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1. AT (Advanced Technology):
o Oldest and biggest form factor and popular until Baby AT. Capable of
using 386 processor. 12' inch size and was difficult to install, service
and upgrade.
2. Baby AT:
o Standard in computer industries and still being used in Pentium class
products. CPU socket is placed in such a way that it can interfere with
longer bus cards. Limitation over peripheral card installation. I/O
ports are connected to pin-outs near the floppy drive which results in
jumbling of ribbon cables.
3. ATX (Advanced Technology Extended):
o Improvement done in easy to use, support for current and future I/O,
and also to current and future technology. New mounting
configuration for power supply. Processor relocated away from
expansion slots to allow full length add-in cards. Provides air-flow
through chassis and across the processor.
4. Mini ATX:
o Commonly same as ATX. Just change in size from ATX= 12" x 9.6" to
Mini ATX= 11.2" x 8.2".
5. Micro ATX:
o Supports current and new processor technologies. AGP (Accelerated
graphics port) to have high performance graphics. Smaller in size and
less power supply.
6. Flex ATX:
o A subset of micro ATX. Gives chance to system developers to create
new personal computer design. Enhanced flexibility to allow custom
case and board design to be manufactured. Small motherboard size
and supports current processor technology.
7. LPX (Low Profile Extension) and Mini LPX:
o Based on design by western digital. Usually found in desktop pc's.
Case are slim-line, low profile case with riser card arrangement for
expansion cards. Riser card arrangement means expansion boards
are parallel rather than perpendicular. This make smaller case but
limits number of expansion slots to two or three. High quality
product at low cost but makes difficult to upgrade and repair.
8. NLX (New Low Profile Extended):
o Supports current and future processor technologies. Also supports
new AGP and tall memory technology. Installing and upgrading the
system is easy.
2.1.0 Understand motherboard organisation
ATX Motherboard Organisation - Block Diagram (BOTH ARE SAME BLOCK
DIAGRAM OF ATX MOTHERBOARD, SECOND DIAGRAM IS A DETAILED
ONE)
The two most important chips on the motherboard provide the system's
core logic, and known as the northbridge (also referred to as the memory
controller hub) and the southbridge (otherwise known as the I/O
Controller Hub), which take their respective names from their relative
positions on the motherboard.
Between them, these two chips encompass many of the most important
communications and control functions provided by the motherboard
9.
It is also typically connected to a high speed graphics card slot via either an
accelerated graphics port (AGP) bus or a PCI Express (PCI-E) bus, depending
on the type of slot provided.
The communication handled via the northbridge (i.e. between the CPU,
memory and video card) requires the use of high-speed buses. The CPU gains
fast access to memory via a memory controller built in to the northbridge.
The speed with which the processor can retrieve data from memory is one of
the most important factors in determining how fast in can execute programs,
and the sheer volume of data required for modern graphic-intensive
applications make the availability of a high-speed dedicated AGP or PCI-E bus
essential.
The buses connecting the south bridge with the motherboard's expansion
slots and integrated peripherals such as an on-board graphics adapter are
typically PCI buses.
low pin count (LPC) bus connects the southbridge to BIOS, and to the Super
I/O chip which provides a control interface for low-bandwidth devices such
as the keyboard and mouse, as well as devices that connect via a serial or
parallel port.
Higher-speed interfaces such as IDE, SATA and USB have their own buses.
The internal bus connecting the southbridge to the northbridge is usually a
PCI bus, although the inherent bandwidth limitations in this approach have
led to the use of a higher-speed (sometimes proprietary) internal bus in
order to improve overall system performance.
Microprocessors and Coprocessors - Types - Speed, Address and Data lines,
Address space
Introduction
The microprocessor forms the brain of the Central Processing Unit (CPU).
Microprocessor is an engine which can compute various operations
fabricated on a single chip. The internal architecture of microprocessor
determines what operations can be performed on a microprocessor and how
it can be performed. Let us take a look at a brief history of the
microprocessor and discuss how the microprocessors have evolved over the
past years.
Evolution of Microprocessor
The first microprocessor was introduced in the year 1971. It was introduced
by Intel and was named Intel 4004. Intel 4004 is a 4 bit microprocessor and it
was not a powerful microprocessor. It can perform addition and subtraction
operation on 4 bits at a time.
However it was Intel’s 8080 was the first microprocessor to make it to Home
computers. It was introduced during the year 1974 and it can perform 8 bit
operations. Then during the year 1976, Intel introduced 8085 processors
which is nothing but an update of 8080 processors.8080 processors are
updated by adding two Enable/Disable Instructions, Three added interrupt
pins and serial I/O pins. Intel introduced 8086 pins during the year 1976. The
major difference between 8085 and 8086 processor is that 8085 is an 8 bit
processor, but 8086 processor is a 16 bit processor. The greatest advantage
of the above processors are that it do not contain Floating point instructions.
Here floating point refers to the radix point or decimal point.
For example: 123.456 is a floating point representation. Processors such as
8085 and 8086 do not support such representations and instructions.
Intel later introduced 8087 processor which was the first math co-processor
and later the 8088 processor which was incorporated into IBM personal
computers.
COPROCESSORS
The coprocessor shares the same memory, IO system, bus, control logic and
clock generator.
The 8086 and 8088 can perform most of the operations but their instruction
set is not able to perform complex mathematical operations, so in these
cases the microprocessor requires the math coprocessor like Intel 8087 math
coprocessor, which can easily perform these operations very quickly.
Advantages
Each of the processors have their own local bus to access the local memory
or I/O devices. This makes it easy to achieve parallel processing.
The system structure is flexible, i.e. the failure of one module doesn’t affect
the whole system failure; faulty module can be replaced later.
Memory
RAM
RAM used to store and access data in any order (i.e. in random order), so the
name Random Access Memory
RAM is used to store the data that is currently processed by the CPU
it is very expensive.
Types of RAM
Fast and has less access time. Consists of flip-flop using either transistor or
MOS (Mosfet).
For each bit it requires one flip-flop. Status of each bit remains as it is
unless there is write operation or power is off.
Advantages
Disadvantages
Costly
Two access transistors connected to bit lines to enable and disable access
to the stored data for reading and writing operations.
To read the contents of the RAM cell, the word line is set high, allowing the
contents of the cell to be read out to the b line (and its inverse) to the b-- line.
To write the cell, again set the word line high and set the bit line (and its
inverse) to the value we wish to store, forcing the cell into the appropriate
state.
Relatively less expensive RAM is DRAM, due to the use of one transistor and
one
The dynamic term indicates that the charges are continuously leaking even
when power on , consumes more power.
To retain data for a long time, it needs to be repeatedly refreshed which
requires additional refresh circuitry. Due to leaking charge DRAM loses data
even if power is switched on.
For the write operation, a voltage signal is employed to the bit line where
high voltage shows 1, and low voltage indicates 0. A signal is then used to the
address line which enables transferring of the charge to the capacitor.
When the address line is chosen for executing read operation, the transistor
turns on and the charge stored on the capacitor is supplied out onto a bit
Fig: DRAM cell
Advantages of DRAM
Very dense
Low cost per bit
Simple memory cell structure
Disadvantages of DRAM
Volatile memory
The basic idea behind SDRAM has been in existence for many years. The first
ideas appeared as early as the 1970s. With the basic SDRAM established, further
develops took place. A form of SDRAM known as double data rate, DDR SDRAM
appeared in 2000 with JEDEC Release 1 of their standard 79C which was updated
to Release 2 in May 2002 and then Release C in March 2003
After SDRAM was introduced, further generations of double data rate RAM
have entered the mass market – DDR which is also known as DDR1, DDR2, DDR3
and DDR4.
DDR SDRM was followed by the next version named DDR2 SDRAM. It was first
introduced in mid 2003 when two clock rates were available: 200 MHz (referred
to as PC2-3200) and 266 MHz (PC2-4200). The first offerings of DDR2 SDRAM
were inferior to the previous DDR SDRA, but by the end of 2004 its performance
had been improved making its performance exceed that of DDR formats.
Later the next version of SDRAM was launched. Known as DDR3 SDRAM, the
first prototypes were announced in early 2005. However it took until mid-2007
before the first computer motherboards using DDR3 became available.Further
developments include the next phase of SDRAM which will be DDR4 SDRAM.
The pipelining is used to describe the process whereby the SDRAM can accept a
new instruction before it has finished processing he previous one. In other words,
it can effectively process two instructions at once.
For writing, one write command can be immediately followed by another without
waiting for the original data to be stored within the SDRAM memory itself.
For reading the requested data appears a fixed number of clock pulses after the
read instruction was presented. It is possible to send additional instructions
during the delay period which is termed the latency of the SDRAM.
DDRAM
Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM: A clock is used to read data from a
DRAM. DDR memory reads data on both the rising and falling edge of the
clock, achieving a faster data rate. Often used in notebook computers
because it also consumes less power.
RDRAM
SIMM
DIMM
The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity. Earlier
cache memories were available separately but the microprocessors contain
the cache memory on the chip itself.
Cache Memory
The cache memory stores the program (or its part) currently being executed
or which may be executed within a short period of time. The cache memory
also stores temporary data that the CPU may frequently require for
manipulation.
The cache memory works according to various algorithms, which decide
what information it has to store. These algorithms work out the probability
to decide which data would be most frequently needed. This probability is
worked out on the basis of past observations.
It acts as a high speed buffer between CPU and main memory and is used to
temporary store very active data and action during processing since the
cache memory is faster then main memory, the processing speed is increased
by making the data and instructions needed in current processing available in
cache. The cache memory is very expensive and hence is limited in capacity.
L1 is the primary type cache memory. The Size of the L1 cache very small
comparison to others that is between 2KB to 64KB, it depent on computer
processor. It is a embedded register in the computer
microprocessor(CPU).The Instructions that are required by the CPU that are
firstly searched in L1 Cache. Example of registers are accumulator, address
register,, Program counter etc.
After searching the Instructions in L1 Cache,if not found then it searched into
L2 cache by computer microprocessor. The high-speed system bus
interconnecting the cache to the microprocessor.
Level 3 (L3) cache or Main Memory
The L3 cache is larger in size but also slower in speed than L1 and L2,it's size
is between 1MB to 8MB.In Multicore processors, each core may have
seperate L1 and L2,but all core share a common L3 cache. L3 cache double
speed than the RAM.
Advantages
It stores the program that can be executed within a short period of time.
Disadvantages
It is very expensive.
POST MECHANISM
POST, short for Power On Self Test, is the initial set of diagnostic tests
performed by the computer right after it's powered on, with the intent to
check for any hardware related issues. Computers aren't the only devices
that run a POST. Some appliances, medical equipment, and other devices
also run very similar self-tests after being powered on.
A Power On Self Test is the first step of the boot sequence. It doesn't matter
if you've just restarted your computer or if you've just powered it on for the
first time in days; the POST is going to run, regardless.
POST doesn't rely on any specific operating system. In fact, there doesn't
even need to be an OS installed on a hard drive for the POST to run. This
is because the test is handled by the system's BIOS, not any installed
software.
A Power On Self Test checks that basic system devices are present and
working properly, like the keyboard and other peripheral devices, and other
hardware elements like the processor, storage devices, and memory.
The computer will continue to boot after the POST but only if it was
successful. Problems can certainly appear after the POST, like Windows
hanging during startup, but most of the time those can be attributed to an
operating system or software problem, not a hardware one.
If the POST finds something wrong during its test, you'll usually get an
error of some kind, and hopefully, one clear enough to help jump-start
the troubleshooting process.
Remember that the Power On Self Test is just that: a self-test. Just about
anything that might prevent the computer from continuing to start will
prompt some kind of error.
Errors might come in the form of flashing LEDs, audible beeps, or error
messages on the monitor, all of which are technically referred to as POST
codes, beep codes, and on-screen POST error messages, respectively.
If some part of the POST fails, you'll know very soon after powering on your
computer, but how you find out depends on the type, and severity, of the
problem.
For example, if the problem lies with the video card, and therefore you can't
see anything on the monitor, then looking for an error message wouldn't be
as helpful as listening for a beep code or reading a POST code with a POST
test card.
I/O CARD
NIC: Short for network interface card, the NIC is also referred to as an
Ethernet card and network adapter. A NIC is a computer expansion card for
connecting to a network (e.g., home network or Internet) using an Ethernet
cable with an RJ-45 connector.
Due to the popularity and low cost of the Ethernet standard, nearly all
new computers have a network interface build directly into the
motherboard. The top image shows the SMC EZ Card 10/100 PCI network
card, one of the more common examples.
Network cards can communicate with each other over the same network
using a network switch, or if two computers are directly connected. When
computers need to connect to a different network (e.g., the Internet), they
must be use a router to route the network packets to the correct network.
In a desktop computer, the network card is most often located near the USB
ports on the back if it is an onboard version. If it is a separate network card
(not onboard), it usually is located at the back of the computer, near the
bottom, taking up a PCI slot.
ROM stands for Read-only Memory. It is a type of memory that does not lose
its contents when the power is turned off. For this reason, ROM is also called
o PRO
M
PROM refers to the kind of ROM that the user can burn information into. In
other words, PROM is a user-programmable memory. For every bit of the
PROM, there exists a fuse. PROM is programmed by blowing the fuses. If the
information burned into PROM is wrong, that PROM must be discarded since
its internal fuses are blown permanently. For this reason, PROM is also
referred to as OTP (One Time Programmable). Programming ROM, also called
burning ROM, requires special equipment called a ROM burner or ROM
programmer.
EPROM was invented to allow making changes in the contents of PROM after
it is burned. In EPROM, one can program the memory chip and erase it
thousands of times. This is especially necessary during the development of
the prototype of a microprocessor-based project. A widely used EPROM is
called UV-EPROM, where UV stands for ultraviolet. The only problem with
UV-EPROM is that erasing its contents can take up to 20 minutes.
All UV-EPROM chips have a window through which the programmer can
shine ultraviolet (UV) radiation to erase the chip’s contents. For this reason,
EPROM is also referred to as UV-erasable EPROM or simply UV-EPROM.
Programming a UV-EPROM
Its contents must be erased. To erase a chip, remove it from its socket on the
system board and place it in EPROM erasure equipment to expose it to UV
radiation for 5—20 minutes. Program the chip. To program a UV-EPROM
chip, place it in the ROM burner (programmer). To burn code or data into
EPROM, the ROM burner uses 12.5 volts or higher, depending on the EPROM
type. This voltage is referred to as Vpp in the UV-EPROM data sheet. Place
the chip back into its socket on the system board. As can be seen from the
above steps, not only is there an EPROM programmer (burner), but there is
also separate EPROM erasure equipment.
EEPROM has several advantages over EPROM, such as the fact that its
method of erasure is electrical and therefore instant. as opposed to the 20-
minute erasure time required for UV-EPROM. In addition, in EEPROM one
can select which byte to be erased, in contrast to UV-EPROM, in which the
entire contents of ROM are erased. However, the main advantage of
EEPROM is that one can program and erase its contents while it is still in the
system board. it does not require physical removal of the memory chip from
its socket. In other words, unlike UV-EPROM, EEPROM does not require an
external erasure and programming device. To utilize EEPROM fully, the
designer must incorporate the circuitry to program the EEPROM into the
system board. In general, the cost per bit for EEPROM is much higher than
for UV-EPROM.
Since the early 1990s, Flash EPROM has become a popular user-
programmable memory chip. and for good reasons. First, the erasure of the
entire contents takes less than a second, or one might say in a flash, hence its
name, Flash memory. In addition, the erasure method is electrical, and for
this reason, it is sometimes referred to as Flash EEPROM. To avoid confusion,
it is commonly called Flash memory. The major difference between EEPROM
and Flash memory is that when Flash memory’s contents are erased, the
entire device is erased, in contrast to EEPROM, where one can erase a
desired byte. Although in many Flash memories recently made available the
contents are divided into blocks and the erasure can be done block by block,
unlike EEPROM, Flash memory has no byte erasure option. Because Flash
memory can be programmed while it is in its socket on the system board, it is
widely used to upgrade the BIOS ROM of the PC. Some designers believe that
Flash memory will replace the hard disk as a mass storage medium. This
would increase the performance of the computer tremendously since Flash
memory is semiconductor memory with access time in the range of 100 ns
compared with disk access time in the range of tens of milliseconds. For this
to happen, Flash memory’s program/erase cycles must become infinite, just
like hard disks. Program/erase cycle refers to the number of times that a chip
can be erased and reprogrammed before it becomes unusable. At this time,
the program/erase cycle is 100,000 for Flash and EEPROM, 1000 for UV-
EPROM, and infinite for RAM and disks.
o Mask ROM
Mask ROM refers to a kind of ROM in which the contents are programmed by
the IC manufacturer. In other words, it is not a user-programmable ROM. The
term mask is used in IC fabrication. Since the process is costly, mask ROM is
used when the needed volume is high (hundreds of thousands) and it is
absolutely certain that the contents will not change. It is common practice to
use UV-EPROM or Flash for the development phase of a project, and only
afier the code/data have been finalized is the mask version of the product
ordered. The main advantage of mask ROM is its cost, since it is significantly
cheaper than other kinds of ROM, but if an error is found in the data/code,
the entire batch must be thrown away. It must be noted that all ROM
memories have 8 bits for data pins; therefore, the organization is x8.
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