Air Photo II

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Air Photo Interpretation 2 - Applications (Text Level) Level Map Help

About This Course
Help ... | Author ... | Preface ... | Copyright ... | Credits ...
Author
Session Headings:
Selina Tribe B.Sc.(Hon), M.Sc., Ph.D., P.Geo. (Author)
Dr. Selina Tribe is a faculty member at the Department of Earth and

Environmental Sciences, Douglas College, where she teaches geology
and mineral exploration. She has more than 20 years' experience mapping
rocks, minerals and landforms on Earth, and as far afield as Mars. She
has worked as a Professional Geoscientist for mineral exploration and
resource development projects throughout North America. She serves as
director of the board of Sego Resources Ltd. She has written articles and
courses on aspects of geology, and mentors junior geologists and engineers.
Dr. Tribe holds a Doctorate of Philosophy in geology from Simon Fraser University, and
Master of Science and Honours Bachelor of Science degrees in geology from University
of British Columbia. She is a member of the Association of Professional Engineers and
Geoscientists of British Columbia since 1999, and the International Society for
Promotion of Geoethics.

Part 1 - Image Interpretation I
Classification ... | Shape and Size ... | Shadow ... | Texture ... | Review #1 ...
Image Classification
Session Headings:
Air Photo Interpretation

(See Summary for main points)
Air photograph interpretation is the practice of identifying features and ground conditions
from patterns on air photographs. The scale and perspective of air photos is so different
from our everyday experience. The skill lies in translating what is seen from a vertical
perspective into ground-based information.
Image Classification
Air photo interpretation is image classification. Image classification is the exercise of
assigning objects or features to different classes based on their appearance on air
photographs. Everyone applies the basic skills of image classification each day in
everyday life. When we see and identify objects in our vision, we exercise interpretive
tasks and evaluate visual information naturally and automatically.
Looking at air photos, in addition to reading about them, is an essential part of this
course.
Take two or three minutes to examine each air photo in the figures, read the captions and
identify the features mentioned. Examine and cross-reference with ground photographs or
topographic maps given in accompanying figures to get a sense for the terrain, relief, and
'look' of the area from the ground.
The best way to learn air photograph interpretation is to look at air photos.
Image Defects
Let's start with a few things you might see on air photos that are image defects. Image
defects occur through processing and handling and are true deficiencies. Image defects
obscure the image resulting in a loss of information. Variations in flight conditions might
lead to excessive tilt or drift and a corresponding loss of photographic overlap and stereo
coverage. Faulty printing procedures might leave scratches on the film.
Photographic Contrast
Excessive contrast occurs when objects are displayed in light and dark tones near the
minimum and maximum grey values (pure white and pure black). The resulting
photographs are harsh and bright because the middle values of grey are underutilized
(Figure 1). Information is lost in the over exposure.
Insufficient contrast results in photographs with tone confined to a limited range of
middle greys, leaving the minimum and maximum parts of the spectrum underutilized.
The photographs appear dull and hazy (Figure 2).
Sun Spots
Atmospheric conditions during the time of exposure can affect the quality of
photography. A sun spot is the image of the sun reflected from a body of water and
captured on film (Figure 3). Sun spots are serious photographic errors because the intense
brightness of the sun's reflection completely obliterates not only the ground beneath the
sun spot, which is a water body, but neighbouring image areas, which often are land.
Clouds
As a rule, aerial surveys are planned to produce air photographs that are 100% cloud-free
but every now and then you will spot a cloud on a contact sheet. Large, dense, low-lying
cumulus clouds will completely obscure the ground underneath. High, wispy cirrus
clouds might transmit some light from around their thin edges but also will result in loss
of ground detail (Figure 4).
Shadows
By definition, a shadow is an area of reduced or reflected light, thus information is
reduced or lost. Aerial surveys taking during strong sunlight or at a non-optimal time, for
example the sunny late afternoon in winter, can result in photographs with excessive,
long shadows (Figure 5). Rugged terrain might be orientated such that shadows are
always cast over the area of interest.
Part 1 - Image Interpretation I Level Map Help

Shape and Size
Session Headings:
Introduction
To identify objects and features on air photographs, we judge various characteristics or
elements of the image. In practice, several elements are evaluated automatically and
instantaneously to identify a feature. Other features reveal their identity only after
methodical sequential examination of multiple elements.
The elements of image interpretation are:
 shape and size
 shadow
 texture
 tone and colour
 pattern
 topographic location and association
The following discussion of the elements of image interpretation addresses each one
separately but elements are intrincately connected with one another and never occur
alone.
Shape and Size
Shape
Shape alone can allow the immediate identification of an object or feature, for
example a fortress (Figure 1), volcano (Figures 2, 3 and 4), drumlin (Figure 5), or
airstrip (Figure 6). Shape is enhanced by tonal differences, shadows and vertical
exaggeration.
Size
Size of objects on the photograph is a function of the scale. The absolute size of an object
can be determined using the photograph scale and principles of photogrammetry (covered
in the course Air Photo Interpretation 1 - Fundamentals).
The qualitative size of an object can be estimated by reference to the size of other
identified objects on the image. The different size of similar features can be used to aid
their identification. In this way a dirt road can be discriminated from a highway, or a
cabin from an apartment building (Figure 7).

Part 1 - Image Interpretation I
Shadow
Session Headings:
Shadow
Advantages
We have seen how shadows can be a disadvantage by obscuring ground information. Yet,
shadows have their advantages too. Shadows help the identification of objects by
revealing details of shape and size (Figures 1 and 2).
Take a minute to carefully examine shadows on air photos for clues to the shape of
features.
Shadows can enhance the visual presence of small objects or those that are indistinct in
colour or tone compared to the background. For example, fields of subtle hills can be
difficult to see in a low contrast photograph. Subtle features can be rendered more
obvious if the sun illumination angle causes strong shadows to be cast (Figures 3 to 8).
Shadows of erosional and depositional features can be used to determine glacial flow
directions (for example, drumlins) or the relative resistance to erosion of different types
of bedrock (for example, dykes and plugs).
Texture
Session Headings:
Texture
Texture refers to the apparent roughness or smoothness of an object or region on a
photograph (Figure 1). Texture is the result of shadows and reflections cast by objects or
components of an irregular surface that are illuminated from an oblique angle. For
example, tilted, disturbed landslide blocks (Figure 2) are easily distinguished from
adjacent smooth undisturbed ground based on texture. The wrinkled, ropy surface of a
lava flow (Figures 3 and 4) is another characteristic texture.
Texture depends on photographic scale, contrast and angle of illumination.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 1 - Image Interpretation I" with Review #1

OR
Continue the course with Part 2 - Image Interpretation II
Part 1 - Image Interpretation I Level Map Help
Review #1
The randomly selected multiple-choice questions below are designed to review your
understanding of the material covered in the preceding sessions. Your selections are lost
when you leave the review page. On return the review will start afresh with a new
selection of questions.
This review is currently set to practise mode. To optimize your learning experience you
need to register for certification before entering the course. Certification tests more
rigorously, keeps track of your answers to the multiple choice review questions, and
enables you to report and submit your review scores to complete the certification process.
If you have already registered and been approved for certification then you should Exit
and re-enter before proceeding.
Each question below has one or more correct responses. Your selection of a response is
immediately marked correct or not.
Q1. Which of the following may help with image interpretation? (select all that
apply)
sunspots?
image defects?
cloud cover?
shadows?
excessive contrast?
Q2. Which of the following features may obscure information in an air photo?
(select all that apply)
sunspots?
cloud cover?
insufficient contrast?
shadows?
Q3. Shadows may help with the identification of objects by revealing details of
shape and size.
True?
False?
Q4. Sunspots may help with the identification of objects by revealing details of
shape and size.
True?
False?
Q5. The absolute size of an object is a function of ... (select one only)
overlap?
tilt?
scale?
Bottom of Form
Part 2 - Image Interpretation II Level Map Help

Tone and Colour ... | Pattern ... | Topography ... | Review #2 ...
Tone and Colour
Session Headings:
Tone and Colour

On black and white photographs, tone refers to the brightness of an area represented by
various shades of grey (Figure 1). On a colour photograph, tone refers to light and dark
variations of colour. For other film types, tone refers to the brightness relevant to the
spectral range of the film.
Variations in tone provide important ground information. For example, wet or moist areas
appear darker than well-drained or dry areas (Figures 2 and 3). Uniform photo tones
indicate uniform ground conditions. Objects with the same colour can be distinguished
from each other providing they have different texture, size or other characteristic.
Tone and colour allow the discrimination of objects of different colour and wetness
characteristics.
Photo tone will allow the discrimination of different types of rocks, sediments and
vegetation, depending on the context. Light photo tones can represent dry ground, no
vegetation, salt, sand, grassland (Figure 4) or rock. Dark photo tones can represent wet
ground, vegetation (trees, moss, shrubs), water, springs, topsoil, finegrained materials or
clay. Fine-grained soils appear darker than coarse-grained soils because the coarse
materials are usually better drained, thus drier.
In most cases, it is the relative difference in tone among features, not the absolute value,
that is important to observe and interpret (Figure 5).
Variations in grey tones can be compared between photographs in a single flightline.

Tonal variations cannot be reliably compared between photographs taken in different
seasons, years or aerial surveys.
Continue with Pattern

Part 2 - Image Interpretation II Level Map Help
Pattern
Session Headings:
Pattern
Pattern refers to the arrangement of objects or features into distinctive and repeating
forms. Patterns provide clues to origin and identity. For example, the repeating pattern of
crests and troughs is characteristic of large-scale ripples and shallow submarine bars
(Figure 1). The characteristic shape and branching pattern of gullies in Figure 2 suggests
a sandy substrate with piping erosion.
Patterns of joints or depressions can provide clues to bedrock lithology, for instance in
karst (limestone) terrain.
Other patterns indicate variations in land-cover, for example the sinuous, sausage-like
gravel mounds from a placer mine dredging operation (Figures 3, 4 and 5), the cleared
fairways of a golf course (Figure 6), or the pattern of drill pads at an exploration property
(Figure 7). Mottled or complex tonal patterns may indicate complex relief, variable
drainage, or saline soils.
Continue with Topography and Association

art 2 - Image Interpretation II Level Map Help
Topography and Association
Session Headings:
Topography and Association

Topographic Position
Topographic location provides clues to the identification of geologic objects and features
by association. For example, landforms such as floodplains, bars and eroding river banks
are associated with river valleys and would not be expected at high elevations or along
ridge lines. Similarly, many landforms associated with alpine glaciation in mountainous
regions would not be expected in regions with a record of continental glaciation.
Association
Association is the occurrence of objects together in a non-regular and unpatterned manner
that provides clues to their identification (Figure 1). For example, the presence of open
pits and tailings dams are diagnostic of mines; a trail or some heavy machinery might
indicate a placer operation; the presence of a track oval and baseball diamond might
indicate a nearby school.
Landforms
Landforms are three-dimensional ground shapes and features with defined topographic
and surface characteristics, such as relief, size and roughness. Vertical exaggeration seen
in stereoscopic air photos enhances subtle variations in topography, shape and texture and
greatly aids landform discrimination.
Some landforms are very distinctive and recognizable simply from their ground shape
and height, for example plains, fans (Figures 2 and 3 above) cones, hills, mountains
(Figure 4). Other landforms are more subtle and recognized after careful discrimination
of slope, topography, association and other characteristics. A full review of landform
shape, composition and genesis is beyond the scope of this course but a few examples are
provided in the following figures.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 2 - Image Interpretation II" with Review #2

Part 3 - Stereo Image Interpretation Level Map Help
Checklist ... | Drainage ... | Human Activity ... | Supporting Information ... | Review #3 ...
Interpretation Checklist
Session Headings:
Checklist
Systematic attention to key physical ground characteristics seen on air photos provides
fundamental information needed for many types of geologic, engineering or mineral
exploration activities.
A few minutes spent looking at air photographs will provide an excellent overview of the
physical setting (slopes, vegetation, drainage), infrastructure (roads, settlements,
railways, pasts), landforms, deposits and active processes (landslides, erosion) in the area
of interest.
There are several ways to approach the process of air photo interpretation. The level of
detail required and precise methodology employed depend heavily on project objectives,
budget, availability of supplementary information, and ability to field-check the
interpretations (often referred to as 'ground-truthing').
Direct recognition of objects and features relies on the interpreter's skill and their
experience with air photographs and terrain conditions on the ground. If features cannot
be directly recognized, then other clues must be sought including a possible field visit to
spot check interpretations.
As a general rule and at a minimum, observe the air photo systematically for features
related to (1) drainage, (2) human activity, (3) land cover, (4) topography, and (5) areas
of erosion.
Photograph Interpretation Checklist
(1) Drainage - Identify streams, rivers, lakes,
ocean, including direction of flow, the pattern of
tributaries and watershed boundaries.
(2) Human Activity - Observe anthropogenic
paved and unpaved roads, tracks, railways,
pipeline and transmission tower right-of-ways and
supporting edifices, bridges, tunnels, sewer outlet
pipes, areas of road fill and embankments,
residential areas, swimming pools, parks, gravel
pits, etc.
(3) Land Cover - Observe land cover and interpret
land use. Identify rock slopes, soils, cultivated
fields, forest, wetlands and vegetation patterns.
(4) Topography - Observe topography and relief.
Look for identifiable or notable landforms and
geologic features such as landslides; deltas; fans
and cones; glacial, periglacial or karst features;
areas of erosion; areas of deposition; dip slopes;
rock strata; dykes; and patterns of uplift.
(5) Erosion - Identify areas of erosion, past and
present, along steep rock and soil slopes, undercut
slopes, landslide headscarps and unstable soils.
Continue with Drainage

Drainage
Session Headings:
Importance of Drainage
The drainage pattern is the configuration and arrangement in plan view of the natural
surface stream courses in an area. Understanding the sources and sinks and direction of
flow of water through an area is important in every field of resource discovery and
development (mining, engineering, forestry, borrow, agriculture).
For engineering-related studies and projects, the importance of drainage cannot be
overstated. Knowledge of the surface drainage patterns, sediments, processes and
drainage pathways is critical because water affects the stability of rock and soil slopes,
foundation conditions and factors of safety. Geologic hazards such as debris flows or
landslides are correlated to drainage locations or areas where there have been changes in
the drainage equilibrium.
Streams, gullies and riverbanks often are places to access rock outcrops and exposed
sections through glacial, colluvial and modern sediments. Knowledge of drainage is
required for stream sediment surveys, geochemical soil sampling programs, and for
placer mining of precious metals and alluvial diamonds. Locations of paleochannels and
ancient drainage patterns are also important for mineral exploration.
Drainage Features
Basic things to identify on an aerial photograph are the locations of rivers, streams,
creeks and gullies and their direction of flow, also the locations of standing water, lakes
and marine waters (Figure 1). From this the drainage pattern can be determined.
Drainage Pattern
Drainage pattern is the configuration and arrangement in plan view of the natural surface
stream courses in an area, including all ponds, lakes and water bodies that drain a region
(Figure 2). Drainage pattern is strongly influenced by bedrock geology and structure of
an area (Figure 3), although climate and other factors are important too.
 Dendritic drainage patterns are characterized by a tree-like branching pattern with
no preferred orientation of channels (Figure 2). They imply homogenous rocks
with uniform qualities and lack of structural control, or horizontal sedimentary
rock.
 Parallel drainage patterns are characterized by regularly spaced channels that are
parallel or sub-parallel to each other, with tributaries that join at acute angles.
This pattern implies strong structural control from closely-spaced faults, fractures,
monoclines or folds. In soils, the pattern implies a glacial meltwater origin with
channel formation occurring against a changing glacial margin.
 Radial patterns consist of streams radiating outward from the centre and are
characteristic of volcanic cones or salt diaper (domes).
 Trellis patterns consist of a dominant drainage direction with a secondary
direction perpendicular to it. Tributaries join at right angles. This pattern can
indicate tilted or folded sedimentary rock with alternately weak and strong rock
types.
 Rectangular drainage forms a perpendicular net pattern with two directions
equally developed, and indicated the influence of joints, fractures or faults in
bedrock.
 Annular drainage consists of a circular pattern to the main stream with tributary
channels joining at right angles. This pattern forms from the influence of eroded
dome structures in alternately weak and strong rock types.
 Centripetal drainage forms when stream flow toward the centre of calderas,
craters, basins and other depressions.
Drainage Texture
Drainage texture is a qualitative measure of the density of stream development (Figure 4).
Coarse-textured patterns have relatively few streams in their network and tend to develop
in areas where soils are well-drained with little surface runoff. Coarse-textured drainage
will also develop where rocks are hard and massive, such as granite.
Fine-textured drainage patterns have a lot of stream courses in the network. The pattern
develops in soft and easily eroded rocks such as shale. Fine-textured drainage is found in
soils that are poorly-drained and have high surface runoff. Fine-textured networks can
also result in areas of meltwater channels formed against fluctuating glacier margins
(Figure 5).
Gully Cross-Section
Gullies are the smallest drainage courses that can be seen on air photos. Typically they
are the first order stream segments in a drainage network. Gullies are ubiquitous but can
be obscured by forest or vegetation. They are important to identify because they often
have steep gradients and areas of bank erosion.
Soil types can be inferred from gully shape and pattern. V-shaped gullies indicate sand or
gravel soils (Figure 6). The coarse grains of sand and gravel cannot support a steep slope
and will stand at the angle of repose, about 25-35°.
U-shaped gullies form in easily erodible silty soils (Figure 6, centre, and Figure 7).
Clay soils will form shallow gullies (Figure 6, right). This is due to the cohesive nature of
clay particles and their impermeable nature, which makes them difficult to erode by
running water.
Modifications to Drainage
A number of anthropogenic (man-made) drainage features, such as aqueducts, flumes,
canals, irrigation ditches, man-made lakes, engineered and underground conduits, should
also be noted as modifications to the natural drainage network.

Human Activity, Land Cover, Relief and Erosion
Session Headings:
Man-made and Cultural Features

Man-made features provide important information about access, infrastructure and
historic human activity.
Modern anthropogenic features provide information on access, development and ground
conditions. These features often are quite noticeable on air photos and include: roads and
tracks, bridges, oil and gas pipelines, railways, power transmission lines (all shown in
Figure 1), geophysical survey lines, buildings, cleared or paved areas, drill pads, trenches,
tailings and other disturbed or stripped areas. The list is long and depends on the location
of the study area.
Ancient anthropogenic or cultural features can provide information on subsurface soil
composition. For example, the footprint of historic occupation might be identified by
poor quality of crops growing on thin, drier soils above buried foundation stones (Figure
2). Adjacent crops off the foundation line enjoy deeper root penetration and better soil
moisture conditions reflecting the absence of 'near bedrock' in the form of the buried
stones.
Land Cover and Vegetation

Land cover (exposed mineral soils, glacial deposits, rocky outcrops of bedrock, talus,
etc.) is important to note for the information it provides on composition, history and
ground conditions. Vegetation (forest, brush, grassland, crops, etc.) is influenced by
substrate, among other factors, and can be used to infer underlying or buried soil
conditions or rock types.
A vegetation anomaly is any deviation from the normal distribution of vegetation
properties in an area. Vegetation anomalies can be caused by bedrock geology, local
moisture or drainage conditions, geochemical conditions along faults, and trace elements
in soils (Figures 3 and 4; also see Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications).
Topography and Relief

The topography of an area is influenced by geology, structure and geologic history.
Landforms are predominantly topographic features, and the boundary between landforms
is often a change in topography. Topographic relief is best seen when viewing
stereoscopic pairs of air photos but careful observation of a single photograph will
provide clues to ground relief. Comprehensive review of landforms is beyond the scope
of this course.
Areas of Erosion
Areas of erosion are often locations where active geomorphic processes have exposed
bedrock and overburden soils. They are prime areas to visit in the field while prospecting,
mapping or investigating geotechnical engineering projects because of the window they
provide to the composition of the substrate.
Areas of erosion are identified by the bright white tones of fresh rock faces, unvegetated
slopes and downslope accumulations of coarse, dry granular talus and colluvium shed
from these areas (Figure 5).
Continue with Supporting Information

Checklist ... | Drainage ... | Human Activity ... | Supporting Information ... | Review
#3 ...
Supporting Information
Session Headings:
Introduction
Air photo interpretation is greatly aided by reference to topographic maps, geologic maps
and published reports on the area. In addition, historic or recent ground photographs and
field visits are invaluable for calibrating the eye to actual ground conditions.
Geologic Maps and Reports

Geologic maps of bedrock (Figure 1) and surficial deposits (Figure 2) provide important
information on the substrate, including parent material, rock types, structural features,
composition, stratigraphy, glacial flow directions, and more. Soil maps can also provide
clues to the substrate and drainage conditions in an area.
Published reports and studies on an area may include ground-based photographs of

terrain or other diagrams and illustrations that help the interpretation process (Figure 3).
Ground-based photographs are useful in lieu of a field visit.
Satellite Images and Google Earth
As of this writing, the web-based tool Google Earth has recently become a leader in
supplying free satellite images of the globe. This type of small-scale information can
provide a regional context for many projects. For some areas, the satellite coverage on
Google Earth is extremely high resolution (compare Figure 4 with Figure 5). With the
added capability of being able to zoom in and out and change look direction and angle,
examination of Google Earth images and other satellite data can be helpful for many
types of projects. Satellite remote sensing is discussed further in Part 6 - Remote Sensing.
Earlier Editions of Air Photos

An air photograph represents a historic document of an area. Each photo is a record of the
terrain conditions during the time of exposure. The oldest air photograph was taken in
1857, about 150 years ago. Many places in North America and Europe have air photo
coverage going back 50 to 100 years.
Older editions of air photos constitute historic records of past ground conditions. Careful
observation of older air photos can reveal changes in land use or terrain processes over
time (Figure 6). Previous air photo surveys taken at different times of year provide
another dimension of information related to seasonal change. This type of analysis is
called historic air photo interpretation, multiple edition air photo interpretation or time
series analysis.
The historic record contained on older air photos does not yet exist for other image
databases. Satellite images have been available for the last 30 years or so but data from
early generations of satellites has a coarse resolution. The archive of high-resolution
satellite imagery, loosely defined as imagery with comparable or better resolution than air
photos, is still very young, about 10 years old.
Nothing can replace the historic record captured on air photographs during the last
century.
A Case Study with air photos recording measurable changes to the Athabasca Glacier in
the Rocky Mountains of Alberta is presented in Part 5 of this course.
Where To Obtain Air Photos

Most air photographs are commissioned and sold by government agencies to the general
public. Most of North America has been photographed in multiple aerial surveys over the
years and the coverage can be obtained from federal, provincial, territorial or state
government map agencies. For example, Canada has the National Air Photo Library in
Ottawa and most provinces provide air photo coverage from regional offices. University
libraries and research centres sometimes carry a collection of air photographs for viewing
on the premises.
Custom Air Photo Surveys

In some remote areas air photo coverage may be too old, the wrong scale, of poor quality
or perhaps taken during unfavourable weather conditions. A few places have no air photo
coverage at all. A customized survey may be the only way to get air photos of the study
area.
Custom aerial surveys are often flown over large capital works projects such as mining
projects or oil and gas pipeline routes. Advantages of a customized survey include up-to-
date proprietary photographs of the project area at a chosen scale, on preferred film stock.
The main disadvantage of a custom survey is the cost, which can range from $5,000 to
more than $50,000 depending on location, scale and size of the area. Nonetheless,
depending on the project specifics and availability of funds, custom surveys can still be a
cost-effective way to obtain high quality terrain information for an area.
Orthophotos
In addition to providing complete stereoscopic coverage, custom-flown air photos can be
used to make an orthographic photographs, called 'orthophotos' for short, of the area. An
orthophoto is a georeferenced map with optical distortions and relief displacement
removed resulting in a constant planimetric scale across the image. This means measured
distances in any direction over any part of the orthophoto will be true.
Orthophotos are used as base maps in geographic information systems (GIS).
Orthophotos also make excellent field camp overview maps that can be used for planning
safety and emergency response programs.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 3 - Stereo Image Interpretation" with Review #3

OR
Continue the course with Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation
Review #3
Q1. A radial drainage pattern is characteristic of... (select one only)

volcanic cones?
folded sedimentary rock?
basins?
a glacial margin?
Q2. Dark tones on an air photo are indicative of eroded areas.
True?
False?
Q3. Vegetation anomalies can be caused by... (select all that apply)
drainage conditions?
geochemical conditions in the soil?
bedrock geology?
trace elements in the soil?
Q4. Shallow gullies indicate... (select one only)
sandy soil?
clay soil?
silty soil?
gravel soil?
Q5. Geologic hazards such as debris flows or landslides are often correlated to
drainage locations.
True?
False?
Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation Level Map Help
Using Air Photos ... | Do-It-Yourself ... | Stereogram Construction ... | Review #4 ...
Using Air Photos in the Office and Field
Session Headings:
Mapping on Air Photographs

Line work, symbols and notation can be mapped directly onto air photographs (Figure 1).
It is advisable to use wax pencils or non-permanent ink. Test on a small corner of the
photograph before using. Graphite pencils or markers should never be used on air
photographs. Ball-point pens can be used to record sample points and field locations on
the back of an air photo, but should never be used on the face of an air photo.
To keep the original photograph unmarred, use clear mylar overlays that are cut to size
and taped onto the contact sheet. Wax pencil or permanent and delible inks can be used
for mapping on mylar. Again, it is always best to test the pen before using.
A combination of point, line and polygonal symbols can be used to mark features. Other
features need only be recorded in your notes or memory. It very much depends on the
project objectives, scale and budget.
Field Observations
Field visits provide an opportunity to ground-truth terrain interpretations and to identify
any ambiguous features seen on air photographs. Field checking is a crucial step to
developing the skill of air photograph interpretation. Site visits with air photos in hand
will calibrate the eye and establish without a doubt identities and features seen in the
image. Field visits also highlight the differences in appearance between photograph and
ground. Certain features identified on the photographs will turn out to be
indistinguishable on the ground.
Site visits are particularly important when first developing your air photo interpretation
skills. Groundtruthing or ground checking is always helpful and never goes out of style.
With increasing experience and field visits, the trained eye becomes more experienced at
making accurate interpretations.
In the field, sample locations can be shown by using a pin to poke a small hole through
the photograph (Figure 2). On the back of the photograph, the sample name and other
information can be written.
Budget Considerations
Air photographs are relatively inexpensive sources of information. Given a field budget
of $50,000 to $250,000, spending $1000 for accurate visual information of the ground is
money well spent. The overview of terrain, drainage, access and outcrops seen on air
photos allows for more efficient and productive expenditure of exploration or project
dollars.
The price of air photo coverage increases as the study area increases and multiple
flightlines are required. Using a larger scale entails purchasing and interpreting more
photograph pairs, which takes longer. It is important to budget sufficient time and money
to complete photo interpretation at a larger scale of inquiry.
Cascade of Scales
There is a progression of scale, effort and detail in the various stages of a mineral
exploration, engineering or geologic project. Usually one starts with the small-scale
regional view then focuses down or 'zooms in' as the target areas become better defined.
Ground Resolution and Loss of Detail

The resolution of an air photo refers to the smallest size of feature that can be
distinguished. On every photograph there is a loss of detail caused by the large distance
between the camera lens and the ground, aircraft vibration and movement of plane during
the instant the camera shutter is open, the resolution inherent in camera optics, film stock
and photographic paper, and atmospheric conditions such as water vapour, dust and light
levels.
As an example, consider an air photograph taken at a nominal scale of 1:15 000. The
cumulative effect of vibrations, flying height, equipment parameters and air quality will
result in loss of detail for features smaller than about 3 feet in diameter. Any feature
smaller than about 3 feet will be not be seen on the photograph. Corresponding losses
occur at other photographic scales.
Stage One - Area Selection and Reconnaissance

Area selection is done at scales smaller than 1:50 000. Reconnaissance is done at map
scales on the order of 1:50 000 to 1:100 000. Typically, the first sources sought are
satellite images, small-scale aerial photographs, regional reports and maps, all providing
small-scale synoptic information for a region. This scale of information sets the regional
context for the project, including districts, roads, regional drainage patterns and
geomorphic processes.
Small-scale photographs are those with scales from 1:40 000 to 1:50 000 or smaller. Each
photograph covers a region about 10-12 km on a side, or 100-144 km2 in area.
Stage Two - Project or Property-Specific Study

As the project develops and the area under investigation gets smaller, it becomes more
practical to use largescale aerial photographs. Historic air photographs will provide
information on previous land-use and landcover characteristics.
Large-scale photographs are those with scales from about 1:10 000 to 1:20 000. Each
photograph covers an area about 2.5-5 km on a side, or about 6-25 km2. This range
of scales is useful for detailed investigations at the project- or property-scale.
Stage Three - Detailed Mapping and Sampling

At a detailed scale of investigation, for instance at the trenching stage during examination
of mineral properties, it may be necessary to use custom-made very large-scale maps and
photographs. Very largescale air photographs have scales of 1:5000 or larger. This scale
of photography is not commonly available and is usually the result of a dedicated aerial
survey commissioned for the project.
Custom-made oblique, outcrop-scale or hand-sample-scale stereograms can be made to
illustrate and document important geologic relationships. Custom-made photography and
stereogram construction are discussed in the following sections.
Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation
Do-It-Yourself Stereo Photographs
Session Headings:
Do-It-Yourself Stereo Photographs

It is easy to take custom stereo photographs of an object, outcrop or scene of interest.
Two oblique groundbased photographs taken from different positions are analogues to
overlapping vertical air photographs (Figure 1).
Simply use a regular camera, take a photo of your desired scene, then take a step or two
to the right or left and take another photograph holding the camera at the same height and
angle. The two ground photographs taken from slightly different positions will mimic the
slightly different perspectives of each eye. The technique might require some
experimentation to determine the best amount of offset for successive camera positions.
The technique of producing home-made stereo photographs is useful for very large-scale
mapping efforts, outcrop studies, trench mapping, documentation of gullies and
landslides, and obtaining a realistic photographic records of fossils, crystal habit, flutings,
tool marks and other geologic features.
Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation Level Map Help

Stereogram Construction
Session Headings:
Introduction
A stereogram consists of a pair of overlapping photographs oriented and mounted to
provide a threedimensional view of the area of overlap. Stereograms are viewed with a
pocket stereoscope, or with the naked eye. Stereograms are easy to construct and provide
a practical lesson in the basic principles of photogrammetry (covered in the course Air
Photo Interpretation 1 - Fundamentals).
Materials Needed
To make a stereogram, you will require two overlapping photographs. Print Figure 1 (a,
b) on separate sheets of paper. These reproductions of single air photographs were
reduced to fit on 8.5-inch x 11-inch paper. If using actual photographic prints,
instructions are the same but the adage 'measure twice, cut once' becomes more
important.
Other items required are: scissors, ruler, pencil, scotch tape or glue, letter-sized sheet of
cardboard or stiff paper. Square protractors are very useful because they make parallel
and perpendicular lines with ease.
Step 1 - Determine the Flightline Vector

(a) Find the principal point (PP) on each photograph. To do this, use a ruler to connect
two opposite fiducial marks on a single photograph, and draw a short line through the
central part of the photograph. (Do not draw a long line connecting two fiducial marks
because this will needlessly clutter the image.)
(b) Place the ruler to join the opposite set of fiducial marks and again draw a short line
through the central part of the photograph. The two short lines will intersect, thereby
locating the principal point. Repeat for the next photograph.
(c) Find the conjugate principal points on each photograph. To do this, locate the position
of one photo's principal point on the other photograph by sight and careful observation.
Mark the point with a small 'x.'
(d) A more accurate method to locate conjugate principal points is to set up and view the
photographs with a mirror stereoscope, using a pen or pencil tip on each photo to mark
the principal and conjugate point. In your stereovision, the two pen tips should exactly
coincide and appear to be on top of each other.
(e) Use small pieces of scotch tape to tape the corners of the left photograph lightly to the
desk. Place a long (30 cm) ruler on the left photograph intersecting the principal and
conjugate point. Place the right photograph in position such that the principal and
conjugate points on the right photo line up along the ruler. When the photos are
positioned such that all four points are parallel and line up along the ruler, use tape to fix
the right photograph in place (Figure 2).
(f) Draw a line connecting the four principal and conjugate points on both photographs.
This is the flightline vector, also called the flightline (Figure 2).
(g) Note the flightline may not be exactly parallel or perpendicular to lines joining
fiducial marks. If the two sets of lines are not parallel, then a flight correction was made
during the aerial survey to adjust for a crosswind (see the course Air Photo Interpretation
1 - Fundamentals).
Step 2 - Locate the Match Point

On one of the photographs, measure the distance between the principal and conjugate
point along the flightline. The value will be about 5.5 cm or so. Draw a point halfway
between these two points on the flightline. Call this the match point. Draw the match
point on the other photograph. The match point represents the centre of each half of the
stereogram (Figure 3).
Step 3 - Locate the Margin Points

From the match point, measure 3.25 cm along the flightline in both directions and mark
the margin points. (3.25 cm is half the standard photo-pair distance). Ensure the two
margin points are 6.5 cm apart along the flightline by measuring. Draw two perpendicular
lines at the margin points extending the height of the photograph (Figure 4). Do the same
for the second photograph (Figure 5).
For each photograph, the margin lines should encompass the area between the principal
and conjugate points to minimize photographic distortion due to tilt and relief
displacement. The area of a stereogram is limited to the common area of overlap between
the two photographs. Margin lines can be shifted within this window if the area of
interest is outside of the minimally-distorted area.
Step 4 - Trim the Photographs
(a) Check the stereoscopic model before trimming the paper (Figure 6). To do this,
untape one of the photographs, fold down the edge along the margin line and position
against the other photograph to view in stereo.
(b) Trim the photographs along the margin lines producing two vertical strips of the same
ground area.
(c) Position the two strips side-by-side with the flightline is parallel, horizontal and
contiguous. Check the relief model again using your unaided vision or stereoglasses.
Trim off any areas that are not in the stereo image.
(d) Draw two lines parallel to the flightline near the top and the bottom of the strips.
These lines, called trim lines, form the top and bottom borders of the stereogram. Cut the
two strips along the trim lines.
Step 5 - Paste Stereogram Strips Together

Position the two halves of the stereogram on card stock. Check stereoscopic relief once
again. When the orientation is correct, glue or tape to card stock (Figure 7). Trim excess
any paper and erase pencil lines.
Step 6 - Calculate Scale

Calculate the scale of the stereogram using the method of comparative distances (see the
course Air Photo Interpretation 1 - Fundamentals) and the topographic map in Figure 8.
Print the scale on the stereogram as a ratio, and illustrate as a graphic scale bar.
Annotate the stereogram with the location, flightline and exposure numbers (Figure 9).
Add date of photography, focal length and flying height, if known. Draw a north arrow
on the stereogram. Most stereograms are oriented with north to top but this is not always
possible if flightlines are oriented north-south or at some other non-standard bearing.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation" with Review #4
OR
Continue the course with Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications
Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation
Review #4
Q1. Which of the following would be considered a small-scale map? (select all that
apply)
1:25 000?
1:50 000?
1:1000?
1:100 000?
Q2. Producing home-made stereo photographs is useful for... (select all that apply)
very small-scale mapping?
very large-scale mapping?
documentation of landslides?
creating a fossil record?
Q3. Which of the following details should be annotated on the air photo? (select all
that apply)
the flightline?
the date of photography?
the photographer's name?
the cardinal direction east?
Q4. As scale increases, air photo coverage cost... (select one only)
increases?
decreases?
Q5. Once an air photo interpreter reaches a certain level of skill, groundtruthing
becomes unhelpful.
True?
False?
Bottom of Form
Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications Level Map Help

Bedrock Geology ... | Detailed Till Mapping ... | Permitting and Developing ... |
Landslide Mapping ... | Measuring Glacial Retreat ... | Review #5 ...
Case Study 1 - Bedrock Geology from Forest Patterns
Session Headings:
Introduction
The following case studies illustrate some of the ways air photo interpretation can be
used for mineral exploration, mining, engineering and environmental change.
Category
Mineral Exploration, Mining, Geology
Location
Tulameen area, Similkameen Mining District,
south-central British Columbia, Canada
Importance
Case Study 1 shows how air photos can be used
for reconnaissance-scale mineral exploration, and
provides an example of using photo patterns to
map bedrock geology and structure.
Background
The Tulameen area of south-central British
Columbia has a long history of gold and platinum
placer mining and the search for host rock mineral
deposits. Determining the location of some of the
old assessment work is difficult. Some records go
back one hundred years.
Objective
A junior exploration company needed more information on the geology and location of
past exploration activities in order to acquire property by claim or joint venture.
Air Photograph Interpretation

Air photos were chosen as a primary data source for the program because they contain
high-resolution spatial information and make an accurate base map. Air photo
interpretation was used to generate and organize information about:
(i) drainage patterns and lineaments;
(ii) benches, terraces and other locations favourable for placer-bearing deposits;
(iii) vegetation patterns caused by differences in the geochemical soil signature of
bedrock; and
(iv) past exploration and mining activity.
The information was synthesized into a tool that was used to screen large areas for
prospective ground. The end result was a proprietary key correlating photo patterns to
rock types (Figure 1), which improved upon existing bedrock maps.
Information Sources
Air photos of the region were taken in 1995 at a nominal scale of 1:50 000 (Figure 2).
Additional information came from bedrock and surficial geology maps (Figure 3),
mineral assessment reports (Figure 4), special studies on geology and glacial history of
the area and satellite images from Google Earth.
Continue with Case Study 2 - Detailed Till Mapping for Diamond Exploration
Case Study 2 - Detailed Till Mapping for Diamond Exploration
Session Headings:
Introduction
Category
Mineral Exploration, Mining, Geology
Location
Nunavut, Canada
Importance
Case Study 2 illustrates in detail the steps taken to
complete an air photo interpretation study.
Background
Kimberlites are narrow pipe-like volcanic dykes
that acted as conduits to bring diamonds to Earth's
surface from deep in the mantle. Kimberlite
volcanoes explosively erupted at the earth's
surface. During glaciation, volcanic deposits were
eroded by glaciers and incorporated into glacial
till, which was smeared across the land in a down
ice direction.
Modern drift prospecting methods take samples of
glacial till and analyze them for kimberlite
indicator minerals. Positive trends are traced in an
up-ice direction to locate the kimberlite source.
The Problem
A diamond exploration company completed a till sampling program for kimberlite
indicator minerals. Survey results returned gaps in a glacial dispersion train, some gaps
corresponding to a change in geochemistry. Detailed mapping of glacial till was needed
to identify suitable target areas for a follow-up till sampling program (Figure 1).
Project Tasks
A preliminary look at topographic and surficial geology maps suggested that the reason
for gaps in the dispersion train was because of the reworked nature of the sampled
sediment. In other words, the gaps were locations where glacial till was covered by
fluvial or lacustrine deposits.
The next step was to investigate available data sources for the area in order to choose the
best data set suited to project objectives and budget. Budget constraints and the absence
of high-resolution satellite images meant that air photographs were the best source for
detailed ground information.
The most recent air photos for this part of Canada were taken in 1956 at a nominal scale
of 1:60 000. Air photos were ordered to provide stereoscopic coverage of the study area,
with expected delivery within two weeks. In the meantime, available satellite and air
photo images over the area were reviewed along with relevant maps and reports to
understand the regional geologic and glacial context.
Supporting Information
Regional maps of bedrock and surficial geology (Figure 2) were available for the study
area. A number of articles from the Geological Survey of Canada described the glacial
terrain and provided valuable ground photographs of terrain features (Figure 3). A
topographic map of sample locations and a database of sample descriptors and
geochemical results were also provided.
Air Photo Mapping

Once the air photographs arrived, they were organized and oriented. The exact scale was
determined. Photographs were labelled with north arrow and scale.
Clear mylar overlays were cut to size and attached to every other photo for mapping
(stereoscopic overlap means that only every second photograph need be mapped in order
to cover the entire area). The photograph's fiducial marks were drawn on the mylar
overlay to register the correct position should the overlay shift.
Now the photographs were ready for systematic interpretation following the air photo
interpretation checklist as a guide (see Part 3 - Interpretation Checklist).
 Streams, lakes and rivers were traced with a blue line and labelled by name with
the direction of flow indicated by an arrow.
 Man-made features (roads, airstrips or settlements) and land cover (tundra bush,
peat or unvegetated slopes) were noted qualitatively.
 Identifiable landforms, areas of erosion and other interesting land features were
noted qualitatively and cross-referenced to data in published maps and reports.
 Regional glacier flow direction was determined by careful examination of
asymmetric eroded or deposited glacial features.
 To denote if soil samples contained kimberlite indicator minerals or were barren,
sample locations were mapped by hand onto the mylar overlays by reference to
the supporting topographic maps of the sample program. A check mark indicated
a positive count of kimberlite indicator minerals; a cross indicated a sample
barren of the key minerals.
Interpretation Methodology
The goal of air photo interpretation was to identify all mappable areas of glacial till. A
number of interpretive steps were required to produce the desired final map of till terrain
suitable for sampling.
 Meltwater channels were mapped on the mylar overlays using a different blue line
type with arrows pointing down-flow. These areas were unfavourable for till
sampling. Meltwater channels were almost always dry so this step did not
duplicate the modern drainage blue line network.
 Light-toned deposits of sand and gravel located above modern stream levels and
along hillsides were interpreted to be beaches and delta deposits formed at the
margins of glacial lakes. Careful mapping of these deposits allowed the former
extent of glacial lakes and flooded terrain to be determined. Terrain within these
margins represented unfavourable sites for till sampling.
 Other areas with textures indicative of current-directed flow or intense solifluction
were identified. These areas represented terrain unsuitable for till sampling;
 Resistant protruding hills and ridges of glacial till were identified as areas suitable
for till sampling. These areas had little evidence of post-glaciation modification,
except perhaps for slight solifluction.
Through a combination of interpretation and elimination, terrain elevated above the level
of glacial lakes and devoid of stream reworking was classified as undisturbed glacial till
and outlined by polygons. Till polygons were subdivided into 2 groups: (1) probable and
(2) possible, based on the level of confidence that they contained undisturbed primary till.
The overlays and photographs were scanned and placed into a geographic information
system (GIS). Once the image was registered to map coordinates, and distortion removed
as required, sample locations could be chosen for the follow-up program. As much as
possible, sample sites were chosen from the centre or slightly down-ice position in
polygons labeled '1'. Locations were saved as UTM coordinates in a GPS-ready list.
Continue with Case Study 3 - Permitting and Developing a Mine
Case Study 3 - Permitting and Developing a Mine
Session Headings:
Engineering Geology and Baseline Studies for Mine Development Permits

Category
Mining, Engineering, Environmental
Location
The Morrison Property is located in the Babine
Porphyry Copper Belt in northern central British
Columbia.
Importance
Case Study 3 outlines the uses of air photo
interpretation during the feasibility stage of a
mining project or other large capital projects.
Background
Pacific Booker Minerals Inc. is a publicly traded
company with the mineral rights to the Morrison
deposit. The company proposes a 30,000 tonnes
per day copper/gold/molybdenum mine consisitng
an open pit, plant site, ore stockpiles, waste rock
pile, tailings storage facility, overburden
stockpiles and associated pipelines and access
roads. The Morrison Copper/Gold Project has
ready access to infrastructure including highways,
shipping routes and power transmission lines.
Objective
To support the mine development plan, the company must complete a number of studies
including geotechnical engineering design, engineering feasibility, the environmental
assessment and numerous permit applications.
Custom Aerial Survey

For companies with large capital projects such as mines, one of the first items to be
commissioned is a custom aerial survey to produce current, high-resolution, large-scale
air photo coverage of the property and environs. As part of this work, benchmarks placed
throughout the study area allow the creation of detailed topography with 1 to 2 m contour
elevation, which far exceeds the detail available in maps from government surveys. The
aerial survey produces a complete set of overlapping air photos for stereoscopic coverage
of the site. From the air photos, an orthophoto map is made that serves as an anchor layer
in the project Geographic Information System (GIS).
Detailed topography derived from the custom aerial survey is used in the feasibility stage
to calculate the volume and extent of planned cuts, excavations, fills and aggregate
resources, all of which become inputs into the Capital Cost Estimate for feasibility-level
financial analysis.
Detailed topography derived from the custom aerial survey can also be used in the pre-
construction and construction phases of mine development.
Air Photo Interpretation for Engineering and Feasibility Studies

Air photo interpretation is an important part of studies supporting the geotechnical design
and feasibility of a mine. Air photo interpretation is used to:
 map the location and extent of engineering soils, including sand, gravel, silt and
clay deposits;
 characterize the stratigraphic and geologic history of the area, which is important
to forecast problematic rock and soil conditions - for example bedrock faults,
location of permeable fluvial deposits in the tailings dam footprint, or the location
of glacial lake silt deposits that are susceptible to piping erosion;
 examine stream crossings, watersheds and areas of stream erosion;
 guide the planning and execution of field programs involving drilling, sampling,
trenching, test-pitting, and the installation of instrumentation such as piezometers,
thermistors, slope deformation indicators and meteorological stations;
 identify recent or inactive landslides, areas of erosion and other geologic hazards
in the study area;
 generate an overburden isopach map showing the thickness and extent of
engineering soils throughout the mine area - the overburden isopach map is used
to calculate the bedrock surface in the open pit area, the volume of overburden
requiring stripping during mining, and the required size of the overburden soil
stockpile for use during reclamation;
 calculate the available on-site borrow sources of sand and gravel for road building
and construction, and clayrich deposits such as glacial till used for the
impermeable liner in the tailings dam; and
 plan routes for roads, pipelines and power transmission lines.
Air Photo Interpretation for Baseline Studies

The application process for obtaining the environmental assessment certificate and
permits is long and rigorous requiring the initiation of baseline studies one to a few years
before the expected initiation of mine construction.
Baseline studies document the physical, biologic, social, aboriginal and economic status
of the area before the project begins. Baseline studies establish monitoring procedures to
assess the potential impacts of the project on valued physical, biologic and
socioeconomic components. In this context, air photo interpretation is used to:
 establish the Environmental Footprint, which is the extent of the affected area of
the project and is usually larger than the project area;
 complete Ecosystem Mapping to determine soil, stream, lake and ecosystem
components and habitats;
 assess sites for Archaeological Potential and plan archaeological ground
investigations; and
 construct a key layer in the project GIS used to organize and archive all baseline
information, which serves as an important project database throughout the life of
the mine.
Continue with Case Study 4 - Landslide Mapping Along Transportation Corridors

Case Study 4 - Landslide Mapping Along Transportation Corridors
Session Headings:
Introduction
Category
Engineering, Geology,
Environmental
Location
Thompson River valley in
the Thompson Plateau
region near Ashcroft,
British Columbia, Canada
Importance
Case Study 4 shows how air photograph
interpretation is used in civil and geotechnical
engineering.
Background
Through much of mountainous British Columbia,
railways, highways and pipelines are routed along
river valleys that pose a number of engineering
challenges related to geology and glacial history.
Near the town of Ashcroft, Canada's two national
railway lines are routed along alternate banks of
Thompson River.
Thompson River valley is a broad rock valley
(Figure 1) approximately one-quarter-filled with
sediments that were mostly derived during
Quaternary-age glaciation about 100 000 to 10
000 years ago when more than 1 km thick of ice
covered southern British Columbia. Deglaciation
happened first in the highlands leaving masses of
beheaded ice in the broad valley, profoundly
altering the drainage and causing the
impoundment of extensive, temporary glacial
lakes.
Silt and clay deposits that accumulated in glacial
lakes are problematic engineering soils. Silt is
highly erodible with moderate drainage. Clay has
low shear strength and is very poorly drained.
Interbedded strata of silt and clay produce
complex patterns of sediment-pore-water pressure,
which lead to areas of ground instability. The
combination of cohesive clays, unfavourable
groundwater conditions and river erosion along
the riverbank toe combine to generate ground
instability in the area.
The Problem and Objectives

Some of the Quaternary sediment filling the lower Thompson River valley is prone to
landsliding. Despite the large amount of background information available, there was no
detailed map of landslide occurrences along the valley. This information was needed for
models of hazard and risk management employed by railway companies to prevent and
manage future landslides in the area.
Air Photo Interpretation

Air photo interpretation used photos taken at various scales in different years (Figures 2
and 3) to ensure all areas of instability were identified. This information was digitized
and imported into a customized geographic information system (GIS). Location, size,
volume of material, grain size and age were tabulated for each landslide occurrence and
used in hazard and risk models.
Supplemental Information
Bedrock geology maps, surficial geology maps (Figure 4), topographic maps (Figure 5)
university theses and published reports provided info on geology and history of the
region. A number of engineering reports are available that describe mitigative measures
taken for previous landslide activity.

Bedrock Geology ... | Detailed Till Mapping ... | Permitting and Developing ... | Landslide
Mapping ... | Measuring Glacial Retreat ... | Review #5 ...
Case Study 5 - Measuring Glacial Retreat Over Time
Session Headings:
Introduction
Category
Geology, Environment
Location
Athabasca Glacier, Rocky
Mountains, Alberta,
Canada
Importance
Case Study 5 shows how to measure change on air
photos using an independent reference point to
determine photo scale beforehand. This technique
is vital when dealing with measurements of active
processes of change that modify the landscape.
Background
Athabasca Glacier is one of several glaciers in the
Columbia Icefield area of the Rocky Mountains in
Alberta, Canada. The oldest photographic record
of the glacier was taken in 1906 by Mary Schaffer
(Figure 1). It shows the glacier toe reaching
almost across the main valley to the other side.
The length of the glacier and thickness of ice at
the toe has changed dramatically since 1906
(Figures 1 and 2). Luckman (1999) estimates
Athabasca Glacier receded over 1200 m from
1906 to 1999, Sunwapta Lake formed in 1940 and
calving of the glacier into the lake continued until
1968.
Problem and Objective

Measure the amount of glacial retreat in the available air photos and topographic map to
calculate the average rate of retreat over the interval.
Air Photograph Interpretation

A series of air photographs dating from 1939 to 1993 (reproduced in the figures) shows
the retreat of the glacier away from the road and towards its source. Careful examination
of the air photo records determines the timeline of recession and related geomorphic
change.
How to Measure Distances from Air Photos

The following is the sequence of steps to measure the amount of glacial retreat over time.
The numbers used in the calculations are from actual measurement taken from the printed
figures.
Step 1 - Calculate the reference distance
a) The first step is to print the figures (Figures 3 to 6) individually on letter-sized paper.
The scale of all images will have to be determined because it likely will vary from any
stated nominal scale.
b) Choose a reference distance between two distinctive topographic or map features that
does not change over time and is identifiable on all images. For example, the distance, Q,
between the highway and the creek draining the southeast lateral moraine (Figure 4)
where it flows free of the confining moraine marked by a distinctive bend in its course.
Other two points will work but watch for highway realignments, creek bed wandering
and other sources of subtle change between photographs, which will throw your
calculations off.
c) Calculate the scale of the topographic map (Figure 6) by measuring the map distance
between blue grid lines, which are 1 km = 1000 m = 100,000 cm apart. Map distance is
1.45 cm. Use the scale equation, RF = map distance / ground distance, yielding: RF =
1.45 cm / 100,000 cm = 0.0000145. Invert to obtain the ratio 1:68 965 for the scale of the
topographic map.
d) Calculate the reference ground distance Q. To do this, use a ruler to measure Q on the
topographic map. Suppose Q = 1.2 cm. Ground distance = map distance / RF = 1.2 cm /
0.0000145 = 82,758 cm. Thus the reference distance Q is 828 m long.
Step 2 - Use reference distance to calculate the scale of the air photos
a) Determine the scale of each printed photo. To do this, locate the reference distance on
the air photo. In this example, look for the sharp bend of the creek as it clears the tip of
the sharp-crested lateral moraine. You may need to view the scene stereoscopically in
order to find the reference points. Use a ruler to measure between the shortest distance
from creek bend to the highway.
b) Suppose, you measured on the 1939 photograph #43, the reference distance to be 2.25
cm. Using the scale equation, RF = 3.25 cm / 82758 cm = 0.0000392. Invert to obtain
25,464. Thus the scale of the 1939 air photo is 1: 25 464.
c) Do the same measurements and calculations for the other editions of photographs.
Step 3 - Calculate the distance between glacier snout and highway for each edition
of photography
a) Use the shortest distance between the glacier snout and the highway as the reference
distance to determine glacial retreat. Other reference points will work too.
b) On the 1939 air photos, a photo distance of 2.25 cm was measured between glacier and
highway. Rearrange the scale equation to get: ground distance = map distance / RF = 2.25
cm / 0.0000392 = 57,398 cm. Thus the distance between glacier and highway is 574 m.
c) Repeat the calculation for the other air photos.
d) Enter values into Table 1.
Step 4 - Calculate the amount of retreat over time
From 1939 to 1958, the glacier moved 424 m over a span of 19 years, giving an average
retreat speed of 22 m per year.
From 1958 to 1993, the glacier moved 325 m over a span of 35 years, yielding an average
retreat speed of 325 m / 35 years = 9.3 m per year.
From 1939 to 1993, the glacier retreated by 1323 m - 574 m = 749 m over a span of 54
years.
The overall average rate of retreat is calculated as 749 m / 54 years = 13.9 m per year, as
determined by air photo interpretation.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications" with Review #5
OR
Continue the course with Part 6 - Remote Sensing
Bedrock Geology ... | Detailed Till Mapping ... | Permitting and Developing ... | Landslide
Mapping ... | Measuring Glacial Retreat ... | Review #5 ...
Review #5
Q1. As shown in Case Study 3 (the Morrison deposit), how does the detailed
topography from a custom aerial survey help with feasibility studies? (select all that
apply)
it helps to calculate the volume and extent of planned cuts?
it identifies aggregate resources?
it can help with the pre-construction phase of mine development?
it can help with the construction phase of mine development?
Q2. Air photos can also be used to map ecosystems to help with environmental
assessment.
True?
False?
Q3. University theses should not be used as supplemental information.
True?
False?
Q4. What features could the junior exploration company in Case Study 1
(Tulameen) identify off airphotos that helped them to determine bedrock rock type
and geology? (select all that apply)
evidence of past mining activity?
drainage patterns?
fossil records?
vegetation patterns?
Q5. In Case Study 2 (Near Wager Bay), the junior exploration company wanted to
identify the beaches of ancient glacial lakes as areas unsuitable for till sampling.
Using air photos, how would they identify these areas? (select one only)
They would not be able to identify these areas using air photos?
All of these areas would stand out in terms of relief displacement?
These areas would be light in tone, and associated with modern stream levels
and the sides of hills?
These areas would be dark in tone due to their sandy, gravelly consistancy?
Part 6 - Remote Sensing
Electromagnetic Spectrum ... | Satellite and Digital Imagery ... | Satellite Data ... |
Advantages ... | Review #6 ...
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Session Headings:
Introduction
Remote sensing is seeing. Remote sensing encompasses the science and techniques of
imaging and mapping the ground from the air or from space. Remote sensing refers to the
collection of information about an area using methods that are not directly in contact with
the subject matter. The term usually is used in relation to air photographs of the ground
and satellite imagery.
More technically, remote sensing is defined as the methods whereby electromagnetic
energy reflected or radiated from the surface of the earth is passively captured by
airborne or satellite-mounted sensors. Remote sensing also refers to the products of these
methods, which are maps, images and photographs of the ground.
Humans see by passively sensing reflected light in the visible spectrum. We see the green
tree over there because our eyes detect the green light reflected from its surface; we do
not have to touch the tree to know it is there. Seeing is a form of remote sensing.
A cursory review of the physics of remote sensing is provided below. For a more detailed
treatment, consult the NASA website.
Electromagnetic Spectrum
The electromagnetic (EM) energy spectrum spans more than 10 orders of magnitude in
wavelength and more than twenty-four orders of magnitude in frequency (Figure 1). Most
remote sensing satellite systems passively capture waves of EM energy at defined ranges,
called bands or wavelengths.
Radiative Properties of the Atmosphere

Most remote sensing data is collected passively. This includes satellite images and air
photographs. Each type of sensor passively records incoming photons of EM energy with
a defined range of wavelengths. For example, a satellite sensor might passively record
incoming EM radiation in the infrared part of the spectrum, whereas an airborne camera
will take photographs using the visible light part of the spectrum.
The target range of radiation 'seen' by the sensor is governed by the design of the sensor
and the properties of the earth and atmosphere. Understanding the radiative properties of
the sun, earth and atmosphere is essential to understanding how remote sensing works.
The sun and earth both radiate energy as black bodies, emitting a gaussian distribution of
photons with complete coverage and no gaps (Figure 2 (a)). The sun's energy spectrum
has a maximum in the visible range of the spectrum. The earth's maximum emission is at
a much slower frequency (Figure 2 (a)).
The energy from the sun is radiated onto the earth. The earth's atmosphere captures
certain parts of the energy spectrum and transmits the rest through to the earth's surface.
Large portions of the spectrum from 15 µm to about 1 mm are captured in the
atmosphere, mostly due to absorption by water vapour (Figure 2 (b)). Large portions of
the visible and infrared spectrum are transmitted through the atmosphere to earth.
Upon striking the earth, photons of EM energy are absorbed, scattered or reflected.
Reflected light is transmitted from the ground surface out to space. Some of the outgoing
transmissions are absorbed by the atmosphere. What passes unabsorbed through the
atmosphere is what can be seen by satellite sensors. The amount of EM energy reflected
to outer space is a fraction of the gaussian black body radiation that went in. The result is
an observable-from-space spectrum of EM radiation that has significant gaps and
windows (Figure 2 (b)).
Satellite sensors are designed to record areas of the EM spectrum that are transmitted
through the atmosphere out to space (Figure 2 (c)). The large gap in instrumentation
between visible and thermal sensors and radio and microwave sensors is due to the
almost complete atmospheric absorption of energy in this range.
Sensors
Satellite sensors are trained at a known location on earth. The sensor detects the
electromagnetic energy reflected or radiated from the instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV)
of the sensor. The IFOV of the sensor might be a rectangular or square area with a unit
length of centimetres or metres. The EM energy captured from the IFOV becomes one
pixel of information on a satellite image. The IFOV is a function of the sensor
technology, size and altitude of the satellite or airplane.
Data Display
For most types of airborne and satellite sensors, information is collected for discrete
points on the ground of known size, shape and location. Each pixel of information is non-
overlapping with its neighbours. Information is stored as digital geospatial non-
contiguous data that is easily imported into computer programs to be displayed as an
image.
Image data can be displayed in true- or false-colour or in shades of grey. Data can be
projected and processed to create maps customized for your purposes.
Resolution
Resolution is an important characteristic of all satellite and airborne images. Spatial
resolution refers to the lower limit of distinction of separate data points, or pixels, and the
ability to separate closely-spaced objects on an image. Satellite images typically have
resolutions on order of centimetres to tens of metres, depending on the technology used.
A high-resolution image provides a high level of detail and is capable of resolving objects
that are small, say on order of centimeters to one metre. A low-resolution image provides
a lower level of detail and may only allow discrimination of objects on order of tens to
hundreds of metres in extent.
Satellite and Digital Imagery
Session Headings:
Satellite and Digital Imagery
Several globally orbiting satellites gather digital images of the earth. Landsat was the first
generation of satellites (Figure 1). The scale and resolution of satellite images depends on
the year taken and the type of satellite; usually, the more recent data has better resolution.
Radar Images
Radarsat is a Canadian satellite that uses an active remote sensing system. The satellite
emits radar waves of certain amplitude and frequency to observe and quantify the
roughness of the ground. Radar images have a distinctive look: the ground appears grainy
and laid-over.
Radar waves have a long wavelength and see through clouds. Radarsat has provided
some of the first images of areas around the globe that are perennially cloud-covered.
Radar images are useful for detecting geologic structure since the radar preferentially is
reflected from ground roughness, scarps and flat surfaces. The degree of surface
roughness depends on the 'look' direction of the emitter.
Air Photographs
Air photographs are remotely sensed data that records EM energy in the 0.3 to 0.9 µm
range of the spectrum. Air photos are discussed extensively in the course Air Photo
Interpretation 1 - Fundamentals and earlier in this course.
Digital Elevation Models

Digital elevation models (also called DEM, digital terrain models or DTM) are spatial
data sets composed of an array or matrix of values representing ground elevations.
Strictly speaking, they are not remote sensing because they are derived from ground-
based topographic data and not satellite data. Digital terrain models are commonly used
in computer applications such as Geographic Information Systems (GIS).
The resolution of a digital terrain model refers to the spacing of grid points. Common
resolutions used in mineral exploration range as high as decimeters to metres, or as low
100 m or more. The higher the resolution, the more detailed the topographic model
derived from the data.
Digital terrain models are used to make shaded relief maps (Figure 2). Shaded relief maps
accurately depict a three-dimensional perspective view of the ground. Digital terrain
models are often draped with other data sets, such as reflectance ratios, to produce maps
of the draped data keyed to ground relief and position.
Continue with Satellite Data for Mineral Exploration

Part 6 - Remote Sensing Level Map Help
Satellite Data for Mineral Exploration
Session Headings:
Overview of Satellite Data for Mineral Exploration Applications

Modern satellite data is increasingly being used for mineral exploration purposes at
reconnaissance and detailed stages of investigation. Satellite data and image
interpretation is useful for evaluating portfolios and acquisitions, concept-driven
exploration, target selection and the development of deposit models.
Analysis of satellite data can effectively reduce the area to be surveyed by geophysical
and ground-based methods, thus reducing exploration costs. High-resolution images
enable some detailed geologic mapping to be done before going to the field, thus
maximizing field budget and effort for sampling and target generation.
Of the many satellites in orbit, only a few are useful for mineral exploration and geologic
applications. The mid-infrared part of the spectrum is critical for seeing mineral spectra.
Ground resolution is also an important consideration when choosing which data set to
use, especially for studies beyond reconnaissance scale.
Landsat-7 ETM
This is the data set widely used in Google Earth (Figure 1). Landsat-7 is the latest
Landsat satellite launched in April 1999. The sensor has eight spectral bands ranging
from 15-60 m resolution. The panchromatic band (0.5-0.9 µm) has a ground resolution of
15 m. Band 7 is the 'geology band' seeing at 2.090-2.350 µm in the short wave infrared
part of the spectrum with a ground resolution of 30 m. Band 7 is sensitive to clay and
other mineral spectra.
Landsat-7 data is available for free from websites such as GeoBase and Geogratis. Data
also is available from Eosat Inc, USGS, or NASA.
Quickbird-2
Quickbird satellite data has the highest-resolution commercially available today. The
Quickbird-2 satellite was launched in October 2001 by Digital Globe Inc. The sensor has
61 cm ground resolution in the panchromatic band and 2.5 m resolution in four
multispectral bands (blue, green, red and near infrared). Each scene measures about 16.5
km by 16.5 km.
Quickbird data has resolution comparable to, and in some cases better than, air
photographs. Careful interpretation of Quickbird data will enable surface lithology,
structure and surficial geology to be mapped at a preliminary stage with a high degree of
detail (Figure 2). Orthorectified data on a DEM base enables the user to zoom, tilt and
rotate the scene, making possible the determination of planar and linear structural
measurements.
Data is available from DigitalGlobe. Price per square km ($US) ranges from $30 for
basic data to $115 for orthorectified 7.5 m, 1:25,000-scale accuracy (2008 prices).
IKONOS
IKONOS is a high-resolution satellite launched in September 1999 by Space
Imaging/Eosat Inc. The sensor has a 1 m ground resolution in the panchromatic band
(0.45-0.90 µm), and 4 m ground resolution in four multidspectral bands (blue, green, red,
near-infrared). Each scene measures about 11 km by 11 km. IKONOS can capture stereo
data sets for three-dimensional viewing of the ground.
Data is available from SpaceImage or GeoEye. Price per km2 ($US) ranges from $28 for
basic scenes to $275 for Precision stereo coverage with 2 m, 1:5000-scale accuracy (2008
prices).
ASTER
ASTER satellite data is mentioned for completeness. The ASTER satellite has 14 spectral
bands, 6 of which are in the short wave infrared part of the spectrum (1.6-2.43 µm)
important for geology. The short wave infrared bands have a 30 m ground resolution.
Data is available from NASA.
Multispectral Image Analysis

Multispectral image analysis can be used to search for ore deposits. The technique is an
extension of image interpretation that uses specialized software to manipulate the spectral
bands to reveal signatures of interest. It is effective for mapping mineral species in areas
of bedrock exposure, for example in deforested terrain and hot or cold desert areas.
Image analysis for geological applications can be performed with multispectral data in
the short-wave infrared part of the spectrum. For the purposes of mineral exploration,
data is usually processed to display some ratio of the reflected visible, infrared and UV
spectra.
As an example, Landsat ETM data can be 'ratioed' to discriminate clay mineralization
related to hydrothermal alteration. Clays absorb energy at 2.2 µm causing low reflectance
in ETM band 7, whereas hydrothermally altered rocks exhibit high reflectance in ETM
band 5 at 1.6 µm. A ratioed image of bands 5/7 will highlight hydrothermally altered
clay-rich rocks. Overlaying such an image on a layer of shear zones, faults and other
lineaments perhaps produced from air photo interpretation results in a map of shear zone-
hosted Au prospects.
Minerals including clays, pyrophyllite, silica, chlorite, kaolinite, epidote, muscovite,
alunite, carbonate, Fe oxides, and others have been mapped using multispectral satellite
data.
Continue with Advantages of Air Photographs Over Satellite Imagery

Advantages of Air Photographs Over Satellite Imagery
Session Headings:
Advantages
Air photos have a number of advantages that ensure their usefulness for decades to come.
Inexpensive
Air photos are widely available from government and commercial providers at a cost of
about $8 to $15 per photograph (Canadian dollars, 2008 prices).
Easy to Use
Air photos are easy to use in the office and in the field. They are portable and small and
can be carried in a clipboard or backpack. Electricity and computers are not required to
view air photos. In fact, no equipment is necessary to view stereoscopic air photos,
although a variety of stereoscopes are available to help those who need them.
Superior Resolution
Air photographs are remotely sensed images with high data resolution on order of the size
of the silver particles in the exposed film. Modern satellite images still do not have the
resolution achievable with air photographs, which approaches millions of pixels per
square inch.
Stereographic Relief
Air photographs also allow one to see topographic relief by use of an optical illusion.
Some satellite data will permit stereoviewing but the resolution and accuracy do not
match that of air photographs. The ability to provide a detailed realistic depiction of
ground relief remains one of the great advantages of air photographs.
Historical Archive
The multiple past editions of air photos are available for many areas. Previous editions of
photography constitute an invaluable historic resource unparalleled by satellite images.
They represent factual records of terrain conditions during the time of photography. In
comparison, satellite images are fairly young and the earliest satellite images are
hampered by poor resolution and limited geographic coverage.
Confirm your knowledge of "Part 6 - Remote Sensing" with Review #6

Review #6
Q1. Satellites produce digital elevation models (DEMs).

True?
False?
Q2. The data set widely used in Google Earth is from... (select one only)
the Landsat satellite?
the Quickbird satellite?
the IKONOS satellite?
the ASTER satellite?
Q3. Airphotos have higher resolution than satellite images.
True?
False?
Q4. IFOV stands for... (select one only)
Infrared Field of Vision?
International Frequency of Vision?
Infrared Frequency of Viewing?
Instantaneous Field of View?
Q5. A high resolution image... (select all that apply)
provides a low level of detail?
provides a high level of detail?
is capable of resolving objects that are one meter across?
makes it more difficult to distinguish between closely-spaced objects?
Bottom of Form
Click
to see how well you are doing on
this review.
End of Course

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Air Photo Interpretation 2 - Applications (Text Level) Level Map Help

Selina Tribe B.Sc.(Hon), M.Sc., Ph.D., P.Geo. (Author)

Dr. Selina Tribe is a faculty member at the Department of Earth and

Air Photo Interpretation 2 - Applications (Text Level) Level Map Help

Air Photo Interpretation

Part 1 - Image Interpretation I Level Map Help

Air Photo Interpretation 2 - Applications (Text Level) Level Map Help

Confirm your knowledge of "Part 1 - Image Interpretation I" with Review #1

Part 2 - Image Interpretation II Level Map Help

Tone and Colour

Variations in grey tones can be compared between photographs in a single flightline.

Continue with Pattern

Continue with Topography and Association

Topography and Association

Confirm your knowledge of "Part 2 - Image Interpretation II" with Review #2

Continue with Drainage

Part 3 - Stereo Image Interpretation Level Map Help

Man-made and Cultural Features

Land Cover and Vegetation

Topography and Relief

Continue with Supporting Information

Geologic Maps and Reports

Published reports and studies on an area may include ground-based photographs of

Earlier Editions of Air Photos

Where To Obtain Air Photos

Custom Air Photo Surveys

Confirm your knowledge of "Part 3 - Stereo Image Interpretation" with Review #3

Q1. A radial drainage pattern is characteristic of... (select one only)

Mapping on Air Photographs

Ground Resolution and Loss of Detail

Stage One - Area Selection and Reconnaissance

Stage Two - Project or Property-Specific Study

Stage Three - Detailed Mapping and Sampling

Do-It-Yourself Stereo Photographs

Part 4 - Practical Air Photo Interpretation Level Map Help

Step 1 - Determine the Flightline Vector

Step 2 - Locate the Match Point

Step 3 - Locate the Margin Points

Step 5 - Paste Stereogram Strips Together

Step 6 - Calculate Scale

Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications Level Map Help

Air Photograph Interpretation

Air Photo Mapping

Engineering Geology and Baseline Studies for Mine Development Permits

Custom Aerial Survey

Air Photo Interpretation for Engineering and Feasibility Studies

Air Photo Interpretation for Baseline Studies

Continue with Case Study 4 - Landslide Mapping Along Transportation Corridors

The Problem and Objectives

Air Photo Interpretation

Part 5 - Case Studies and Applications Level Map Help

Problem and Objective

Air Photograph Interpretation

How to Measure Distances from Air Photos

Step 4 - Calculate the amount of retreat over time

Radiative Properties of the Atmosphere

Digital Elevation Models

Continue with Satellite Data for Mineral Exploration

Overview of Satellite Data for Mineral Exploration Applications

Multispectral Image Analysis

Continue with Advantages of Air Photographs Over Satellite Imagery

Confirm your knowledge of "Part 6 - Remote Sensing" with Review #6