Summary Writing

Summary Writing
Summary writing
Let me start this lesson on summary writing by making one significant observation - many
students do not understand the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing. 
A paraphrase is a restatement of the ideas in a text written in your own words.  A summary
differs from a paraphrase since a summary recaps the main idea of the text, in your own words.
The following activity illustrates the difference between a summary and a paraphrase.
Summary Writing (2015/01/07) Retrieved from http://www.uc.utoronto.ca/paraphrase

Passage from Oliver Sacks' essay "An Anthropologist on Mars”:

The cause of autism has also been a matter of dispute. Its incidence is about one
in a thousand, and it occurs throughout the world, its features remarkably consistent
even in extremely different cultures. It is often not recognized in the first year of life, but
tends to become obvious in the second or third year. Though Asperger regarded it as a
biological defect of affective contact--innate, inborn, analogous to a physical or
intellectual defect--Kanner tended to view it as a psychogenic disorder, a reflection of
bad parenting, and most especially of a chillingly remote, often professional,
"refrigerator mother." At this time, autism was often regarded as "defensive" in nature,
or confused with childhood schizophrenia. A whole generation of parents--mothers,
particularly--were made to feel guilty for the autism of their children.

1)  Below is an example of illegitimate paraphrase:

The cause of the condition autism has been disputed. It occurs in approximately one in a
thousand children, and it exists in all parts of the world, its characteristics strikingly similar in
vastly differing cultures. The condition is often not noticeable in the child's first year, yet it
becomes more apparent as the child reaches the age of two or three. Although Asperger saw the
condition as a biological defect of the emotions that was inborn and therefore similar to a
physical defect, Kanner saw it as psychological in origin, as reflecting poor parenting and
particularly a frigidly distant mother. During this period, autism was often seen as a defence
mechanism, or it was misdiagnosed as childhood schizophrenia. An entire generation of mothers
and fathers (but especially mothers) were made to feel responsible for their offspring's autism
(Sacks 247-48).
Discussion
 Most of these sentences do little more than substitute one phrase for another. An additional
problem with this paraphrase is that the only citation occurs at the very end of the paragraph. The
reader might be misled into thinking that the earlier sentences were not also based on Sacks.
 
The following represents a legitimate paraphrase of the original passage:
In "An Anthropologist on Mars," Sacks lists some of the known facts about autism. We
know, for example, that the condition occurs in roughly one out of every thousand children. We
also know that the characteristics of autism do not vary from one culture to the next. And we
know that the condition is difficult to diagnose until the child has entered the second or third year
of life. As Sacks points out, often a child who goes on to develop autism will show no sign of the
condition at the age of one (247).
Sacks observes, however, that researchers have had a hard time agreeing on the causes of
autism. He sketches the diametrically opposed positions of Asperger and Kanner. On the one
hand, Asperger saw the condition as representing a constitutional defect in the child's ability to
make meaningful emotional contact with the external world. On the other hand, Kanner regarded
autism as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices. For many years confusion about this
condition reigned. One unfortunate consequence of this confusion, Sacks suggests, was the
burden of guilt imposed on so many parents for their child's condition (247-48).
Discussion
This paraphrase illustrates a few basic principles that can help you to paraphrase more
effectively:
         Refer
explicitly to the author in your paraphrase. The passage above makes explicit right
away that the ideas come from Sacks. Its indebtedness is signaled in a few strategic places.
The single parenthetical note at the end of each paragraph is therefore all that is needed by
way of citation. Referring to Sacks also strengthens the passage by clarifying the source of its
ideas.
         Don't
just paraphrase. Analyze. In the paraphrase of Sacks, the decision to split the
original passage into two paragraphs adds an analytical dimension: the new passage doesn't
just reiterate his points but lays out the two-part structure of his argument.
         Not all of the details from the original passage need to be included in the paraphrase.
         Youdon't need to change every word. For the sake of clarity, keep essential terms the
same (e.g., autism,culture, children). However, avoid borrowing entire phrases
(e.g., reflection of bad parenting) unless they are part of the discourse of your field
(e.g., psychogenic disorder).
2)The following is a summary of Oliver Sacks' essay "An Anthropologist on Mars”
In "An Anthropologist on Mars," Sacks notes that although there is little disagreement on the
chief characteristics of autism, researchers have differed considerably on its causes. As he points
out, Asperger saw the condition as an innate defect in the child's ability to connect with the
external world, whereas Kanner regarded it as a consequence of harmful childrearing practices
(247-48).
 
 
Discussion
Summary moves much further than paraphrase from point-by-point translation. When you
summarize a passage, you need first to absorb the meaning and then to capture in your own
words the most important elements from the original passage. A summary is necessarily shorter
than a paraphrase.
Jerry Plotnick, Summary Writing. (2015/01/07) Retrieved from 
http://www.uc.utoronto.ca/paraphrase
 
Steps in summary writing
Now that you understand the difference between paraphrasing and summarizing, let us examine
the steps that you need to follow in order to write a good summary. 
1)Select main idea
2)Express main ideas in your own words
3)Writing the first draft.
4)Editing
5)Combine in a unified, coherent paragraph
The fundamental of summary writing is being able to identify the main idea.  The activity below
will illustrate the difference between main ideas and details.
                Cyberspace, of course, is bigger than a telephone call.  It encompasses the millions of
personal computers connected by modems - via the telephone system - to commercial online
services, as well as millions more with high-speed links to local area networks, office email
systems, and the internet.  It includes the rapidly expanding wireless services:  microwave towers
that carry great quantities of cellular phone and data traffic; communications satellites strung like
beads in geosynchronous orbit; low-flying satellites that will soon crisscross the globe like angry
bees, connecting folks too far-flung or too much on the go to be tethered by wires.  Our
television sets may be part of cyberspace, transformed into interactive "teleputers” by so-called
full-service networks like the ones several cable-TV companies are building along the old cable
lines, using fiber optics and high-speed switches.
Step 1: What is the main idea?
The main idea is that cyberspace is larger than a telephone call - this idea is stated in the first
sentence. 
Step 2:   Identify examples, facts, anecdotes, descriptions, or statistics presented in the passage. 
Keep an eye out for terms like for example and also, which often signal the presence of
supporting details. 
Always remember that a  summary consists of only main ideas.
Odell, l., & Vacca, R., Hobbs, R. (2001) Elements of Language (5  Course, pp.458)
th

Austin:  Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pgs.  63-64

Some writers directly state main ideas in topic sentences, while others imply a main idea with
examples and other clues.   Once you identify the main idea, you can use the supporting
details to learn additional information about the main idea.  Let us look at the example below.
 
          The Four Corners area of Colorado, Utah, New Main idea
Mexico, and Arizona is home to some of the most ancient  
dwellings on the continent of North America.  Places such  
as  Chaco Canyon, New Mexico, Canyon de Chelly, Arizona, Supporting details
and Hovenweep on the Colorado-Utah borders are the  
locations for cliff houses built and inhabited by ancient  
people now known as the Anasazi.  The huge cliff houses,  
similar to apartment buildings, date back to before A.D. 500.  
          The climate was very harsh - arid below 5,000 feet  
elevation and freezing above 7,000 feet elevation.  In order Main idea
to live in the area, the Anasazi had to be a resourceful  
people.  The Anasazi lived in communities so they could help Supporting details
each other.  They grew their own crops and lived on such
vegetables as corn, squash, and different varieties of beans. 
They managed to build dams to control water and eroding
soil so that they could control crop growth.  The earliest
people are known as the Basketmakers  because their only
vessels were baskets, some woven tightly enough to hold
water.  Later cliff dwellers made pottery to use as vessels. 
 
Summary
Hugh Cliff houses, built before A.D. 500, are located in the Four Corners areas of Colorado,
New Mexico, and Arizona.  These ancient dwellings were built by the Anasazi.  The resourceful
Anasazi created farming communities in a harsh environment, growing and making what they
needed to live.
Note on summarizing
From the summary above, you see that when you summarize, you relate the main ideas in a
logical sequence and in your own words.  To create a good summary, include all the main ideas. 
Do not include anything that is not important.  A good summary can be easily understood by
someone who has not read the whole text. 
 Odell, l., & Vacca, R., Hobbs, R. (2001) Elements of Language (5  Course, pp.458) th

Austin:  Holt, Rinehart and Winston

From the above, you would have noted that a key component of summary writing is coordinating
the main ideas.  For your summary to clearly express the writer's main ideas, it must be unified
and coherent.   One of the best ways to achieve unity and coherence is to write sentences that
reveal the appropriate relationships by adapting the structure of your sentences.
Coordinating ideas
Equally important ideas in a sentence are called coordinate ideas.  To show that ideas are
coordinate, you can join them with a coordinating conjunction (and, but, for, nor, or, so, yet) or
another connective.  The connective tells your reader how the ideas are related; for
example, and links equal and similar ideas, while but links equal and contrasting ideas.
Examples
1)A colony of birds lived in a tree near his house, and he spent time watching them
build and maintain their nests.
2)It is thrilling to be in touch with the world at all times, but it's also draining.  
Note
When you join two independent clauses with a coordinating conjunction, you usually put a
comma before the conjunction.
 Correcting Faulty Coordination
Before you join ideas with a coordinating conjunction, it is important to make sure that the ideas
are of equal importance.  Otherwise you may end up withfaulty coordination, unequal ideas
presented as if they were coordinate.  Faulty coordination blurs the focus of your writing because
it does not show the relationships between ideas.  You can correct faulty coordination by putting
the less important ideas into phrases or subordinate clauses.
Examples
Faulty:                  Norway's coastal waters are influenced by the warm Atlantic Ocean currents
and the westerly winds, and the coastal waters stay ice-free all year.
Revised:              Because Norway's coastal waters are influenced by the warm Atlantic
Ocean currents  and westerly winds, they stay ice-free all year.
                                                                               Or
Norway's coastal waters, which are influenced by the warm Atlantic Ocean
currents and the westerly winds, stay ice-free all year.
 
Using Parallel Structure
1)Parallel structure can be effectively used to link coordinate ideas.  You create parallel structure in
a sentence by using the same grammatical form to express equal or parallel ideas. 
 Example
Not Parallel:       Our computer club promises that we will visit a college and a banquet.
Parallel:                Our computer club promises that we will visit a college and that we will have
a banquet.
2)Use parallel structure when you compare or contrast ideas.
Example
Not Parallel:       To think logically is as important as calculating accurately.
Parallel:                Thinking logically is as important as calculating accurately.
 
3)Use parallel structure when you link ideas with the conjunctions both ...and, either...or,
neither...nor, or not only...but also.
Example
Not Parallel:       In a Puritan village of 1680, a girl had to help her mother not only as a maker of
household remedies, such as palsy drops and pokeberry plaster, but also in
cooking.
Parallel:                In a Puritan village of 1680, a girl had to help her mother not only as a maker
of household remedies, such as palsy drops and pokeberry plaster, but also as a
cook.
Odell, l., & Vacca, R., Hobbs, R. (2001) Elements of Language (5  Course, pp.458)
th

Austin:  Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pgs.  424-425

 Now that we have discussed the steps in summary writing and effective combining of main
ideas to form a summary, let us read and summarize the passage below.
Passage 1:  Atomic Energy
Step 1 - Identifying main ideas
The issue of atomic energy has often been a contentious issue among scientists,
environmentalists, and risk management professionals.  Concerns over the safely and
environmentalimpact of nuclear energy have brought about policies that have regulated the use
and the safely standards of nuclear power plants in all countries and have generally led to a
reluctance to build new nuclear reactors.  The nuclear industry insists that if properly monitored,
nuclear power plants and reactors are perfectly safe and do not pose a risk to the surrounding
environment.  However, concerns over radioactivity after an accident like the one at Chernobyl
continue to haunt the nuclear industry.  Nuclear power professionalshave acknowledged the
risks, but they believe that the rewards of nuclear power far outweigh them.
                                           Topic sentence - underlined
Detail - environmental contentions
 Detail - risk management
Detail - scientists
 
One of the rewards that advocates point to is the reduced amount of greenhouse gases
that are released by nuclear power plants.  Advocates point to this as one of the main benefits of
allowing new nuclear reactors to be constructed, either replacing older coal-burning plants or
older reactors that has been  built before the Chernobyl disaster, when the construction of nuclear
plants was frozen.   The concern about the construction of new reactors is that the start-up
costsfor such a project.  There's also the safety of extracting and safely handling the
radioactive material and the disposal of radioactive waste that's hindering efforts to build
new reactors.  Safety concerns are legitimate due to the highly dangerous materials that nuclear
power requires, but the industry has stated that the technology and safety checks involved in
producing energy have greatly advanced.
Topic sentence - underlined
Detail - costs addressed
Detail - safety issues addressed
Detail - improved technology
The nuclear industry has gone through a renaissance thanks to calls for less dependence
on fossil fuels, which are leading to the problem of global climate change.  However, there
remains opposition to the idea of building reactors and in fact, there has been continuous calls
for nuclear shutdowns and phaseouts.  Of course the production of nuclear energy is
expensive.  Building new reactors is also costly.  Taking also into account the cost of
disposing of hazardous waste and the cost could reach the hundredth-billion dollar
range.    However, with the costs of carbon regulation and carbon trading technologies to
counteract the effects of climate change, proponents can be claimed that new nuclear plants
represent an investment in the future. Despite this positive spin, the high cost of safety and
start-up continue to hinder any potential investment in new nuclear plant construction. 
Topic sentence - underlined
Detail - opposition remains
Details - cost of building and maintaining nuclear plants
Details - the cost of combatting environmental impact is addressed
Step 2 - Express main ideas in your own words.
 
Now that we have identified the main ideas, let us
 
3)The issue of atomic energy has often been a contentious issue among scientists,
environmentalists, and risk management professionals.
  
Summarize writer`s main idea:  Atomic energy remains a contentious issue
among scientists, environmentalists, and risk management professionals. 
 
4)One of the rewards that advocates point to is the reduced amount of greenhouse
gases that are released by nuclear power plants.   
 
Summarize writer`s main idea:  Nuclear power plants emit less greenhouse
gases.
 
5)The nuclear industry has gone through a renaissance thanks to calls for less
dependence on fossil fuels, which are leading to the problem of global climate
change. 
 
Summarise writer`s main idea:   The nuclear industry is being revitalized since
heavy dependence on fossil fuels is linked to global climate change.

Step 3: Writing the first draft

Atomic energy remains a contentious issue among scientists, environmentalists, and risk
management professionals.  Nuclear power plants emit less greenhouse gases. The nuclear
industry is being revitalized since heavy dependence on fossil fuels is linked to global climate
change.
 

Step 4 - Editing and writing the summary

 
Atomic energy remains a contentious issue among scientists, environmentalists, and risk
management professionals.   Since heavy dependence on fossil fuels has been linked to global
climate change, the nuclear industry is being revitalized.   In comparison, nuclear power plants
emit less greenhouse gases.
What are the differences between the draft and the summary?
 
1)Did you notice how the ideas have been combined in the summary?
 
Now that we can summarize a passage, let us look at the process that must be followed in order
to encapsulate a specific idea.   
Step 1:  Read the question carefully.
Step 2:  Read the entire passage.
Step 3:  Re-read and identify the information pertaining to the question.
Step 4:  Write Draft Summary
Step 5:  Write Summary
 
Passage 2:  Slavery in Rome
Question:  How was slavery described as the foundation of Roman society?
The Roman Republic and Empire were heavily dependent on slavery.  The Roman upper
classes depended on owning slaves for two reasons. First of all, owning slaves was seen as a
symbol of social status.The more slaves one owned, the higher the social status the owner had in
society.  And, since salaried work was as yet unheard of in this time period, owning a farm
or a business, even if it was just a food stand, were pretty much the only way one could
make a living.  Otherwise, they would have to sell their family members, especially
children, into slavery.But how did this practice and attitude to slavery evolve?  Is there
sometime in Roman history when slavery was simply accepted as a fact of life?  To answer these
questions, we have to explore the foundations of the Roman state and the way Rome expanded
and prospered.
Discussion:
 The main idea (underlined) expresses the notion that Rome was heavily dependent on slavery. 
The details explained the dependence from two perspectives:
(i)the upper classes demonstrated their status by owning slaves.
(ii)selling people and children into slavery was one of the few ways of economic
survival.
However, this paragraph does not describe slavery as the foundation of Roman society.  So
information from this paragraph cannot form your answer.
 
When Rome was founded, its inhabitants valued hard work and duty, and this was
exemplified in the Roman military.  At first, the Roman army was made up of all able bodied
men who would stop working his crops and take up arms for a lengthy war effort.  One of
the most notable events in the history of the Roman Republic was the series of campaigns known
as the Punic Wars against the invading Carthaginian army led by Hannibal.  When the Romans
captured Carthage, they found large farms that were worked by slaves.  Many of the
soldiers, seeing that the farms were producing more crops than their farms back in Italy,
decided to take some slaves as part of the conquest and either use them on their own
farms, or sold them for enormous profits.  Finding the benefits of buying and selling
slaves, many Roman farmers sold their land to the state to become either soldiers or slave
traders.  These traders would follow the army around and buy captured solders to sell as slaves. 
Discussion:
The main idea (underlined) expresses the notion that Romans valued hard work and duty.  The
details in the paragraph explained
(i)Roman men were committed to protecting their country at all cost
(ii)Roman soldiers recognized the economic benefits of having slaves work on their
farms and selling slaves.
(iii)This recognition cause Roman soldiers and farmers to get involved in selling slaves.
 
Did this paragraph provide any information on the question: "How was slavery described as
the foundation of Roman society?”
 
This paragraph shows that slaves stimulated economic development in the agriculture sector and
slave trade provide economic stimulation.  This information can be incorporated in the answer to
this question.
 
The net result of the conquest of the empire was an expansion of trade, property, and
wealth.  And along with it, the population of slaves was increased.  Slaves were an integral
part in the growth of the empire, for their labour was necessary in the operations that
helped the empire prosper.  Their owners were able to use their free time, which resulted from
the reduced amount of work they had to do and were able to build their wealth by selling large
numbers of crops or other goods produced or crafted by slaves.    As they grew richer, they
brought more slaves to show off their wealth.  More expensive slaves became house servants, a
way of showing off their wealth and status.  These people were the cream of Roman society,
consuls, senators, and eventually, emperors.  Slavery became a cornerstone into the might that
was known as the Roman Empire.
Discussion
The main idea (underlined) expressed the idea that the Roman Empire's conquest yield economic
growth.   The details in this paragraph provides  information relevant to the question. 
The detail: slave labour is responsible for the generation of wealth in Rome.
Draft Summary
Slaves stimulated economic development in the agriculture sector and slave trade provide
economic stimulation. Slave labour is responsible for the generation of wealth in Rome.
Summary
Rome's economic wealth was generated by slave labour.
 
Scapegoating
Question:  Compare scapegoating in the following passage.
The issue of scapegoating is something that concerns everyone in the civil rights community and
has been a concern for people who have long suffered discrimination.  These groups are often
marginalized in society and thus become easy targets for programs and discriminatory laws.  One
example of scapegoating in society includes the blaming of women as bringers of pestilence and
witches of misfortune.  Another was the blaming of Jews for holding barbaric rituals that
included poising wells, killing first born children, or plotting to overthrow the existing world
order.  A more recent example is accusing homosexuals of conducting child abuse to recruit hew
homosexuals and how this has led to a curtailing of their civil rights.
The scapegoating of women goes back centuries, back to when it was largely believed that
women caused the creation of evil, with the myths of Pandora's box and Eve and the serpent. 
Women have long been marginalized in Jewish and Christian societies.  So when climate
changes caused crop failures or the plague struck a community, a pre-scientific society needed
someone or something to blame.  Women became a target because the church had declared that
witches were to blame for all these maladies and taught that women were more susceptible to
becoming witches because they were more easily lured into evil.  This began the witch hunts in
Europe.  Scapegoating led to the burning of thousands of innocent women because no one could
see what really caused their problems.
Another often maligned group that is the target of scapegoating is the Jewish community.   Jews
have been accused of being of killers of Jesus by the various Christian communities for
centuries.   And because most Jews end up in the financial sector, they were often seen   as
pulling the strings of power behind the scenes.  When the plague hit cities with large Jewish
populations, the rest of the community started to believe that Jews were poisoning their water
sources as part of their religious ceremonies.  These led to numerous pogroms   that had driven
them from central Europe and France.  These led, eventually, to other blood libel which included
the formulation of anti-Semitic conspiracy theories.  Jews continue to be used as scapegoats by
anti-Semites today.
The most recent form of scapegoating is the scapegoating of homosexuals.    When the AIDS
epidemic began to be spread from the fringes of society into the mainstream culture, many
people began to be afraid that the gay community was becoming a bigger menace that they were
all already accused of being.  This fear of homosexuals actually began just after the gay rights
movement began in the 1970's, when a campaign started to block or curtail homosexuals' rights
out of fear that they molest children.  Their main belief was that because they couldn't reproduce,
they have to recruit children to their lifestyle through child molestation.  Although this has
proven to be false, it continues to be a rallying cry for anti-gay activists.  
 
Main Ideas
The issue of scapegoating is something that concerns everyone in the civil rights community and
has been a concern for people who have long suffered discrimination. 
The scapegoating of women goes back centuries, back to when it was largely believed that
women caused the creation of evil, with the myths of Pandora's box and Eve and the serpent. 
Another often maligned group that is the target of scapegoating is the Jewish community.
The most recent form of scapegoating is the scapegoating of homosexuals
Draft
Women, Jews and homosexuals continue to be victims of scapegoating.  The belief that women
caused the creation of evil made them susceptible to scapegoating.  Jews are susceptible to
scapegoating because they were seen as evil and manipulating.  Homosexuals are susceptible to
scapegoating because they are seen as promiscuous people who are likely to molest children. 
Summary
Scapegoating results from society's prejudicial view of women, Jews and homosexuals.  The
belief that women caused the creation of evil made them susceptible to scapegoating.  Similarly,
the Jews are still condemned because they are seen as evil and manipulating.  Like the Jews and
women, homosexuals experience scapegoating because they are viewed as evil, promiscuous
people who are likely to sexually abuse children. 
Discussion
The summary cannot only restate the main ideas; it must discuss the similarity of scapegoating as
experienced by women, Jews and homosexuals.   Did you note the use of transitions that were
used to create unity and coherence?
Summation
 A summary is the capturing a writer's main ideas in your own words.  These ideas must be
presented in a unified and coherent manner.  After reading a summary, the reader must have a
good understand of what the text is about.

Comment on the effectiveness of this

 

summary.
Summary

The white scientists proposed that the shape of the Africans' skull denotes reduced intelligence.  On
the other hand, the black scientists linked higher levels of melanin to racial superiority.