involvement (instructor-participant) employment services
employment skills and One-on-one mentors
 Mentors
independent living skills.
 Follow-up career planning and
To enhance parents of
placement services
program participants’
capacity to support their  Business plan development (to sell
children in finding and distribute participant artwork)
employment. To improve  Assisted employment opportunities
academic performance within the WVSA cottage enterprise.
and work-readiness. To
support community
needs.
Brain Food, Inc. To improve academic Food Venture, a small-scale youth  10-40 students  Classroom lessons  Academic year
19

performance and to entrepreneurial food business, offers:  Students ages 14-18 taught by local  Summer
increase entrepreneurial  Hands-on training in the food entrepreneurs using  Year round
and vocational skills and business curriculum designed to
knowledge about food,  Business planning and business teach entrepreneurial
nutrition, and cooking. development activities skills
To provide youth with a  Hands-on
sense of belonging in the experience
program and the
community.
Covenant House of To equip at-risk youth  Woodworking classes  Youth in Southeast  Courses  Year round
Washington with transferable,  Apprenticeship programs (Anacostia/Congress  Training
marketable work  Formal entrepreneurship training Heights)  Job placement
knowledge, skills, and  Business planning and writing classes  Youth ages 16-21
experience to increase  Placement of some youth in
their global employability apprenticeship programs
and self-employment  Developing strategic business and
readiness. To increase marketing plans for the CHW woodworking
educational attainment, enterprise
academic achievement,
community involvement,
and health and well-
being. To decrease
crime and violence
among youth. To
contribute to economic
development of the
Anacostia/Congress
Heights community
20

Marshall Heights To improve the  Assessment  Ward 7 youth (serving  Classes  Year round
Community Development economic, educational,  On the job training (OJT) youth in Lincoln Heights,  Training
Corporation and social status of the  Job shadowing mentoring Benning Terrace, East  Mentoring
Ward 7 community and  Business skills development Capitol Dwellings, Stoddert  Hands-on
their inhabitants. To  Community service Terrace, Marshall Heights experience
develop and expand  Vocational skills development neighborhoods so far)
employment/career/  Ages 14-21
 Job readiness training
business/  200 youth
 Job placement
entrepreneurship
opportunities. To create  Academic support or enhancement
business development activities
opportunities. To  Arts exposure
increase access to  College preparatory services
employment support  Entrepreneurial exposure.
networks, employment
services. To increase
employment skills and to
improve job readiness.
To increase employment
and business startups
among participants. To
decrease involvement in
risky behaviors.
Columbia Heights Youth To provide a safe, Focus on Health programs:  25 youth Shadowing Rigorous 5 week
Club nurturing environment to  Development and implementation of  Ages 14-18 Hands-on experience exposure programs
youth enhancing their health promotion and/or disease  Columbia Heights
social, physical, and prevention project. youth
intellectual growth. To  Shadowing health professional
expose youth to health
careers and health
practitioners. To enhance
reading skills,
comprehension, critical
thinking, verbal
presentation skills. To
increase high school
completion, college
readiness, college
entrance. To increase
knowledge of youth and
their families about health
related topics.
21

Lydia’s House To provide technology- Tech Zone program offers:  Ages 14-21 20 students in each Two training sessions are
based entrepreneurial  Biz Tech: online learning system  180 Youth training session. held per quarter
training, personal teaches entrepreneurship, information Classroom with
development technology and workplace concepts. computers Class held from 8:30-
experiences. To provide  Technology training (basic computer 12:00 and from 6:30-8:30
students with access to literacy, resume and job preparation,
technology and business operating systems, networks, hardware,
support. To expose youth computer productivity, HTML website
to career options. To design, internet project).
increase employability,  Youth leadership training with a focus
work and self- on school to work transition
employment.  Training on the principles of
To improve student self- economics
esteem, reduce youth  Develop business plans
violence and school
absenteeism, increase
educational attainment
into post-secondary
education. To increase
entrepreneurial
opportunities among
youth with disabilities.
Wider Opportunities for To help low-income, Keys to the Future program offers:  Fort Totten area Individualized support T-PACE, abuse
Women disadvantaged young  Intake and assessment youth prevention program lasts
women with children  Skills assessment  At-risk youth (low for 10 weeks.
achieve economic  Career services literacy skills, school
independence and  Pre-vocational training dropouts, homeless,
equality of opportunity.  Job placement, retention, follow-up runaways, foster children,
To place participants in services pregnant teenagers,
high-wage employment.  Stipends for books and college tuition offenders)
 Individual Development Accounts/  Low-income single
financial literacy training parents
 MELD/Even Start services  Young women ages
 Crisis intervention and consultation 14-21 and their families
 Access to T-PACE, abuse prevention  Group of 50 receives
and parenting program different services
 23 hour child care program
Source: Program descriptions from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust corporation website (www.cyitc.org)
22

Conceptual Model of
Entrepreneurship Program Outcomes for Youth
 The model presented in Figure 3.1 identifies outcomes

for youth participating in Youth Entrepreneurship
Programs of the DC Children and Youth Investment
Trust Corporation.
 The large circle in the model represents program

elements that are provided to youth by the various
Youth Entrepreneurship programs of the DCCYIT.
 The two smaller rectangles in the model represent

short/intermediate and long-term outcomes for youth.

23
24
Figure 3.1: Conceptual Model of Outcomes for Youth
in Entrepreneurship and Vocational Programs
Key
Targeted Population
Targeted Population
Program Elements Short- term/Intermediate
Outcomes
•Youth agesages
•Youth 14-2114-21 •Increased knowledge of small
•Entrepreneurial training
business planning and operation
•Disabled
•Youthyouth
fromages 14-21 •Business plan development, •Increased work readiness,
disadvantaged writing employability (SCANS skills)
•Low income single mothers •Increased employment and earnings
and neighborhoods
young women age 14-21 •Business start-up training
•Increase in positive relationships
and hand-on experience
•Low-income youth with adults and peers
•Apprenticeships/job
•At-risk youth (low shadowing
literacy skills, limited •Community Involvement
English proficiency
•Employment services (job
skills, dropouts, search/interview skills, etc.)
homeless, pregnant) Longer-term Outcomes
•On-the-job training
•Disabled youth •Financial management skills
•Improved educational outcomes
(academic achievement, educational
•Single mothers aged training
attainment)
14-21 •Academic support
•Youth violence, crime, and
•Work readiness skills delinquency are reduced
•Improved health status
•Increase in self-employment, overall
employment and earnings
•Improved socio-emotional and
psychological well-being
25
Box 3.1: Summary of Outcomes for Youth in
Entrepreneurship Programs
Initial/ Intermediate
 Work readiness and employability attitudes and skills

 Civic engagement attitudes
 Interpersonal skills
 Academic attitudes and knowledge
Longer-term
 Life skills
o Problem-solving skills
o Interpersonal communication skills
o Technology skills
 Employability and work readiness
 Employment and earnings
 Academic achievement
 Educational Attainment
 Have positive interpersonal relationships
 Health status
 Reduction in risky behaviors
o Low rates of youth crime and delinquency
o Fewer arrests
 Positive psychological well-being
o Low rates of depression, anxiety and other mental disorders
o High rates of optimism and positive sense of self
26
Table 3.2: DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation Youth Entrepreneurship Program Logic Model
Bolded items are from the original DC Trust model. Non-bolded items are Child Trends’ additions.
27

Outcomes
Inputs Activities Outputs
Initial Intermediate Longer-term84
Program staff, Outreach to bring youth Youth are brought into In-school youth in the In-school youth in the
materials, into the program the program through program: program: Increased enrollment in GED or
equipment, and outreach efforts other educational programs
other non-personal Assessment of the needs Youth increase the hours Youth are getting better
services and interests of youth in Youth are instructed in that they are in a safe grades in school Decreased youth crime, as
the program how to develop and environment during out- evidenced by contact with
Youth ages 14-21 operate a small business of-school time Youth school attendance is juvenile justice system
from low-income Education and training to improved
families youth in how to develop Youth participate in Out-of-school youth in Increased school attendance
and operate a small mentoring sessions with the program: Out-of-school youth in the (for in-school youth)
Funding, resources business local business leaders program:
Youth increase the hours Improved school grades and
Infrastructure in place Connecting youth with Small business are that they are Youth increase enrollment in standardized test scores (for
(e.g., space in supportive services in started by youth participating in an GED or other education in-school youth)
buildings) the community individually or as a group educational or career programs
developmental activity Increased school advancement
Mentors Providing mentoring and Seed grants and loans All youth in the program: from grade to grade (for in-
guidance from local are provided to youth to All youth in the program: school youth)
Health and business business leaders start their own Youth plan and start their own
professionals (for businesses Youth participate in the businesses Decreased teen pregnancy
shadowing) Providing seed grants or planning and operation
micro business loans to Youth are instructed in of a small business Youth career competencies Youth are self-employed, develop
Tutors/Trainers youth for starting their personal financial are enhanced and SCANS85 their own strategic business,
own businesses planning Youth increase their skills are improved marketing plans, and start their
knowledge of starting own businesses
Instructing youth in Number of sessions and operating their own Youth are participating more
Constraints on the personal financial conducted on business in civic life Youth exhibit a healthy work self-
program: planning entrepreneurship program concept
activities Youth increase their Youth exhibit an increase in
Language barriers Entrepreneurial training knowledge of personal customer service skills, Youth are economically self-
Number of participants finance interpersonal communications sufficient
Apprenticeships/job served in skills
shadowing opportunities entrepreneurship program Youth are knowledgeable Youth are psychologically well-
activities; and percentage about how to develop a Youth exhibit an increase in adjusted
Classes on financial of activities attended businesses employment and self-
management, principles of employment Youth have improved health
economics Number of sessions Youth are knowledgeable status
conducted on the planning about how to write a Youth experience an increase in
Training in research, and operation of a small business plan earnings Youth possess practical skills and
product development, and business job readiness characteristics—--
marketing Youth are knowledgeable Youth experience a decrease in SCANS skills ( possess the
Number of participants about financial unemployment levels (increased knowledge, skills and experience
84
The longer term outcomes of the DCCYIT (bolded in black), are derived from, DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation: Early Childhood Development Outcomes, Out-
of-School Time Outcomes, Youth Entrepreneurship Outcomes. Provided to Child Trends during personal correspondence with Keith Watson.
85
U.S. Department of Commerce. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills, U.S.
Department of Labor.
28

Outcomes
Initial Intermediate Longer-term
Training in business served in sessions on the management employment and job retention) necessary to increase their
planning and writing planning and operation of a employability)
small business; and Youth have knowledge of Youth experience an increase in
Training and hands-on percentage of activities work-related concepts basic academic skills Youth are developing healthy
experience in specific trade attended (professionalism, etc.) social relationships
or business field (health, Youth exhibit an increase in
woodworking, technology, Number of participants Youth have knowledge of computer skills Youth are performing
arts) attending sessions on social networks and academically and have improved
employment activities; and community resources Youth exhibit an increase in educational outcomes
Community service and percentage of activities (business networks, interview skills
involvement activities attended contacts) Youth exhibit reduced risky
Youth exhibit an increase in behaviors
On-the-job training Number of sessions Parents of participants are employability/ work readiness
(providing hands-on conducted on employment knowledgeable about and (SCANS skills) Youth exhibit self-esteem, a
experience) activities involved in youth activities sense of mastery and self-
Youth exhibit an increase in reliance
Classes on computers Number of sessions Youth are knowledgeable positive risk-taking skills
(word processing, etc.) conducted on youth about employment Youth complete high school
employment/ opportunities in the health Youth are increasing their
Parental involvement and entrepreneurship training field, fresh produce market associations with positive peers Youth are employed; employable
training activities and other fields to which involved in productive activities and economically independent
they are gaining exposure
Career/ employment Number of participants Youth exhibit an increase in Youth use the necessary
services (job search, job served in youth Youth are knowledgeable motivation channels to be used in seeking
placement, interview skills) employment/ about classes in computer employment; and becoming self-
entrepreneurship training basics, maintenance and Youth exhibit an increase in employed
Classes on work concepts, activities; and percentage training and job search and leadership skills
employment skills of activities attended interview skills Youth use relevant job search
(promptness, Youth have increased earnings and interview skills to obtain
professionalism, etc.) Number of youth served in Youth are knowledgeable (for programs offering paid employment
sessions on business about training opportunities training and hands-on
Academic assistance for planning and writing and in youth employment/ and experience) Youth are involved in community
youth in school to ensure the development of entrepreneurship training service
competency in basic skills strategic business and activities Youth experience increased
marketing plans; and levels of employment Youth are preparing for college
Provision of stipends for percentage of activities Youth are knowledgeable
school/ training attended about training opportunities Youth are becoming involved in
in technology, fine arts, their communities
Number of sessions business start up, follow-up
conducted on business career planning and Youth are taking advantage of
planning and writing and placement, global work employment opportunities in the
the development of behavior, and work fresh produce market
strategic business and readiness
marketing plans Youth increase their use of
Youth are knowledgeable computers, training, job search
Number of sessions about training and and interview skills
conducted on computer employment opportunities
29

Outcomes
basics, maintenance and in the fresh produce Youth are increasing their use
job search and interview market, food, and of relevant support networks
skills woodwork
Youth increase use of work
Number of youth Youth are knowledgeable readiness skills, technology
participating in sessions on about the existence of skills, fine arts skills
computer basics, apprenticeship programs
maintenance and job Youth increase use of follow-up
search and interview skills; Youth are knowledgeable career planning and placement
and percentage of about training opportunities services
activities attended for on the Job Training
(OJT), job shadowing Youth are participating in
Number of sessions mentoring; community employment opportunities in the
conducted on global work service, college fresh produce market, food, and
behavior, work readiness, preparation, job placement woodwork
technology, fine arts, and academic support
business start up, and and/or enhancement Youth are participating in
follow-up career planning activities training in apprenticeship
and placement programs
Youth are knowledgeable
Number of youth about training opportunities Youth are participating in
participating in sessions in the health field training opportunities for On the
conducted on global work Job Training (OJT), job
behavior, work readiness, Youth are knowledgeable shadowing mentoring;
technology, fine arts, about the existence of community service, job
business start up, and training opportunities in readiness, college preparation,
follow-up career planning youth leadership job placement and academic
and placement; percentage support enhancement activities
of activities attended Youth are knowledgeable
about the training Youth are participating in
Number of training opportunities in literacy, literacy, parenting, crisis
sessions conducted on the parenting, crisis intervention and child care
fresh produce market, intervention and child care programs
food, and woodwork
Youth are becoming more
Number of youth engaged in school
participating in training
sessions on the fresh Youth are involving themselves
produce market, food in community activities.
business, and wood work;
percentage of activities Youth are increasing their self-
attended reliance, self-esteem and
mastery orientation
Number of youth employed
in the fresh produce
market
30

Outcomes
Number of youth
participating in
apprenticeship programs
Number of
sessions conducted on On
the Job Training (OJT), job
shadowing mentoring;
community service, job
readiness, college
preparation, job placement
and academic support
enhancement activities
Number of youth
participating in training
sessions on
On the Job Training (OJT),
job shadowing mentoring;
community service, job
readiness, college
preparation, job placement
and academic support
enhancement activities;
percentage of activities
attended
Number of sessions
conducted on health
promotion, disease
prevention and the
shadowing of health
professionals
Number of youth
participating in sessions
conducted on health
promotion, disease
prevention and the
shadowing of health
professionals; percentage
of activities attended
Number of sessions
conducted on youth
leadership and percentage
of activities attended
31

Outcomes
Number of youth
participating in sessions
conducted on youth
leadership
Number of sessions
conducted on literacy,
parenting, crisis
intervention and child care
Number of participants
served in sessions
conducted on literacy,
parenting, crisis
intervention and child care;
percentage of activities
attended
Program activities were based on information from the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org).
32

Table 3.3: Outcome Measures for Youth Entrepreneurship Programs
OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION
INITIAL OUTCOMES
Youth gain knowledge and competency in the following domains:
Entrepreneurship Enumeration of youth knowledge of entrepreneurial Measures youth perception of small business;
principles and processes. knowledge about competitive markets and
government; comparisons between small and
large businesses; interest in starting a
business; and comparisons between small and
large businesses; know how to write a business
plan, conduct a market search, etc.; self report
Career service resources Enumeration of knowledge of career services Measures knowledge of career services
resources resources; self report
Finance Enumeration of youth knowledge of various facets of Measures personal finance knowledge,
economics and finance knowledge of business financial management,
and knowledge of economic principles; self
report
Safety Measure of perceived safet. Measures feelings of safety during out-of-
Source: Add Health Survey school hours; self report
Productive use of time Enumeration of time spent in productive activities; Measures the number of hours spent in
Source: National Household Education Survey productive activities (educational, work
(NHES), Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) preparation, community service, work); self
report
Employment readiness (knowledge Measure of knowledge of workplace concepts Measures how prepared they are for entering
of workplace concepts) the workforce given their knowledge of
workplace concepts and job expectations.
Measures knowledge about steps needed to
take to reach goals (work experience, ed.
requirements, training); self report
Community network resources Measure of knowledge of community resources; Measures knowledge about community
Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) resources and knowledge of business
networks; self report
Job search skills Measure of knowledge of how to conduct a job search Measures how to research jobs, prepare for
interviews, fill out applications, interview
techniques; self report
Community needs for goods and Measure of knowledge of community needs for goods Measures knowledge of community needs for
services and services. goods and services; self report
Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC)
Training and employment Measure of knowledge of training and employment Measures knowledge of training and
opportunities opportunities employment opportunities that are available;
self report
Opportunities for academic support Measure of knowledge of academic support and Measures knowledge of academic support or
or academic enhancement enhancement activities opportunities enhancement activities available in a certain
Source: Maryland Study of Adolescents (MADIC) region; self report
Computer basics Measurs of knowledge of basic computer functioning. Measure given to 14 year olds to measure
Source: International Association for the Evaluation of practical computer knowledge; self-
Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional administered
Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude
Test (FITT)86
Social services Measure of knowledge of the availability of social Measures knowledge about family and social
services services available in a certain region (about
financial aid, parenting and other courses
offered, child care services, crisis services); self
report
Leadership training opportunities Measure of knowledge of leadership training Measures knowledge of leadership training
opportunities opportunities; self report
Knowledge about specific field of Measure of knowledge about the specific field in Measures knowledge about the specific field in
training which they are being trained which they are being trained (technology,
health, woodworking, food produce/ markets);
self report
86
Redd, Z. (2001). Computer technology skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium.
Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
33
INTERMEDIATE/LONGER-TERM OUTCOMES
ENTREPRENEURSHIP/JOB- READINESS SKILLS:
Youth are developing their own strategic businesses, marketing plans, and starting their own businesses
Entrepreneurship participation Measure of youth participation in entrepreneurial Measures youth participation in a small
activities business or youth business ownership; self
report
Initiative Measure on Initiative. Measure of youth perception of initiative; self
Source: Response Decision Instrument (RDI) report
Motivation Measure on motivation. Measure of intrinsic motivation; self report
Source: Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (IMI)
Self-reliance Measure of self-reliance. Measure of perceived competence; self report
Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS).
Goal setting skills Measures of goal setting. Measure of perceived competence and goal-
Source: Perceived competence scale (PCS). setting; self report
Analytical thinking skills Measures of youth perception of their analytical skills; Self-report
opportunities for use of analytical skills
Self-efficacy Measures of self-efficacy. Measure of self-efficacy; self report
Source: Self-Description Questionnaire (SDQ)
Self-concept of ability Measures of self-concept. Measure of self-concept; self report
Source: Self Perception Profile of Ability (SPPAI)
Autonomy Enumeration of youth perception of their autonomy; Self report
opportunities to be autonomous
Time management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their management Self report
skills; opportunities to manage
Leadership skills Enumeration of youth perception of their leadership Self report
skills; opportunities for use of leadership skills
Financial management skills Enumeration of youth perception of their financial Self report
management skills; opportunities for use of financial
management skills
Problem-solving skills Enumeration of youth perception of their problem Self report
solving skills; opportunities for use of problems
solving skills
Positive risk-taking Enumeration of youth perception of their risk-taking Self report
skills; opportunities for risk taking
Critical Thinking skills Enumeration of youth perception of their critical Self report
thinking skills; opportunities for critical thinking
Computer skills Measures of computer skills. Measure given to 14 year olds to measure
Sources: International Association for the Evaluation practical computer knowledge; self report
of Educational Achievement (IEA) Functional
Information Technology Test and Computer Attitude
Test (FITT)87
Computer use Enumeration of youth access and use of computers 88: Measure given to youth to provide information
location-school, home, other on access to and use of computers; self report
frequency-number of days used in past week, month;
purpose-homework completion, research, games, etc.
type-internet, word processing, etc
Source: Census October Current Population Survey
(CPS)
Work habits (professionalism) Enumeration of promptness, proper dress, hygiene, Self-report and ratings by program staff or
behavior in workplace setting person supervising the young person’s work in
apprenticeship, internship, etc.
Mastery and Coping Measure of coping skills. Attitudinal measure of self-worth and self
Sources: Mastery and Coping Sub-scale (MCS), from confidence; self report
the Self Image Questionnaire for Young Adolescents
Work experience Enumeration of youth of years or months of prior work Self report of young adults
experience
Employment Enumeration of youth of their employment status Self report of young adults
(employment status, number of months, years The employment measures are appropriate for
working or unemployed) all adults’ aged 16 and older, regardless of
school or work status.
Job search skills (resume/cover letter Enumeration of youth use of resumes, cover letters, Self report of young adults
87
88
34
writing, interviewing skills, research interviews and job search skills to obtain employment
skills)
Self-employed/ business owner Enumeration of youth who are self-employed Self-report of young adults
Earnings Enumeration of youth earnings Self report of young adults (Earnings: Wages,
salary, fringe benefits gained through
employment)
Productive activity Enumeration of youth currently working, in school, Self report of young adults
and/or in jobs and routine activities
PRACTICAL SKILLS- Youth Exhibit SCANS skills89
 Basic Skills: Reading, writing, performing arithmetic and mathematical operations, listening and speaking;
 Thinking Skills: Thinking creativity, making decisions, solving problems, visualizing, knowing how to learn and reasons;
 Personal Qualities: Displaying responsibility, self-esteem, sociability, self-management, integrity and honesty.
Basic Skills
Reading Enumeration of youth beliefs about reading ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,
value/interest, performance, expectations; self
report
Writing Enumeration of youth beliefs about writing ability Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,
report
Performing mathematical operations Enumeration of youth beliefs about mathematics Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,
report
Thinking Skills
Creativity Measure of youth beliefs about creativity; Participation Measure of perceived ability, natural talent,
in creative activities (music, theater, and other value/interest; self report
activities)
Decision making Measure of youth beliefs about decision making; Measure of perceived ability to make correct
Attitudes about being involved in decision-making decisions; self concept of ability; self report
Solving problems Measure of youth beliefs about the ability to solve Measure of perceived ability to solve problems;
problems self concept of ability; self report
Personal Qualities
Responsibility Enumeration of youth beliefs about their levels of Measure of responsibility; Time log; self report
responsibility; management of tasks/chores
Self-esteem Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory; Measure of youth self-esteem; self report
Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Sociability Enumeration of youth who have difficulty working with Self report of youth behavior
other children; Knowledge of and respect for other
groups
Self-management Measure of youth beliefs about their perceived self- Measure of perceptions of self management;
management self report
ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT/PERFORMANCE:
Youth exhibit improved academic performance and educational outcomes; complete high school and prepare for college
Educational Attainment Educational Attainment Measure; Measure assesses school enrollment status,
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, 199790 number of years of school completed,
attainment of certificates and higher degrees;
school records; self report
Arts participation, skills, and Measure of arts assessment covers participation, From the National Assessment of Educational
knowledge skills and knowledge. Progress (NAEP), measure developed to track
Source: National Assessment of Educational arts skills, knowledge and exposure to arts
Progress (NAEP).91 education among school-aged youth; self report
Academic achievement Academic achievement. An assessment of school achievement. Tests
Source: Metropolitan Achievement Test92 in reading, comprehensive, mathematics, and
language. For grades K-12. Examiner
administered; grades
89
U.S. Department of Labor. (2000). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, DC: Author.
90
Redd, Z. (2001). Educational attainment. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium.
91
Redd, Z. (2001). Arts participation, skills, and knowledge. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes
compendium. Prepared for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
92
35
Academic skills Academic skills and achievement. For K-12th graders, covers basic academic
Source: Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills93 subjects and is used to measure skills of
students within states.
Academic achievement Academic achievement. Covers basic subjects and used to measure
Source: Stanford Achievement Tests 9th Series edition skills of students within states
(SAT-9 or Stanford 9)94
Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition. A survey designed to measure a wide variety of
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Adolescent health related and other factors among
Health adolescents in grades 7-12. Data are collected
from parents, students, and schools
administrators.
Grade Repetition Measure of grade repetition. Data are collected from parents, students, and
Sources: National Household Education Survey school administrators. Includes questions on
(NHES);Panel Study of Income Dynamics-Child whether a student repeated a grade in school.
Supplement (PSID-CS).95
Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report.
School records.
School functioning School functioning. An 11-item rating scale measuring children’s

Source: Child classroom adaptation Index (CCAI) functioning and performance in the classroom.
Teacher self-administered.
School Engagement School Engagement Scale. Revised scale of the Rochester Assessment
Source: National Survey of American Families Package for the National Survey of America’s
(NSAF)96; Survey of Program Dynamics (SPD) Families (parent report) and the Survey of
Program Dynamics (child report); for children 6
to 17 years of age; four items assess degree to
which student cares about and puts effort into
his or her schoolwork
Homework Completion Questions on whether the child always does his or her RAPS-S includes a parent report variable on
homework; questions on number daily and weekly whether the child always does his or her
hours spent on homework in each week, youth homework; school engagement scales measure
completion of homework quality of homework and other schoolwork.
Source: Rochester assessment package for school
students (RAPS-S)97
Academic Self Concept Questions on specific subject and general academic This four-item questionnaire assesses
self-concept.98 individuals’ perceptions about the competence
Source: Harter’s Self-perception profile for within a given academic domain. The scale
Adolescents can be used to assess academic self-concept
in any academic subject (e.g., math, English,
science). The responses are provided on a six-
point Likert scale ranging from True to False. It
has been used with children in grades 7-12, but
may be adaptable. Self report
Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents

assesses students’ general academic self-
concept. It is recommended for use with 9th to
12th graders
Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report of suspensions/

expulsions.
School records.
93
Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes
94
Redd, Z. (2001). Basic academic/cognitive skills. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes
95
Redd, Z. (2001). Grade repetition. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium. Prepared
for the Edna McConnell Clark Foundation. Washington, D.C.: Child Trends.
96
Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium.
97
Brooks, J. (2001). School engagement. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium.
98
Brooks, J. (2001). Academic self-concept. In Hair, E. and Moore, K. Clark youth development: Outcomes compendium.
36
College Preparation Measure of participation in college preparation Measures participation in college preparation
activities and readiness activities; measures steps taken to prepare for
college; self report
Parental involvement in adolescent Enumeration of parents who have contacted their Parent/ teacher/child interview
learning children’s teachers of schools for any reason having
to do with their children
PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING:
Youth exhibit increases in self-esteem, a sense of mastery, self-reliance and positive identity formation
Social identity Social Identity subscale. Measure to assess the positivity of one’s social
Source: Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure identity
Self-esteem Measures of self-esteem. Self report
Source: Rosenberg Self- Esteem Scale
Ego identity Measure on ego identity. Measures 8 domains: Occupation, religion,
Source: Extended Objective Measure of Ego Identity politics, philosophical life-styles, friendship,
Status (EOM-EIS) dating, sex roles, and education. Has been
used with adolescents, young adults, and
adults.
Optimism Optimism scale . Scale measures optimism, an indicator of
Source: National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 mental well-being. Has been used with
(NLSY97) adolescents and young adults.
Social behavior Adaptive Social Behavior Inventory. Checklist provides profile of behavioral
Source: Child Behavioral Checklist (CBCL) problems (eight or nine scales) and social
competence (three scales). Provides standard
scores. 100-item version of ages 2 to 3. 113-
item version for ages 4 to 16 with separate
norms for ages 4 to 5, 6 to 11, and 12 to 16 by
gender. Parent interview.
RISKY BEHAVIORS:
Youth exhibit reduced risky behaviors: drugs, alcohol use, violent behaviors, crime and delinquency
Substance Use Alcohol, tobacco, and drug use. Measures six categories of self-reported health
Sources: Substance Use in the Past 30 Days Index; risk behaviors among adolescents: behaviors
Monitoring the Future (MTF) contributing to intentional and unintentional
injuries: tobacco use, alcohol use, drug use,
and frequency of use
Problem Behaviors Measures of problem behavior. Measures problem behaviors such as running
Source: Problem Behaviors Index away from home, damaging property, theft, and
physical fights; self report
Parental Limits Measures of youth obedience (parents). Measures youth assessments of limits set in
Source: Breaking Parental Limits Index home and frequency of breaking such
limits/rules; self report
Adolescent Violence Measures on adolescent violence. Measures general violence (fighting, hitting,
Source: Youth Risk Behavioral Survey etc.), school violence, weapon carrying
Delinquency Measures of delinquency. Measures truancy, and participation in

Source: The Self-Reported Delinquency Measure delinquent behavior; self report
Health status Enumeration of youth perceptions of health status; Measures perceived health status; self report
Access to health services
SOCIAL RELATIONSHIPS:
Youth develop healthy social relationships
Social relationships Measures of social relationships. Measure of connectedness that assesses the
Source: Inventory of Parent and Peer Relationships quality of the social support network; self report
Peer support Peer support measures. Measures companionship, help/support,
Source: Friendship Quality Scale security, closeness; self report
Negative peer social context Peer social context measures. Measures whether peers negatively influence
Sources: The Peer Orientation Scale and them and measures peer attitudes, values,
The Peer Delinquency Scale beliefs, and behavior; self report
Peer relationships Enumeration of youth who have friends and are a part Self report of youth peer behavior
of a positive social network.
Parent-child relationship Measures of parent-child relationship. Lax Control subscale (56 item) of the amount of
Sources: Child’s Report of Parental Behavior discipline and permissiveness or laxness
Inventory occurring in the home. Also measures parent-
adolescent conflict and connectedness. Self
report.
37
Parent adolescent communication Measures of parent-adolescent communication. Measures the emotional support that
Source: The Parent-Adolescent Communication Form adolescents seek and receive from parents; self
report
Social Skills Measures of social skills. Measure of perceived social skills; teacher
Source: Social Skills Rating System report
Adult-Youth Relationships Youth behave and relate to other youth and adults Self report of youth behavior
(better, slightly less well, or much less well) than other Self-reported perceived amount of support
children their own age received from friends, family, teachers, and
Perceived Social Support from Friends and from others
Family
Conflict negotiation skills Measures knowledge of and use of conflict Measures ability to use communication tools for
negotiation skills avoiding and negotiating conflicts; self report
Resiliency Measures resiliency Measures ability to overcome difficult
circumstances; self report
Social dilemmas Youth use problem-solving skills to address social Measures children’s behavior with adults; self
dilemmas with peers report
SERVICE ACTIVITIES/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT:

Youth are increasingly involved in community service
Civic Engagement Enumeration of youth who participate in school and Self report
community activities, community service, social and
political action activities
Volunteering Enumeration of youth involved in productive activities Enumeration of youth activities.
during non-school hours Time use log. Self report
Productive Use of Non-school time An enumeration of youth involvement in productive Self report
use of non-school time
Community Involvement An enumeration of youth involvement in volunteering; Self report
community service; youth groups
Other Sources:
DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation web site (www.cyitc.org). (Program Objectives).
Eccles, J. Templeton, J. & Brown, B. (forthcoming). A developmental framework for selecting indicators of well-being during
adolescent and young adult years. Draft Report.
Networks for Youth Development. (1998). The handbook of positive youth outcomes. Second Edition. New York: Youth
Development Institute, Fund for the City of New York.
Ripke, M., Huston, A.C., Eccles, J., & Templeton, J. (2001). The assessment o psychological, emotional and social
development indicators in middle childhood. Prepared for Conference on Key Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing
the Picture conference, June 14-21.
Roth, J.L., Borbely, C.J., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2001). Developing indicators of confidence, character, and caring in adolescents.
Prepared for Conference on Child and Youth Indicators: Accomplishments and Future Directions. New York: Center for Children
and Families, Teachers College, Columbia University.
Stagner, M.W. & Zweig, J.M. Indicators of youth well-being: Taking the long view. Paper Prepared for Conference on Key
Indicators of Children’s Well-Being: Completing the Picture, June 14-15. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute.
U.S. Department of Labor. (1991). What Work Requires of Schools: A SCANS Report for America 2000. The Secretary’s
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills. Washington, D.C.: Author.
Note: Many descriptions of outcomes scales and measures, including those from the footnoted compendium prepared for the
Edna McConnell Clark Foundation, were abstracted directly from their respective websites.
38
References
Ashmore, M.C. (1989). The power of entrepreneurial vision. Vocational Education Journal, 8(64), 28-
29.
Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship education:

Current development, future promises. Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
Bachman, J. G., Bare, D.E., & Frankiew, E.L. (1986). Correlates of employment among high school
seniors. Ann Arbor, MI: Institute for Social Research.
Brown, B. (2001). Teens, jobs and welfare: Implications for social policy. Washington, DC: Child
Trends.
Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2000). The relationship of youth employment to future educational
attainment and labor market experience. In Report of the Youth Labor Force. US Department
of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics. http://www.bls.gov/opub/rylfhome.htm
Burghardt, J., Schochet, P.Z., McConnell, S., Johnson, T., Gritz, R.M., Glazerman, S., Homrighausen,
J. & Jackson, R. (2001). Does Job Corps work? Summary of the National Job Corps Study.
Princeton, NJ: Mathematica Policy Research, Inc.
Crain, R. Heebner, A., & Si, Y.P. (1992, April). The effectiveness of New York City’s career magnet
schools: An evaluation of ninth grade performance using an experimental design. Berkeley,
CA: National Center for Research in Vocational Education.
D’Amico, R. (1984). Does employment during high school impair academic progress? Sociology of
Education, 57, 152-164.
Development Associates, Inc. (1993). Awareness and attitudes of minority youth and young adults
towards business ownership. Report of the Minority Business Development Agency, U.S.
Department of Commerce.
Dyer, W.G., Jr. (1994). Toward a theory of entrepreneurial careers. Entrepreneurship Theory and
Practice, 19(2), 7-21.
Eric Clearinghouse on Adult Career and Vocational Education. (1991). Vocational education and small
business development. Digest No.118. (On-line) Available:
www.ed.gov/databases/ERIC_Digests/ed338899.html
Greenberg, E. & Steinberg, L. (1986). When teenagers work: The psychological and social costs of
adolescent employment. New York: Basic Books.
Harter, Susan (1985). Manual for the Self-Perception Profile for Children. Denver: University of
Denver.
Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for adulthood. New York: Free Press.
Jobs for the Future (1995). Promising practices. A study of ten school-to career programs. Cambridge,
MA: Author.
Kourilsky, M.L. (1995). Entrepreneurship education: Opportunity in search of curriculum. Business

Education Forum, 50(10), 11-15.
Kourilsky, M.L., & Esfandiari, M. (1997). Entrepreneurship education and lower socioeconomic black
youth: An empirical investigation. The Urban Review, 29(3), 205-215.
Krueger, N.F. & Brazeal, D.V. (1994). Entrepreneurial potential and potential entrepreneurs.
39
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 18(2), 91-104
Leffert, N., Sairo, R.N., Blyth, D.A., & Kroenke, C. H. (1996). Making the case: Measuring the impact
of youth development programs. Minneapolis, MN: The Search Institute.
Lerman, R. (1996). Building hope, skills, and careers: Making a US youth apprenticeship system. In I.
Garfinkel, J. Hochschilld, & S. McLanahan (Eds.), Social Policies for Children (pp.136-172).
Washington DC: The Brookings Institution.
Lerman,R. I. (1999). Improving links between high schools and careers. In D. J. Besharov (Ed.),
America’s disconnected youth: Towards a preventative strategy. Washington, DC: American
Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research, CWLA Press.
Manning, W.D. (1990). Parenting employed teenagers. Youth and Society, 22, 184-200.
Marsh, H.W. (1991). Employment during high school: Character building or a subversion of academic
goals? Sociology of Education, 64, 172-189.
Mihalic, S.W. & Elliott, D. (1997). Short and long term consequences of adolescent work. Youth and
Society, 28(4), 464-498.
Mortimer, J. T., & Finch, M.D. (1995). Work, family and adolescent development. Annals of Child
Development , 11, 131-166.
Mortimer, J.T., Finch, M.D., Ryu, S., Shanahan, M.J., & Call, K.T. (1996). The effects of work intensity
on adolescent mental health, achievement and behavioral adjustment: New evidence from a
prospective study. Child Development, 67(3), 1243-1261.
National Research Council (1998). Protecting Youth at Work. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press.
Pergamit, M.R. (1995). Assessing school to work transitions in the United States. Discussion Paper
(Report: NLS 96-32). Washington, DC: U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics.
Rasheed, H.S. (2000). The effects of entrepreneurial training and venture creation on youth
entrepreneurial attitudes and academic performance. University of South Florida, FL: College
of Business Administration.
Schinke, S.P., Cole, K., & Poulin, S.R. (2000). Enhancing the educational achievement of at-risk
youth. Prevention Science, 1(1), 51-60.
Shapero, A. & Sokol, L. (1982). Social dimensions of entrepreneurship. In C. Kent, D.Sexton, & K.
Vesper (Eds). The encyclopedia of entrepreneurship (pp. 72-90). Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall.
Steinberg, L. & Cauffman, E. (1995). The impact of employment on adolescent development. Annals
of Child Development, 11, 131-166.
Steinberg, L., Fegley, S. & Dornbusch, S. (1993). Negative impacts of part-time work in adolescence:
Replication and elaboration. Developmental Psychology, 17, 304-313.
Stevens, C.J., Ruchtell, L.A., Ryu, S., & Mortimer, J.T. (1992). Adolescent work and boys’ and girls’
orientation to the future. The Sociological Quarterly, 33(2), 153-169.
Valiquette, E. (1998). State Strengthening Community Project Overview. Available (On-line) http:
www.Reeusda.gov/4h/cyfar/stst/ctcom5ov.htm.
40
Walstad, W.B. & Kourilsky, M.L. (1996). The findings from a national survey of entrepreneurship and
small business. Journal of Private Enterprise, 11(2), 21-32.
Yamoor, C. & Mortimer, J. (1990). Age and gender differences in the effect of employment on
adolescent achievement and well-being. Youth and Society, 22, 225-240.
41

Logic Models and Outcomes For Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Загружено:

Сведения о документе

Исходное описание:

Оригинальное название

Авторское право

Доступные форматы

Поделиться этим документом

Поделиться или встроить документ

Параметры публикации

Этот документ был вам полезен?

Это неприемлемый материал?

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Logic Models and Outcomes For Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Загружено:

Авторское право:

Доступные форматы

Report to the DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation

Logic Models and Outcomes

Jacinta Bronte-Tinkew, Ph.D.

Zakia Redd, M.P.P.

Project Director, Kristin Moore, Ph.D.

September 17, 2001

Glossary of Outcome Measurement Terms............................................................................................. 5

DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs............12

Summary, Integration and Conclusions................................................................................................ 18

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

The research on school-to-work transitions and youth entrepreneurship has consistently

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

In sum, there is substantial evidence that entrepreneurship, school-to-work and vocational

What are the pathways through which entrepreneurship may be influenced?

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Educational Preparation: Entrepreneurship education is important at the pre-college ages and is

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Socialization: Career theories 47 emphasize that socialization plays an important role in

DC Children and Youth Investment Trust Corporation- Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Conceptual Model

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

 Economic Outcomes and Subsequent Labor Market Experience

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

 Education and Academic Achievement

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Logic Model- Analysis and Recommendations

Youth Entrepeneurship Programs

Summary, Integration and Conclusions

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Program Program Objective Activities Population Type of Length/Intensity

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

 The model presented in Figure 3.1 identifies outcomes

 The large circle in the model represents program

 The two smaller rectangles in the model represent

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

 Work readiness and employability attitudes and skills

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

Youth Entrepreneurship Programs

OUTCOME MEASURE DESCRIPTION

School functioning School functioning. An 11-item rating scale measuring children’s

Harter’s Self-perception profile for Adolescents

Suspended/Expelled Enumeration of suspensions and expulsions. Parent/teacher/child report of suspensions/

Delinquency Measures of delinquency. Measures truancy, and participation in

SERVICE ACTIVITIES/COMMUNITY INVOLVEMENT:

Ashmore, M.C. (1990). Entrepreneurship in vocational education. In Entrepreneurship education:

Hamilton, S. (1990). Apprenticeship for adulthood. New York: Free Press.