Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Appetite
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/appet

Texture-dependent effects of pseudo-chewing sound on perceived

food texture and evoked feelings in response to nursing care foods
Hiroshi Endo*, Shuichi Ino, Waka Fujisaki
Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Japan

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Because chewing sounds influence perceived food textures, unpleasant textures of texture-modified
Received 6 March 2017 diets might be improved by chewing sound modulation. Additionally, since inhomogeneous food
Received in revised form properties increase perceived sensory intensity, the effects of chewing sound modulation might depend
9 May 2017
on inhomogeneity. This study examined the influences of texture inhomogeneity on the effects of
Accepted 27 May 2017
chewing sound modulation. Three kinds of nursing care foods in two food process types (minced-/
Available online 29 May 2017
pureed-like foods for inhomogeneous/homogeneous texture respectively) were used as sample foods. A
pseudo-chewing sound presentation system, using electromyogram signals, was used to modulate
Keywords:
Chewing sound modulation
chewing sounds. Thirty healthy elderly participants participated in the experiment. In two conditions
Food texture with and without the pseudo-chewing sound, participants rated the taste, texture, and evoked feelings in
Inhomogeneous food property response to sample foods. The results showed that inhomogeneity strongly influenced the perception of
Texture-modified diets food texture. Regarding the effects of the pseudo-chewing sound, taste was less influenced, the perceived
Electromyography food texture tended to change in the minced-like foods, and evoked feelings changed in both food
process types. Though there were some food-dependent differences in the effects of the pseudo-chewing
sound, the presentation of the pseudo-chewing sounds was more effective in foods with an inhomo-
geneous texture. In addition, it was shown that the pseudo-chewing sound might have positively
influenced feelings.
© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction leading to reduction of food intake, and ultimately, malnutrition.

The ability to chew and swallow deteriorates with age, which
increases the risk of aspiration and can lead to asphyxia or pneu-
monia. To avoid aspiration, elderly individuals whose eating func-
tions have declined can only eat foods with consistent textures (i.e.,
texture-modified diets; Curran & Groher, 1990; Garcia & Chambers,
2010; Martin, 1991; Pardoe, 1993; Steele et al., 2015). Although
foods with modified physical properties can reduce the risk of
aspiration, there is conflict between these foods and the foods that
elderly individuals actually want. Losses of texture and visual ap-
peal lead to issues of acceptability, causing dissatisfaction with
these foods (Chadwick, Jolliiffe, Goldbart, & Burton, 2006; Colodny,
2005; Keller, Chambers, Niezgoda, & Duizer, 2012). Foods that are
perceived as unpleasant decrease the appetite of the elderly,
* Corresponding author. Human Informatics Research Institute, National Institute
of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 6, 1-1 Higashi, Tsu-
kuba 305-8566, Ibaraki, Japan.
E-mail address: hiroshi-endou@aist.go.jp (H. Endo).
Hence, eating pleasure recovery is necessary to increase appetite in
these individuals.
Food appearance is an important factor to increase food intake
(Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2014; Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips,
2014). As such, it is important to improve the visual appeal of
pureed foods (Ettinger, Keller, & Duizer, 2014; Hotaling, 1992; Keller
& Duizer, 2014; Martin, 1991). Molded pure ed foods that were
reformed into three-dimensional shapes were reported to be
effective in increasing food intake (Cassens, Johnson, & Keelan,
1996; Germain, Dufresne, & Gray-Donald, 2006). Additionally,
recent novel techniques have been developed to address this issue.
For example, foods have been softened with an enzyme, while
keeping the physical appearance intact (Sakamoto, Shibata, &
Ishihara, 2006; Umene, Hayashi, Kato, & Masunaga, 2015), and
foods have been produced via three-dimensional food printing
technologies (Godoi, Prakash, & Bhandari, 2016; Lipton, Cutler, Nigi,
Cohen, & Lipson, 2015). Though food appearance is important, it is
not always enough. For instance, it has been reported that molded
pureed foods were not acceptable because of disappointment in the

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2017.05.051
0195-6663/© 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
494 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
different texture and flavor (Lepore, Sims, Gal, & Dahl, 2014;
Stahlman et al., 2001; Stahlman, Garcia, Hakel, & Chambers,
2000). Further, it was reported that though visual appeal was
desired, appearance did not have to be reformed or consistent with
regular food, but rather that variety was needed (Keller & Duizer,
2014). Though we can create variations in taste and appearance,
food texture must remain soft and monotonous to avoid aspiration.
Food texture is one of several important sensory properties that
constitute palatability (Delwiche, 2004; Kohyama, 2015;
Szczesniak, 2002). Hence, if the perception of varied food tex-
tures can be delivered to the elderly, even if they are only capable of
eating texture-modified diets, the food textures provided may
contribute to a recovery of eating pleasure and appetite, and thus a
potential increase in food intake.
Chewing sounds are associated with texture properties of food
and influence the perception of food texture, especially the
perception of crispness and crunchiness (Duizer, 2001; Saeleaw &
Schleining, 2011; Spence, 2015; Vickers, 1982, 1985; C. Wilkinson,
Dijksterhuis, & Minekus, 2000; Zampini & Spence, 2010). The ef-
fect of chewing sound modulation on crispness perception was first
reported by Zampini and Spence (2004) and subsequently repli-
cated by several researchers with both regular foods (Dematte  et al.,
2014; Koizumi, Tanaka, Uema, & Inami, 2013; Masuda & Okajima,
2011) and nursing care foods (Endo, Ino, & Fujisaki, 2016). In
these studies, food textures related to several physical properties
(e.g., crispness, stiffness, etc.) were perceived to be altered by
chewing sound modulation. To modulate chewing sounds, the
frequency profile of actual chewing sounds was changed or virtual
chewing sounds were presented. For example, in a study using
virtual chewing sounds, nursing care foods were perceived as stiffer
and rougher with the presentation of crunchy virtual chewing
sounds. Moreover, foods were perceived to have a greater number
of ingredients. Therefore, chewing sound presentation is supposed
to be a useful technique to help people on texture-modified diets to
enjoy their food (Endo et al., 2016).
However, the foods used in the preceding experiments were
hard or had inhomogeneous food texture (NOT pure ed foods). The
issue of acceptability for texture-modified diets is mostly related to
pureed foods, which are very soft and have a homogeneous texture
(Chadwick et al., 2006; Colodny, 2005; Keller et al., 2012). Thus, the
effects of chewing sounds on softened foods with homogeneous
texture require investigation. If foods have inhomogeneous prop-
erties, the perceived sensory intensity is reported to increase,
including sweetness (Holm, Wendin, & Hermansson, 2009; Mosca,
van de Velde, Bult, van Boekel, & Stieger, 2010), saltiness (Noort,
Bult, Stieger, & Hamer, 2010), fat-related sensory attributes
(Mosca, Rocha, Sala, van de Velde, & Stieger, 2012), and aroma
(Nakao, Ishihara, Nakauma, & Funami, 2013). These findings sug-
gest that inhomogeneous texture might enhance the effects of
chewing sounds on perceived food texture and chewing sound
modulation might be ineffective on texture perception in pure ed
foods. In this study, we examined the influences of texture homo-
geneity on the effects of chewing sounds.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Participants and sample foods
Thirty elderly participants (15 male and 15 female, age range
66e75 years, mean 70 ± 3 [SD] years) took part in the experiment.
Though eleven participants used a partial denture, all participants
were free from pain and dysfunctions in the oromandibular region
and had no difficulty in hearing chewing sounds by self-
assessment. Though the principal aim of our study is to enhance
the eating experience of elderly people obliged to follow texture-
modified diets, the present study assessed the effects of chewing
sounds in healthy elderly people. The experiment was approved by
the institutional review board of the National Institute of Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), was conducted in accor-
dance with the Declaration of Helsinki, and all participants pro-
vided informed consent.
Six commercially available nursing care foods were used as
sample foods: three kinds of Japanese foods in two food process
types (minced-like and pure ed-like, which are slightly different
from so-called minced and pure ed foods; Asahimatsu Foods, Japan;
Fig. 1, Table 1). The difference between the two process types was
homogeneity, where vegetables in the minced-like foods were
finely chopped around 5 mm, and all ingredients in the pure ed-like
foods were mushed. In both process types, all ingredients had been
cooked until very soft.
2.2. Presentation of pseudo-chewing sound
The sample foods were very soft and did not emit crispy or
crunchy chewing sounds. Therefore, chewing sounds must be
provided from an external source. To present chewing sounds, we
developed a pseudo-chewing sound presentation system, where
the electromyogram (EMG) signal from the masseter was directly
fed back as a sound (Endo et al., 2016). This system produces the
EMG signal in an audible format as the pseudo-chewing sound
(EMG chewing sound). Therefore, the pseudo-chewing sound can
be presented synchronously with the onset and offset of jaw closing
during mastication. Further, because the amplitude of the EMG
signal correlates with the chewing force, the pseudo-chewing
sound can be varied proportionally to the chewing strength. The
details of the system are described in our previous report (Endo
et al., 2016). The outline of the system is explained below.
Fig. 2 shows a schematic diagram of the pseudo-chewing sound
presentation system. The EMG was recorded using surface elec-
trodes, which were attached to the skin overlying the right and left
masseters (either side of the masseter was used). Myoelectric sig-
nals were amplified (BioAmp FE132, AD Instruments) and recorded
(PowerLab8/35, AD Instruments). The analog output voltage of the
amplifier (EMG signal) was sent to a mixer/graphic equalizer
(ZMX124 FX USB, ALTO Professional). To make the EMG chewing
sound similar to an actual chewing sound, the amplitudes of each
frequency band were adjusted using the function of the graphic
equalizer with one-octave resolution: frequencies less than 125 Hz
and over 2 kHz were attenuated by
15 dB, and frequencies of
250 Hz and 1 kHz were amplified by þ15 dB. The EMG chewing
sound was delivered via headphones (MDR-NC60, Sony). The EMG
chewing sound mimics the crunchy sound emitted by hard moist
foods (e.g. root vegetables; as ascertained by the subjective
impression of the experimenters). Ultimately, we could deliver a
“crunchy” pseudo-chewing sound synchronously to the chewing
behavior by directly feeding back the altered EMG signal.
2.3. Questionnaires
Two questionnaires that were used in our previous study were
used (Endo et al., 2016). Questionnaire 1 was for material-property
rating, and a set of 18 adjective pairs were used (Table 2). For
convenience, the adjectives were divided into three groups: ad-
jectives related to taste; adjectives related to texture; and adjec-
tives related to evoked feelings. Participants used seven-point
scales to rate how well these adjectives applied to each of the food
stimuli. Questionnaire 2 was for general impressions of the eating
experience. A set of four questions was used to measure more
general impressions of the eating experience (Table 3). As in
Questionnaire 1, seven-point scales were used, but evaluations
 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501 495

ed-like foods. Food No. 1 (a, d) is Kinpira

Fig. 1. Nursing care foods used in the experiment (serving size of 7 g). Top panels are the minced-like foods and bottom panels are the pure
(spicy fried chopped burdock and carrot). Food No. 2 (b, e) is Gomoku-mame (Soybeans simmered with vegetables [carrot, burdock, shiitake mushroom, and tangle weed]). Food No.
3 (e, f) is Chikuzen-ni (Vegetables [burdock, carrot, lotus root, and bamboo shoot] simmered with minced chicken).

Table 1 sound pressure level depended on the amplitude of the individual

Mechanical parameters of sample foods. All parameter values were offered from the EMG signal, it was adjusted using a mastication evaluation gum
product maker. Measurements were performed following the testing procedure
defined for texture-modified diets for individuals with dysphasia (Consumer Affairs
(Masticatory Performance Evaluating Gum XYLITOL, Lotte; Hama,
Agency, Government of Japan). Kanazawa, Minakuchi, Uchida, & Sasaki, 2014). Each participant
was instructed to adjust the volume to a comfortable level while he
Food No. Process type Hardness Cohesiveness Adhesiveness
(103 N/m2) (103 J/m3)
or she chewed the mastication evaluation gum. In the condition
without sound feedback, no EMG chewing sound was fed back to
1 minced-like 9.6 0.3 0.52
the participant.
ed-like
pure 9.6 0.5 1.58
2 minced-like 14.3 0.3 1.25 Twelve trials were carried out (three kinds of foods  two food
ed-like
pure 13.6 0.5 1.91 process types  two sound conditions), and each trial was per-
3 minced-like 9.4 0.4 0.87 formed once. Each food portion was 7 g and was maintained at
ed-like
pure 8.4 0.5 1.22 50  C. The order of three foods was randomized. Two conditions of
food process types and two sound conditions were carried out
sequentially. The number of participants who began with the
were performed by comparing two sound conditions. minced-like and pure ed-like foods was adjusted to be identical.
Additionally, half of the participants began with the with-sound
condition, and the other half began with the without-sound
2.4. Procedure condition.
Because the purpose of this experiment was to examine the
Experiments were conducted in a sound-attenuating booth. The influences of the chewing sound, the participants were instructed
EMG recording side used to make the EMG chewing sound was to chew more than ten times on the measurement side of mouth.
decided considering the following factors: use of partial denture, No restriction was imposed on the timing of swallowing.
habit of chewing side, and amplitude of EMG signal. Because the

Fig. 2. EMG chewing sound presentation system (a) and experimental setup (b). The EMG signal of the masseter was fed back to headphones through an amplifier and graphic
equalizer to provide a pseudo-chewing sound. The EMG signal was also recorded by a personal computer for further analysis. The two graph panels are frequency profiles of the
EMG signal and EMG chewing sound. Experiments were conducted in a sound-attenuating booth.
496 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
Table 2
Words selected for material property rating.
Taste Food Texture
light taste e heavy taste soft e hard
cheap taste e expensive taste dry e moist
insipid taste e rich taste common e rare
stale taste e fresh taste not chewy e chewy
simple taste e complex taste boring e interesting
unpalatable e palatable smooth e rough
bad texture e good texture
Adjective pairs were originally presented in Japanese, and are translated here into English.
Table 3
Comparison with and without sound feedback.
General Impression
sound/food combination is unnatural e sound/food combination is natural
uncomfortable sound e comfortable sound
fewer ingredients e more ingredients
unable to masticate regularly e able to masticate regularly
Questionnaire items were originally presented in Japanese, and are translated here into English.
Questionnaire 1 was completed immediately after each condition.
When the two sound conditions for each food were completed,
Questionnaire 2 was completed.
2.5. Evaluation of chewing behavior
To evaluate the influences of the EMG chewing sound on
mastication, mastication intensity and rhythm were analyzed.
Mastication intensity was calculated from root mean square (RMS)
values of the EMG signal during mastication, and normalized
against the maximum RMS value over twelve conditions. The
rhythm of mastication was obtained from the first peak frequency
of fast Fourier transform (FFT) analysis; the FFT spectrum was
calculated from the rectified EMG signal.
2.6. Data analysis
The mastication intensity and rhythm were statistically tested
using a three-way repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA;
three kinds of foods vs. two food process types vs. two sound
conditions). If the Mauchly's sphericity test was significant, the
Greenhouse-Geisser correction was applied. Questionnaire data
were analyzed using a Wilcoxon signed-rank test for each food and
questionnaire item. Results were considered significant when the
p-value was less than 0.05, and marginal when it was between 0.05
and 0.1.
3. Results
3.1. Chewing behavior
Mastication intensity and rhythm are depicted in Fig. 3.
Although the mastication intensities varied depending on the
sample foods, no significant difference was observed between the
two sound conditions (food effect F(2, 58) ¼ 7.53, p ¼ 0.001; process
type effect F(1, 29) ¼ 32.1, p < 0.001; sound effect n.s.; interactions
n.s.). As for the mastication rhythm, though significant differences
were observed, both in foods and process types, no significant
difference was observed between the sound conditions (food effect
F(1.65, 48.0) ¼ 4.63, p ¼ 0.02; processing type F(1, 29) ¼ 20.6,
p < 0.001; sound effect n.s.; interactions n.s.). Therefore, chewing
behavior was shown to not be influenced by the presentation of the
Perceived Feelings
unexciting e exciting
unsatisfied e satisfied
diminishes appetite e arouses appetite
less involved dining experience e more involved dining experience
unpleasant e pleasant
pseudo-chewing sound.
3.2. Questionnaires
The results of Questionnaire 1 in the condition without the EMG
chewing sound are shown in Fig. 4. Trends of subjective evaluations
for the three foods were similar. However, subjective evaluations
between the two food process types were largely different. The
pureed-like foods were evaluated more negatively (toward the
adjectives shown on the left side) than the minced-like foods,
especially in food texture and evoked feelings.
The differences in evaluation scores of Questionnaire 1 between
the sound conditions are shown in Fig. 5 (a, c, e). Scores in the
condition with the EMG chewing sound were subtracted from
scores in the condition without the EMG chewing sound. Although
there were some food-dependent differences, food texture and
evoked feelings appeared to be more greatly affected than taste.
Generally, food No. 2 tended to show improved evaluation with the
EMG chewing sound in the minced-like food, which was especially
shown in the questionnaire items classified into food texture and
evoked feelings. As for food No. 3, improved evaluations of ques-
tionnaire items occurred in food texture of the minced-like and
evoked feelings of the pureed-like. As for food No. 1, changes were
mainly in evoked feelings and occurred in the both process types.
Regarding food texture, changes of the evaluation scores of the
minced-like type of food No. 2 were evident, where all question-
naire items were significantly or marginally changed by the pre-
sentation of the EMG chewing sound. As for food No. 3, changes
depended on the questionnaire items, where evaluation scores in
ed-like or minced-like foods were increased in the
either of the pure
condition with the EMG chewing sound. Food No. 1 was the least
influenced. Among the questionnaires of food texture, the
perceived chewiness (questionnaire item: “not chewy e chewy”)
was shown to be significantly greater in the condition with the EMG
chewing sound for food Nos. 2 and 3 (pure ed-like and minced-like),
and there was a marginal difference for food No. 1 (pure ed-like).
The perceived roughness (“smootherough”) was significantly
greater with the EMG chewing sound for the pure ed-like type of
food No. 1 and the minced-like type of food No. 3, and there was a
marginal difference in the minced-like type of food No. 2. The
perceived hardness (“soft-hard”) was significantly greater for the
food No. 2 (minced-like) and food No. 3 (both pure ed- and minced-
 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501 497

ed-like and “M” represents minced-like foods.

Fig. 3. Mastication intensity (a) and rhythm (b). “P” represents pure

Fig. 4. Results of subjective evaluations in Questionnaire 1 in the condition without the EMG chewing sound. Different symbols represent the different foods. Solid lines are the
pureed-like foods and dashed lines are the minced-like foods.
498
Fig. 5. Differences in subjective evaluation scores in Questionnaire 1 between two sound conditions and subjective evaluation scores in Questionnaire 2. Positive scores indicate
that there was a greater evaluation score for the EMG chewing sound condition toward the adjectives shown on the right side in Fig. 4. Results of Wilcoxon signed-rank test are also
shown: *p < 0.05, yp < 0.1.
like). Moreover, texture was perceived as more interesting (“bor-
ingeinteresting”) for the minced-like types of all foods and the
pureed-like type of food No. 1.
Regarding evoked feelings, as for food No. 2, evoked feelings of
the minced-like type of the food exhibited increased changes more
than the pure ed-like type with the presentation of the EMG
ed-like type
chewing sound. On the contrary, in food No. 3, the pure
showed increased changes. As for food No. 1, both of the pure ed-
and minced-like types were influenced. Enjoyment and excitement
(“unexcitingeexciting”), satisfaction (“unsatisfiedesatisfied”), the
feeling that the participant was engaged in an actual eating expe-
rience (“less involved dining experienceemore involved dining
experience”), and pleasantness (“unpleasantepleasant”) were
significantly greater for several foods in the condition with the
pseudo-chewing sound.
H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
Fig. 5 (b, d, f) also shows the results of Questionnaire 2. As for the
minced-like type of food Nos. 1 and 2, the food/sound combination
was felt to be natural and the sound was perceived as comfortable.
For the minced-like type of food No. 1, the number of perceived
ingredients was greater. For all minced-like foods, mastication was
considered to be more regular in the condition with the EMG
chewing sound.
4. Discussion
In previous studies, the texture of hard foods or foods with
inhomogeneous texture was perceived to be altered by chewing
sound modulation. In this study, we examined the effects of
chewing sound on softened foods with homogeneous textures. Our
experiment showed that the perceived food texture and evoked
 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
feelings changed not only in the foods with inhomogeneous tex-
tures, but also in those with homogeneous texture. However, there
were some food-dependent differences about the effects of the
pseudo-chewing sound. Generally, taste was less influenced, food
texture tended to change in the minced-like foods (foods with
inhomogeneous textures), and evoked feelings changed in both
food process types (i.e., foods with inhomogeneous and homoge-
neous textures). The effects of the pseudo-chewing sound and
underlying mechanisms are discussed below.
4.1. Effect of the pseudo-chewing sound on food texture
Regarding food texture, the perceived hardness, chewiness, and
roughness changed in the minced-like type of food Nos. 2 and 3.
This result agreed with our past findings (Endo et al., 2016). In our
previous study using softened nursing care foods with an inho-
mogeneous food texture, when the “crunchy” pseudo-chewing
sound (EMG chewing sound) was presented, participants were
more likely to evaluate food as having the property of stiffness.
Moreover, foods were perceived as rougher in the condition with
the pseudo-chewing sound.
As for the minced-like foods, inhomogeneous food texture is
considered as a factor in the effects of the pseudo-chewing sound
on perceived food texture. The effect of auditory modification on
texture perception has been explained by the principle of cross-
modal integration (Deneve & Pouget, 2004; Ernst & Bülthoff, 2004),
whereby oral sensation and chewing sound are said to be inte-
grated unconsciously (Endo et al., 2016; Spence, 2015). If the
pseudo-chewing sound is relevant to oral sensation, chewing
sound is easily integrated with oral sensation and food texture will
be enhanced. Because the pseudo-chewing sound was crunchy, the
oral sensation elicited from inhomogeneity was considered to be
easily integrated with the pseudo-chewing sound, and thus, the
effects of the pseudo-chewing sound were increased in the
minced-like food. In addition to inhomogeneity, hardness and
adhesiveness were also important. In fact, as for the minced-like
type of food No. 2, the hardness and adhesiveness were highest,
and the change of the perceived chewiness of the minced-like type
of food No. 2 was also highest among all sample foods. Conversely,
in the minced-like type of food No. 1, the hardness and adhesive-
ness were low and no significant change was observed.
Inhomogeneity strongly affected the perception of food texture.
Specifically, the subjective evaluations of hardness and chewiness
without the EMG chewing sound did not match the actual physical
properties. The actual hardness of food No. 2 was harder than that
of the other two foods, but the perceived hardness and chewiness
were different between the two process types, regardless of food
(Fig. 4). Additionally, participants chewed the minced-like foods
more strongly than the pure ed-like foods (Fig. 3). The sample foods
used in this experiment were very soft and not necessary to chew
with teeth (i.e., they can be broken up by tongue or gums).
Therefore, it might be difficult to evaluate hardness with biting/
chewing force. Participants may have evaluated hardness and
chewiness from the inhomogeneous texture property. If foods have
inhomogeneous properties, the perceived intensity of the property
is reported to increase, such as sweetness (Holm et al., 2009; Mosca
et al., 2010), saltiness (Noort et al., 2010), fat-related sensory at-
tributes (Mosca et al., 2012), and aroma (Nakao et al., 2013). Re-
ductions of adaptation or high phasic receptor responses
purportedly cause this effect (Meiselman & Halpern, 1973).
Therefore, even if foods actually have the same hardness, inho-
mogeneous foods may be perceived as harder.
Conversely, in the pure ed-like food type, changes of the
perceived chewiness and roughness occurred in the pure ed-like
type of food No. 1. As for food Nos. 2 and 3, changes in the perceived
499
chewiness appeared not only in the minced-like foods, but also in
the pure ed-like foods. These results indicate that changes of the
perceived food texture occur in foods with homogeneous texture.
As for the pureed-like food, because the oral sensation was reduced,
participants might perceive the increased chewiness with the
sound alone. In addition to the crossmodal integration between
oral sensation and chewing sound, auditory bias effects (i.e.,
attentional capture of auditory cues and/or anticipation from
auditory cues) have also been considered (Endo et al., 2016; Spence,
2015). If auditory cues capture attention more effectively than do
oral-somatosensory cues (Spence, 2015), the attentional capture of
auditory cues might enhance the judged chewiness of food eaten in
the presence of the “crunchy” pseudo-chewing sound. In addition
to this, because texture properties of food can be estimated from
sound alone, even when no food is in the mouth (Vickers, 1982,
1985), participants might have anticipated the chewiness of the
sample food and judged the chewiness to be greater. To examine
effects of auditory bias, further investigations are necessary.
4.2. Effect of the pseudo-chewing sound on evoked feelings
Feeling changes occurred in the minced-like type of foods No. 1
and 2, and in the pure ed-like type of food Nos. 1 and 3. In the
minced-like type of food Nos. 1 and 2, the EMG chewing sound was
evaluated as the sound matched to the food (i.e., the sound/food
combination was felt as more natural) and the sound was perceived
as comfortable. Therefore, this might be a factor that evoked pos-
itive changes in feelings. On the contrary, for the pure ed-like food
type, though the sound was not evaluated as matched to the food,
evoked feelings changed in food Nos. 1 and 3. Without the EMG
chewing sound, in food Nos. 1 and 3, the feeling that the participant
was engaged in an actual eating experience (“less involved dining
experienceemore involved dining experience”) was lower than
that of food No. 2 (Fig. 4). However, addition of the pseudo-chewing
sound increased feelings of involvement in the eating experience,
possibly evoking more positive feelings.
Changes of evoked feelings are considered not to occur because
of the changes of the perceived food texture, but rather, as a direct
effect of sound. Food variety is well known to increase food con-
sumption (for review, Piqueras-Fiszman & Spence, 2014; Raynor &
Epstein, 2001; Sorensen, Moller, Flint, Martens, & Raben, 2003;
Wadhera & Capaldi-Phillips, 2014). Sensory-specific satiety (SSS)
refers to a reduction in hedonic response to a food that is eaten,
where it is usually found that the pleasantness of sensory proper-
ties of the eaten food decreases more than that of uneaten foods (B.
J. Rolls, Rolls, Rowe, & Sweeney, 1981; B. J. Rolls, Rowe, & Rolls,
1982; E. T. Rolls, Rolls, & Rowe, 1983; for a review, B. J. Rolls,
1986). Habituation, where repeated presentation of a stimulus re-
sults in a decrease in response to that stimulus (Epstein, Rodefer,
Wisniewski, & Caggiula, 1992; Swithers & Hall, 1994), is thought
to underlie SSS (for a review, Epstein, Temple, Roemmich, & Bouton,
2009; Raynor & Epstein, 2001). Thus, the variety of sensory prop-
erties of foods plays an important role in eating behavior (Brondel
et al., 2009; Hetherington, Foster, Newman, Anderson, & Norton,
2006; L. L. Wilkinson, Hinton, Fay, Rogers, & Brunstrom, 2013).
Though food texture is reported to be involved in SSS (Guinard &
Brun, 1998), involvement of chewing sounds in SSS has not been
reported. However, presentation of the pseudo-chewing sound
would certainly increase the variety of sensory properties. The
sample foods in regular process types have variable food textures
and chewing sounds. Therefore, the pseudo-chewing sound might
make up for the loss of sensory properties of softened foods and
influence evoked feelings.
500 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
5. Conclusions
Though there were some food-dependent differences in the
effects of the pseudo-chewing sound, inhomogeneity strongly
influenced the perception of food texture and the perceived food
texture tended to change in the minced-like foods. Therefore, it was
concluded that the presentation of the pseudo-chewing sounds
was more effective in foods with inhomogeneous textures. In
addition, evoked feelings were shown to change in foods with both
inhomogeneous and homogeneous textures and the pseudo-
chewing sound might have positively influenced feelings. Overall,
the presentation of pseudo-chewing sounds will contribute to
improvement in the dissatisfaction with softened nursing care
foods typically observed, and may aid in the recovery of the ap-
petites of elderly individuals obliged to follow texture-modified
diets. Though the effects of the pseudo-chewing sound were
confirmed with elderly participants, the individuals tested were
healthy and had no difficulty eating. Therefore, future studies will
need to confirm the effects of the pseudo-chewing sound in elderly
people who need to follow texture-modified diets.
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to express their sincere gratitude to Mr. Kojun
Noda at Asahimatsu Foods for offering foods' physical parameters.
This work was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers
JP16H01685 and JP17H00755.
References
Brondel, L., Romer, M., Van Wymelbeke, V., Pineau, N., Jiang, T., Hanus, C., et al.
(2009). Variety enhances food intake in humans: Role of sensory-specific
satiety. Physiology and Behavior, 97, 44e51. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.physbeh.2009.01.019.
Cassens, D., Johnson, E., & Keelan, S. (1996). Enhancing taste, texture, appearance,
and presentation of pureed food improved resident quality of life and weight
status. Nutrition Reviews, 54, S51eS54. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-
4887.1996.tb03790.x.
Chadwick, D. D., Jolliiffe, J., Goldbart, J., & Burton, M. H. (2006). Barriers to caregiver
compliance with eating and drinking recommendations for adults with intel-
lectual disabilities and dysphagia. Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual
Disabilities, 19, 153e162. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-3148.2005.00250.x.
Colodny, N. (2005). Dysphagic independent feeders' justifications for noncompli-
ance with recommendations by a speech-language pathologist. American
Journal of Speech-language Pathology, 14, 61e70. http://dx.doi.org/10.1044/1058-
0360(2005/008).
Consumer Affairs Agency, Government of Japan. Food labeling, Food for special
dietary uses. http://www.caa.go.jp/foods/index4.html#m03 (In Japanese)
(Accessed 3 January 2017).
Curran, J., & Groher, M. E. (1990). Development and dissemination of an aspiration
risk reduction diet. Dysphagia, 5, 6e12. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02407388.
Delwiche, J. (2004). The impact of perceptual interactions on perceived flavor. Food
Quality and Preference, 15, 137e146. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(03)
00041-7.
Dematte , M. L., Pojer, N., Endrizzi, I., Corollaro, M. L., Betta, E., Aprea, E., et al. (2014).
Effects of the sound of the bite on apple perceived crispness and hardness. Food
Quality and Preference, 38, 58e64. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodqual.2014.05.009.
Deneve, S., & Pouget, A. (2004). Bayesian multisensory integration and cross-modal
spatial links. Journal of Physiology (Paris), 98, 249e258. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.jphysparis.2004.03.011.
Duizer, L. (2001). A review of acoustic research for studying the sensory perception
of crisp, crunchy and crackly textures. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 12,
17e24. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0924-2244(01)00050-4.
Endo, H., Ino, S., & Fujisaki, W. (2016). The effect of a crunchy pseudo-chewing
sound on perceived texture of softened foods. Physiology and Behavior, 167,
324e331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2016.10.001.
Epstein, L. H., Rodefer, J. S., Wisniewski, L., & Caggiula, A. R. (1992). Habituation and
dishabituation of human salivary response. Physiology and Behavior, 51,
945e950. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(92)90075-D.
Epstein, L. H., Temple, J. L., Roemmich, J. N., & Bouton, M. E. (2009). Habituation as a
determinant of human food intake. Psychological Review, 116, 384e407. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0015074.
Ernst, M. O., & Bülthoff, H. H. (2004). Merging the senses into a robust percept.
Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 8, 162e169. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.tics.2004.02.002.
Ettinger, L., Keller, H. H., & Duizer, L. M. (2014). A comparison of liking of pureed
food between two groups of older adults. Journal of Nutrition in Gerontology and
Geriatrics, 33, 198e209. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/21551197.2014.927305.
Garcia, J. M., & Chambers, E. I. (2010). Managing dysphagia through diet modifi-
cations. American Journal of Nursing, 110, 26e33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1097/
01.NAJ.0000390519.83887.02.
Germain, I., Dufresne, T., & Gray-Donald, K. (2006). A novel dysphagia diet improves
the nutrient intake of institutionalized elders. Journal of the American Dietetic
Association, 106, 1614e1623. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jada.2006.07.008.
Godoi, F. C., Prakash, S., & Bhandari, B. R. (2016). 3d printing technologies applied for
food design: Status and prospects. Journal of Food Engineering, 179, 44e54.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2016.01.025.
Guinard, J. X., & Brun, P. (1998). Sensory-specific satiety: Comparison of taste and
texture effects. Appetite, 31, 141e157. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/appe.1998.0159.
Hama, Y., Kanazawa, M., Minakuchi, S., Uchida, T., & Sasaki, Y. (2014). Properties of a
color-changeable chewing gum used to evaluate masticatory performance.
Journal of Prosthodontic Research, 58, 102e106. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jpor.2013.12.005.
Hetherington, M. M., Foster, R., Newman, T., Anderson, A. S., & Norton, G. (2006).
Understanding variety: Tasting different foods delays satiation. Physiology and
Behavior, 87, 263e271. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.physbeh.2005.10.012.
Holm, K., Wendin, K., & Hermansson, A. M. (2009). Sweetness and texture per-
ceptions in structured gelatin gels with embedded sugar rich domains. Food
Hydrocolloids, 23, 2388e2393. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.06.016.
Hotaling, D. L. (1992). Nutritional considerations for the pureed diet texture in
dysphagic elderly. Dysphagia, 7, 81e85. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02493438.
Keller, H., Chambers, L., Niezgoda, H., & Duizer, L. (2012). Issues associated with the
use of modified texture foods. The Journal of Nutrition, Health & Aging, 16,
195e200. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12603-011-0160-z.
Keller, H. H., & Duizer, L. M. (2014). What do consumers think of pureed food?
Making the most of the indistinguishable food. Journal of Nutrition in Geron-
tology and Geriatrics, 33, 139e159. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
21551197.2014.927302.
Kohyama, K. (2015). Oral sensing of food properties. Journal of Texture Studies, 46,
138e151. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jtxs.12099.
Koizumi, N., Tanaka, H., Uema, Y., & Inami, M. (2013). Chewing JOCKEY - designing
user interface to augment food texture with sound AR system -. Transactions of
the Virtual Reality Society of Japan, 18, 141e150 (In Japanese).
Lepore, J. R., Sims, C. A., Gal, N. J., & Dahl, W. J. (2014). Acceptability and identifi-
cation of scooped versus molded pureed foods. Canadian Journal of Dietetic
Practice and Research, 75, 145e147. http://dx.doi.org/10.3148/cjdpr-2014-004.
Lipton, J. I., Cutler, M., Nigi, F., Cohen, D., & Lipson, H. (2015). Additive manufacturing
for the food industry. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 43, 114e123. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tifs.2015.02.004.
Martin, A. W. (1991). Dietary management of swallowing disorders. Dysphagia, 6,
129e134. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/BF02493514.
Masuda, M., & Okajima, K. (2011). Effects of mastication sound in food texture
perception and pleasantness. Technical Report of The Institute of Electronic, In-
formation and Communication Engineers, 111, 57e62 (In Japanese).
Meiselman, H. L., & Halpern, B. P. (1973). Enhancement of taste intensity through
pulsatile stimulation. Physiology and Behavior, 11, 713e716. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/0031-9384(73)90257-6.
Mosca, A. C., Rocha, J. A., Sala, G., van de Velde, F., & Stieger, M. (2012). Inhomo-
geneous distribution of fat enhances the perception of fat-related sensory at-
tributes in gelled foods. Food Hydrocolloids, 27, 448e455. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/j.foodhyd.2011.11.002.
Mosca, A. C., van de Velde, F., Bult, J. H. F., van Boekel, M. A. J. S., & Stieger, M. (2010).
Enhancement of sweetness intensity in gels by inhomogeneous distribution of
sucrose. Food Quality and Preference, 21, 837e842. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.foodqual.2010.04.010.
Nakao, S., Ishihara, S., Nakauma, M., & Funami, T. (2013). Inhomogeneous spatial
distribution of aroma compounds in food gels for enhancement of perceived
aroma intensity and muscle activity during oral processing. Journal of Texture
Studies, 44, 289e300. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/jtxs.12023.
Noort, M. W. J., Bult, J. H. F., Stieger, M., & Hamer, R. J. (2010). Saltiness enhancement
in bread by inhomogeneous spatial distribution of sodium chloride. Journal of
Cereal Science, 52, 378e386. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jcs.2010.06.018.
Pardoe, E. M. (1993). Development of a multistage diet for dysphagia. Journal of the
American Dietetic Association, 93, 568e571. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0002-
8223(93)91819-C.
Piqueras-Fiszman, B., & Spence, C. (2014). Colour, pleasantness, and consumption
behaviour within a meal. Appetite, 75, 165e172. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.appet.2014.01.004.
Raynor, H. A., & Epstein, L. H. (2001). Dietary variety, energy regulation, and obesity.
Psychological Bulletin, 127, 325e341. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0033-
2909.127.3.325.
Rolls, B. J. (1986). Sensory-specific satiety. Nutrition Reviews, 44, 93e101. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1753-4887.1986.tb07593.x.
Rolls, E. T., Rolls, B. J., & Rowe, E. A. (1983). Sensory-specific and motivation-specific
satiety for the sight and taste of food and water in man. Physiology and Behavior,
30, 185e192. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(83)90003-3.
Rolls, B. J., Rolls, E. T., Rowe, E. A., & Sweeney, K. (1981). Sensory specific satiety in
man. Physiology and Behavior, 27, 137e142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-
9384(81)90310-3.
 H. Endo et al. / Appetite 116 (2017) 493e501
Rolls, B. J., Rowe, E. A., & Rolls, E. T. (1982). How sensory properties of foods affect
human feeding behavior. Physiology and Behavior, 29, 409e417. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/0031-9384(82)90259-1.
Saeleaw, M., & Schleining, G. (2011). A review: Crispness in dry foods and quality
measurements based on acoustic-mechanical destructive techniques. Journal of
Food Engineering, 105, 387e399. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/
j.jfoodeng.2011.03.012.
Sakamoto, K., Shibata, K., & Ishihara, M. (2006). Decreased hardness of dietary fiber-
rich foods by the enzyme-infusion method. Bioscience Biotechnology and
Biochemistry, 70, 1564e1570. http://dx.doi.org/10.1271/bbb.50562.
Sorensen, L. B., Moller, P., Flint, A., Martens, M., & Raben, A. (2003). Effect of sensory
perception of foods on appetite and food intake: A review of studies on
humans. International Journal of Obesity, 27, 1152e1166. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1038/sj.ijo.0802391.
Spence, C. (2015). Eating with our ears: Assessing the importance of the sounds of
consumption on our perception and enjoyment of multisensory flavour expe-
riences. Flavour, 4, 3. http://dx.doi.org/10.1186/2044-7248-4-3.
Stahlman, L. B., Garcia, J. M., Chambers, E. I., Smit, A. B., Hoag, L., & Chambers, D. H.
(2001). Perceptual ratings for pureed and molded peaches for individuals with
and without impaired swallowing. Dysphagia, 16, 254e262. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s00455-001-0084-6.
Stahlman, L. B., Garcia, J. M., Hakel, M., & Chambers, E. I. (2000). Comparison ratings
of pureed versus molded fruits: Preliminary results. Dysphagia, 15, 2e5. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1007/s004559910002.
Steele, C. M., Alsanei, W. A., Ayanikalath, S., Barbon, C. E., Chen, J., Cichero, J. A., et al.
(2015). The influence of food texture and liquid consistency modification on
swallowing physiology and function: A systematic review. Dysphagia, 30, 2e26.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s00455-014-9578-x.
Swithers, S. E., & Hall, W. G. (1994). Does oral experience terminate ingestion?
501
Appetite, 23, 113e138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1006/appe.1994.1041.
Szczesniak, A. S. (2002). Texture is a sensory property. Food Quality and Preference,
13, 215e225. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S0950-3293(01)00039-8.
Umene, S., Hayashi, M., Kato, K., & Masunaga, H. (2015). Physical properties of root
crops treated with novel softening technology capable of retaining the shape,
color, and nutritional value of foods. Dysphagia, 30, 105e113. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1007/s00455-014-9581-2.
Vickers, Z. M. (1982). Relationships of chewing sounds to judgments of crispness,
crunchiness and hardness. Journal of Food Science, 47, 121e124. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2621.1982.tb11041.x.
Vickers, Z. M. (1985). The relationships of pitch, loudness and eating technique to
judgments of the crispness and crunchiness of food sounds. Journal of Texture
Studies, 16, 85e95. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-4603.1985.tb00681.x.
Wadhera, D., & Capaldi-Phillips, E. D. (2014). A review of visual cues associated with
food on food acceptance and consumption. Eating Behaviors, 15, 132e143.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.eatbeh.2013.11.003.
Wilkinson, C., Dijksterhuis, G. B., & Minekus, M. (2000). From food structure to
texture. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 11, 442e450. http://dx.doi.org/
10.1016/S0924-2244(01)00033-4.
Wilkinson, L. L., Hinton, E. C., Fay, S. H., Rogers, P. J., & Brunstrom, J. M. (2013). The
'variety effect' is anticipated in meal planning. Appetite, 60, 175e179. http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.appet.2012.10.001.
Zampini, M., & Spence, C. (2004). The role of auditory cues in modulating the
perceived crispness and staleness of potato chips. Journal of Sensory Studies, 19,
347e363. http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1745-459x.2004.080403.x.
Zampini, M., & Spence, C. (2010). Assessing the role of sound in the perception of
food and drink. Chemosensory Perception, 3, 57e67. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/
s12078-010-9064-2.