Vol. 38, No.

6 Transactions, American Geophysical Union December 1957

Quantitative Analysis of Watershed Geomorphology

A R T H U R N . STRAHLER

Abstract—Quantitative geomorphic m e t h o d s developed within t h e p a s t few years provide

means of m e a s u r i n g size a n d form properties of drainage basins. T w o general classes of de­
scriptive n u m b e r s are (1) linear scale measurements, whereby geometrically analogous units
of t o p o g r a p h y c a n b e c o m p a r e d a s t o size; a n d (2) dimensionless n u m b e r s , usually angles or
ratios of l e n g t h measures, w h e r e b y t h e shapes of analogous units can be compared irrespec­
tive of scale.
Linear scale m e a s u r e m e n t s include length of stream channels of given order, drainage
density, c o n s t a n t of channel m a i n t e n a n c e , basin perimeter, a n d relief. Surface a n d cross-
sectional a r e a s of basins a r e l e n g t h p r o d u c t s . If t w o drainage basins a r e geometrically similar,
all corresponding length dimensions will b e in a fixed ratio.
Dimensionless properties include stream order n u m b e r s , s t r e a m length and bifurcation
ratios, j u n c t i o n angles, m a x i m u m valley-side slopes, mean slopes of watershed surfaces,
channel g r a d i e n t s , relief ratios, a n d h y p s o m e t r i c curve properties a n d integrals. If geomet­
rical similarity exists in two d r a i n a g e basins, all corresponding dimensionless n u m b e r s will
be identical, even t h o u g h a v a s t size difference m a y exist. Dimensionless properties can be
correlated w i t h hydrologic a n d sediment-yield d a t a stated as m a s s or volume r a t e s of flow
per u n i t area, i n d e p e n d e n t of t o t a l area of w a t e r s h e d .

Introduction—Until about ten years ago the p r i n c i p l e s of s c a l e - m o d e l s i m i l a r i t y [Strahler, 1954a,

geomorphologist operated almost entirely on a p . 3 4 3 ; 1957]. F i g u r e 1 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e c o n c e p t of
descriptive b a s i s a n d w a s p r i m a r i l y c o n c e r n e d w i t h geometrical similarity, with which we are pri­
the history of e v o l u t i o n of l a n d f o r m s a s g e o l o g i c a l marily concerned in topographical description.
features. W i t h t h e i m p e t u s g i v e n b y H or ton [1945], Basins A and B are assumed to be geometrically
and under t h e g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t t h e classical s i m i l a r , differing o n l y i n size. T h e l a r g e r m a y be
descriptive a n a l y s i s had very limited value in designated as t h e p r o t o t y p e , t h e smaller as the
practical e n g i n e e r i n g a n d m i l i t a r y a p p l i c a t i o n s , a m o d e l . All m e a s u r e m e n t s of l e n g t h b e t w e e n c o r ­
few g e o m o r p h o l o g i s t s b e g a n t o a t t e m p t q u a n t i f i c a ­ responding points in the two basins bear a fixed
tion of l a n d f o r m d e s c r i p t i o n . s c a l e r a t i o , X. T h u s , if o r i e n t e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o a
This p a p e r r e v i e w s p r o g r e s s t h a t h a s b e e n m a d e c o m m o n c e n t e r of s i m i l i t u d e , t h e b a s i n m o u t h s Q '
in q u a n t i t a t i v e l a n d f o r m a n a l y s i s a s i t a p p l i e s t o a n d Q a r e l o c a t e d a t d i s t a n c e s r ' a n d r, r e s p e c t i v e l y ,
normally d e v e l o p e d w a t e r s h e d s i n w h i c h r u n n i n g f r o m C ; t h e r a t i o of r ' t o r is X. I n s h o r t , a l l c o r ­
water a n d a s s o c i a t e d m a s s g r a v i t y m o v e m e n t s a r e responding length measurements, whether they
the chief a g e n t s of f o r m d e v e l o p m e n t . T h e t r e a t ­ b e of b a s i n p e r i m e t e r , b a s i n l e n g t h o r w i d t h , s t r e a m
r
ment c a n n o t b e c o m p r e h e n s i v e ; s e v e r a l l i n e s of l e n g t h , or relief ( h a n d h i n l o w e r p r o f i l e ) , a r e i n a
study m u s t b e o m i t t e d . N e v e r t h e l e s s , t h i s p a p e r fixed r a t i o , if s i m i l a r i t y e x i s t s .
may suggest w h a t c a n b e d o n e b y s y s t e m a t i c a p ­ All c o r r e s p o n d i n g a n g l e s a r e e q u a l in p r o t o t y p e
proach t o t h e p r o b l e m of o b j e c t i v e geometrical a n d model (Fig. 1). T h i s applies to s t r e a m j u n c t i o n
analysis of a h i g h l y c o m p l e x s u r f a c e . a n g l e s a' a n d a, a n d t o g r o u n d s l o p e a n g l e s / 3 ' a n d
Most of t h e w o r k c i t e d h a s b e e n c a r r i e d o u t a t p. Angles are dimensionless p r o p e r t i e s ; hence t h e
Columbia U n i v e r s i t y o v e r t h e p a s t five y e a r s u n d e r generalization t h a t in t w o g e o m e t r i c a l l y similar
a contract w i t h the Office of N a v a l Research, systems all corresponding dimensionless num­
Geography B r a n c h , P r o j e c t N R 3 8 9 - 0 4 2 for the bers or p r o d u c t s describing t h e g e o m e t r y m u s t b e
study of b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of e r o s i o n a l t o p o g r a p h y . equal.
References c i t e d b e l o w g i v e d e t a i l e d explanations S t u d i e s of a c t u a l d r a i n a g e b a s i n s in differing
of techniques and provide numerous examples e n v i r o n m e n t s s h o w t h a t in m a n y c o m p a r i s o n s i n
taken from field a n d m a p s t u d y . homogeneous rock masses, geometrical similarity
Dimensional analysis and geometrical similarity— is closely approximated when m e a n values are
We have a t t e m p t e d t o b a s e a s y s t e m of q u a n t i t a ­ c o n s i d e r e d , w h e r e a s in o t h e r c o m p a r i s o n s , w h e r e
tive g e o m o r p h o l o g y o n d i m e n s i o n a l a n a l y s i s a n d geologic i n h o m o g e n e i t y e x i s t s , s i m i l a r i t y is def-

913
914 ARTHUR N. STRAHLER

FIG. 1. - Principles of dimensional analysis a n d geo­

metrical similarity applied t o drainage basins

i n a t e l y l a c k i n g [Strahler, 1 9 5 7 ] . O n e a d v a n t a g e of
u s i n g t h e p r i n c i p l e s of s i m i l a r i t y a s a b a s i s of o p e r a ­
t i o n s is t h a t i t f o c u s e s a t t e n t i o n u p o n (a) l i n e a r FIG. 2 - M e t h o d of designating stream orders
s c a l e differences t h a t a r e i n d e p e n d e n t of f o r m o r (Strahler, 1954a, p . 344)
s h a p e p r o p e r t i e s , a n d (b) f o r m differences e x i s t i n g
i n d e p e n d e n t l y of s i z e differences. points in their geometry t h r o u g h u s e of order
T h e r e m a i n d e r of t h i s p a p e r d e s c r i b e s certain n u m b e r . T h e first s t e p i n d r a i n a g e - n e t w o r k anal­
landform properties t h a t are dimensionless; others y s i s is t h e c o u n t i n g of s t r e a m s e g m e n t s of each
t h a t h a v e d i m e n s i o n s of l e n g t h o r l e n g t h p r o d u c t s o r d e r . T h i s is f o l l o w e d b y a n a l y s i s of t h e way in
a n d w h i c h s e r v e a s scale-of-size i n d i c a t o r s . A p a r t w h i c h n u m b e r s of s t r e a m s e g m e n t s change with
f r o m s y s t e m a t i z i n g t h e a n a l y s i s , t h i s i n f o r m a t i o n is increasing order.
u s e f u l i n f o r m u l a t i o n of r a t i o n a l e q u a t i o n s r e l a t i n g Bifurcation ratio—Horton's [1945, p . 291] law of
geomorphic properties to v a r i o u s related or con­ s t r e a m n u m b e r s s t a t e s t h a t t h e n u m b e r s of stream
trolling factors w i t h which a significant regression s e g m e n t s of e a c h o r d e r f o r m a n i n v e r s e geometric
m a y be expected. s e q u e n c e w i t h o r d e r n u m b e r . T h i s is generally
Order analysis—The first s t e p in drainage b a s i n verified b y a c c u m u l a t e d d a t a [Strahler, 1952, p.
a n a l y s i s is o r d e r d e s i g n a t i o n , following a s y s t e m 1 1 3 7 ; Schumm, 1956, p . 6 0 3 ] a n d is conveniently
o n l y s l i g h t l y m o d i f i e d f r o m Horton [1945, p . 2 8 1 - treated as shown in F i g u r e 3 . A regression of
282] ( F i g . 2 ) . A s s u m i n g t h a t t h e c h a n n e l - n e t w o r k logarithm of n u m b e r of s t r e a m s of each order
m a p i n c l u d e s all i n t e r m i t t e n t a n d p e r m a n e n t flow (ordinate) on stream order (abscissa) generally
l i n e s l o c a t e d i n c l e a r l y defined v a l l e y s , t h e s m a l l e s t y i e l d s a s t r a i g h t - l i n e p l o t w i t h v e r y l i t t l e scatter
finger-tip tributaries are designated Order 1. [Maxwell, 1 9 5 5 ] . E v e n t h o u g h t h e f u n c t i o n relating
Where two first-order channels join, a channel t h e s e v a r i a b l e s is d e f i n e d o n l y for i n t e g e r values of
segment of Order 2 is f o r m e d ; where two of t h e i n d e p e n d e n t v a r i a b l e , a r e g r e s s i o n line is fitted;
O r d e r 2 j o i n , a s e g m e n t of O r d e r 3 is f o r m e d ; a n d t h e s l o p e of t h e l i n e , o r r e g r e s s i o n coefficient h is
so forth. T h e trunk stream through which all used. T h e anti-logarithm of b is equivalent to
d i s c h a r g e of w a t e r a n d s e d i m e n t p a s s e s is t h e r e ­ H o r t o n ' s b i f u r c a t i o n r a t i o n a n d in t h i s case has
f o r e t h e s t r e a m s e g m e n t of h i g h e s t o r d e r . t h e v a l u e of 3 . 5 2 . T h i s m e a n s t h a t o n t h e average
A n y usefulness which t h e s t r e a m order s y s t e m t h e r e a r e t h r e e a n d o n e - h a l f t i m e s a s m a n y streams
m a y have depends upon the premise that on the of o n e o r d e r a s of t h e n e x t h i g h e r o r d e r .
a v e r a g e , if a sufficiently l a r g e s a m p l e is t r e a t e d , O n e m i g h t t h i n k t h a t t h e b i f u r c a t i o n r a t i o would
o r d e r n u m b e r is d i r e c t l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o r e l a t i v e c o n s t i t u t e a u s e f u l d i m e n s i o n l e s s n u m b e r for ex­
w a t e r s h e d d i m e n s i o n s , c h a n n e l size, a n d stream p r e s s i n g t h e f o r m of a d r a i n a g e s y s t e m . Actually
d i s c h a r g e a t t h a t p l a c e i n t h e s y s t e m . Also, b e c a u s e t h e n u m b e r is h i g h l y s t a b l e a n d s h o w s a small
order number is dimensionless, two drainage r a n g e of v a r i a t i o n f r o m r e g i o n t o r e g i o n or environ­
basins differing greatly in linear scale c a n be ment to environment, except where powerful
e q u a t e d or c o m p a r e d w i t h r e s p e c t t o c o r r e s p o n d i n g g e o l o g i c c o n t r o l s d o m i n a t e . Coates [1956, Table 3j
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF WATERSHED GEOMORPHOLOGY 915

ORDER, co

Fig. 3 - Regression of n u m b e r of s t r e a m segments on .C .3 ,*t

stream order; d a t a from Smith (1953, P l a t e 8) LOG OF ORDER

FIG. 4 - Regression of s t r e a m log„TO
length on s t r e a m
order; stream lengths of six fourth-order basins h a v e
been summed for each order to reduce effects of c h a n c e
found b i f u r c a t i o n r a t i o s of first-order to second-
variations.
order s t r e a m s t o r a n g e f r o m 4 . 0 t o 5 . 1 ; r a t i o s of
second-order t o t h i r d - o r d e r s t r e a m s t o r a n g e f r o m
2.8 to 4.9. T h e s e v a l u e s differ l i t t l e f r o m Strahler's m e a s u r e of t h e c h a n g i n g l e n g t h of c h a n n e l s e g ­
[1952, p . 1134]. m e n t s a s o r d e r c h a n g e s . B e c a u s e t h i s is a non­
Frequency distribution of stream lengths—Length l i n e a r v a r i a t i o n , t h e a s s u m p t i o n is i m p l i c i t that
of stream c h a n n e l is a d i m e n s i o n a l p r o p e r t y w h i c h g e o m e t r i c a l s i m i l a r i t y is n o t p r e s e r v e d w i t h in­
a n b e u s e d t o r e v e a l t h e s c a l e of u n i t s c o m p r i s i n g c r e a s i n g o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e of d r a i n a g e b a s i n .
the d r a i n a g e network. One method of length Drainage basin areas—Area of a g i v e n w a t e r s h e d
analysis is t h e m e a s u r e m e n t of l e n g t h of each o r d r a i n a g e b a s i n , a p r o p e r t y of t h e s q u a r e of
segment of c h a n n e l of a g i v e n s t r e a m o r d e r . F o r a l e n g t h , is a p r i m e d e t e r m i n a n t of t o t a l runoff or
given w a t e r s h e d t h e s e l e n g t h s c a n b e s t u d i e d b y s e d i m e n t y i e l d a n d is n o r m a l l y e l i m i n a t e d a s a
frequency distribution analysis [Schumm, 1956, variable b y reduction to u n i t area, as in a n n u a l
p. 607]. S t r e a m l e n g t h s a r e s t r o n g l y s k e w e d r i g h t , s e d i m e n t loss i n a c r e - f e e t p e r s q u a r e m i l e . I n o r d e r
but this m a y b e l a r g e l y c o r r e c t e d b y u s e of l o g a ­ t o c o m p a r e d r a i n a g e basin a r e a s in a meaningful
rithm of length. Arithmetic mean, estimated w a y , i t is n e c e s s a r y t o c o m p a r e b a s i n s of t h e s a m e
population v a r i a n c e , a n d s t a n d a r d d e v i a t i o n s e r v e o r d e r of m a g n i t u d e . T h u s , if w e m e a s u r e t h e a r e a s
as s t a n d a r d s of description whereby different of d r a i n a g e b a s i n s of t h e s e c o n d o r d e r , w e are
drainage n e t s c a n b e c o m p a r e d a n d t h e i r differ­ m e a s u r i n g c o r r e s p o n d i n g e l e m e n t s of t h e s y s t e m s .
ences t e s t e d s t a t i s t i c a l l y [Strahler, 1954b]. If a p p r o x i m a t e g e o m e t r i c a l s i m i l a r i t y e x i s t s , t h e
Relation of stream length to stream order—Still a r e a m e a s u r e m e n t s will t h e n b e i n d i c a t o r s of t h e
another m e a n s of e v a l u a t i n g l e n g t h r e l a t i o n s h i p s size of t h e l a n d f o r m u n i t s , b e c a u s e a r e a s of s i m i l a r
in a d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k is t o r e l a t e s t r e a m l e n g t h t o f o r m s a r e r e l a t e d a s t h e s q u a r e of t h e s c a l e r a t i o .
stream o r d e r . A r e g r e s s i o n of l o g a r i t h m of t o t a l Basin area increases exponentially w i t h s t r e a m
stream l e n g t h for each order on logarithm of o r d e r , a s s t a t e d i n a l a w of a r e a s [Schumm, 1956, p .
order m a y b e p l o t t e d ( F i g . 4 ) . A g a i n , t h e f u n c t i o n 6 0 6 ] , p a r a p h r a s i n g H o r t o n ' s l a w of s t r e a m l e n g t h s .
is denned o n l y for i n t e g e r v a l u e s of o r d e r . S e v e r a l S c h u m m [1956, p . 607] h a s s h o w n h i s t o g r a m s of
such p l o t s of l e n g t h d a t a m a d e t o d a t e s e e m t o t h e a r e a s of b a s i n s of t h e first a n d s e c o n d o r d e r s
yield c o n s i s t e n t l y g o o d fits t o a s t r a i g h t l i n e , b u t a n d of p a t c h e s of g r o u n d s u r f a c e t o o s m a l l t o h a v e
the general a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e f u n c t i o n is n o t y e t c h a n n e l s of t h e i r o w n . B a s i n a r e a d i s t r i b u t i o n s a r e
established, a s in t h e c a s e of t h e l a w of s t r e a m s t r o n g l y s k e w e d , b u t t h i s is l a r g e l y c o r r e c t e d by
numbers. u s e of log of a r e a . A r e a is m e a s u r e d b y p l a n i m e t e r
T h e slope of t h e r e g r e s s i o n l i n e b ( F i g . 4) is t h e from a topographic m a p , hence represents pro­
exponent in a p o w e r f u n c t i o n relating the two jected, r a t h e r t h a n t r u e surface area. E s t i m a t i o n
variables. M a r k e d differences observed in the of t r u e s u r f a c e a r e a h a s b e e n a t t e m p t e d where
exponent suggest that it may prove a useful s u r f a c e s l o p e is k n o w n [Strahler, 1956a, p . 5 7 9 ] .
 ARTHUR N. STRAHLER

nr N
Texture ratio, 1 * "p"
FIG. 5 - Definitions of drainage d e n s i t y a n d t e x t u r e r a t i o (Strahler, 1954a, p . 348)

Drainage density and texture ratio—An important inflections o n a g o o d t o p o g r a p h i c m a p indicate the

i n d i c a t o r of t h e l i n e a r scale of l a n d f o r m e l e m e n t s e x i s t e n c e of c h a n n e l s t o o s m a l l t o b e shown by
i n a d r a i n a g e b a s i n is d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y , d e n n e d b y s t r e a m s y m b o l s , t h e i r f r e q u e n c y is a measure of
H or ton [1945, p . 2 8 3 ] . T h e u p p e r l e f t - h a n d corner closeness of c h a n n e l s p a c i n g a n d h e n c e also corre­
of F i g u r e 5 s h o w s t h e d e f i n i t i o n of d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y lates with drainage density.
a s t h e s u m of the channel lengths divided by D r a i n a g e d e n s i t y is s c a l e d l o g a r i t h m i c a l l y on
b a s i n a r e a . D i v i s i o n of l e n g t h b y a r e a t h u s y i e l d s a t h e o r d i n a t e of F i g u r e 5 . T h e g r o u p e d p o i n t s in the
n u m b e r w i t h t h e d i m e n s i o n of i n v e r s e of l e n g t h . lower left-hand corner of the graph represent
I n general, then, as the drainage density n u m b e r b a s i n s i n r e s i s t a n t , m a s s i v e s a n d s t o n e s . H e r e the
i n c r e a s e s , t h e s i z e of i n d i v i d u a l d r a i n a g e units, s t r e a m s a r e w i d e l y s p a c e d a n d d e n s i t y is low. The
such as t h e first-order drainage basin, decreases n e x t g r o u p of p o i n t s e n c o u n t e r e d r e p r e s e n t s typical
proportionately. d e n s i t i e s i n d e e p l y w e a t h e r e d i g n e o u s a n d meta-
Figure 5 shows the relation between drainage m o r p h i c r o c k s of t h e C a l i f o r n i a c o a s t ranges. In
density and a related index, the texture ratio, t h e e x t r e m e u p p e r r i g h t a r e p o i n t s for badlands,
defined by Smith [1950]. B e c a u s e the contour w h e r e d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y is f r o m 2 0 0 t o 900 miles of
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF WATERSHED GEOMORPHOLOGY 917

channels p e r s q u a r e m i l e [Smith, 1953; Schumm, s t a n t of c h a n n e l m a i n t e n a n c e C w h i c h is a c t u a l l y

1956, p- 612]. t h e slope of a l i n e a r r e g r e s s i o n of a r e a o n l e n g t h .
Because of i t s w i d e r a t i o of v a r i a t i o n , d r a i n a g e T h e v a l u e of C - 8.7 in t h e P e r t h A m b o y b a d ­
density is a n u m b e r of p r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e in l a n d s m e a n s t h a t o n t h e a v e r a g e 8.7 s q ft of s u r f a c e
landform scale a n a l y s i s . O n e m i g h t e x p e c t that are required to maintain e a c h foot of channel
sediment yield w o u l d s h o w a close p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n ­ length. I n t h e second example, Chileno C a n y o n in
ship with d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y . A r a t i o n a l t h e o r y of t h e C a l i f o r n i a S a n G a b r i e l M o u n t a i n s , 3 1 6 s q f t of
the relation of d r a i n a g e d e n s i t y t o e r o s i o n i n t e n s i t y , s u r f a c e a r e r e q u i r e d t o m a i n t a i n o n e f o o t of c h a n n e l
predicting t h e m o r p h o l o g i c a l c h a n g e s t o b e e x ­ length.
pected w h e n g r o u n d s u r f a c e r e s i s t a n c e is l o w e r e d T h e c o n s t a n t of c h a n n e l m a i n t e n a n c e , w i t h t h e
by land use, h a s b e e n o u t l i n e d b y Strahler [19565], d i m e n s i o n s of l e n g t h , is t h u s a useful m e a n s of
Constant of channel maintenance—Schumm i n d i c a t i n g t h e r e l a t i v e size of l a n d f o r m u n i t s i n a
[1956, p . 607] h a s u s e d t h e i n v e r s e of drainage drainage basin and has, moreover, a specific
density as a p r o p e r t y t e r m e d c o n s t a n t of c h a n n e l genetic connotation.
maintenance. I n F i g u r e 6 t h e l o g a r i t h m of b a s i n Maximum valley side slopes—Leaving now the
area (ordinate) is t r e a t e d a s a f u n c t i o n of l o g a r i t h m d r a i n a g e n e t w o r k a n d w h a t m i g h t b e classified a s
of total s t r e a m c h a n n e l l e n g t h ( a b s c i s s a ) . S t r e a m p l a n i m e t r i c or a r e a l a s p e c t s of d r a i n a g e b a s i n s , w e
length is c u m u l a t i v e for a g i v e n o r d e r a n d i n c l u d e s t u r n t o slope of t h e g r o u n d s u r f a c e . T h i s b r i n g s
all lesser o r d e r s ; i t is t h u s t h e t o t a l c h a n n e l l e n g t h i n t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n t h e a s p e c t of relief in d r a i n a g e
in a w a t e r s h e d of g i v e n o r d e r . L e n g t h i n t h i s c a s e b a s i n g e o m e t r y . O n e significant i n d i c a t o r of the
is projected t o t h e h o r i z o n t a l p l a n e of t h e m a p ; over-all s t e e p n e s s of slopes i n a w a t e r s h e d is t h e
true l e n g t h s w o u l d be obtained b y applying a m a x i m u m v a l l e y - s i d e slope, m e a s u r e d a t i n t e r v a l s
correction for s l o p e . a l o n g t h e v a l l e y w a l l s o n t h e s t e e p e s t p a r t s of t h e
An i n d i v i d u a l p l o t t e d p o i n t o n t h e g r a p h r e p r e ­ contour orthogonals running from divides to
sents a g i v e n s t r e a m o r d e r in t h e w a t e r s h e d , as adjacent stream channels.
numbered 1 t h r o u g h 5 . U s i n g d a t a of t h e t h r e e M a x i m u m valley-side slope h a s been sampled
examples g i v e n b y S c h u m m , t h e s e t s of p o i n t s fall by several investigators in a wide variety of
dose to a s t r a i g h t l i n e of 45° s l o p e ; t h u s t h e r e l a ­ geological and climatic environments [Strahler,
tionship is t r e a t e d a s l i n e a r e v e n t h o u g h p l o t t e d 1 9 5 0 ; Smith, 1 9 5 3 ; Miller, 1 9 5 3 ; Schumm, 1956;
here on log-log p a p e r . If t h e l o g a r i t h m of t h e i n t e r ­ Coates, 1956; Melton, 1957]. W i t h i n - a r e a v a r i a n c e
cept is r e a d a t log s t r e a m l e n g t h = 0 , a n d t h e a n t i - is r e l a t i v e l y s m a l l c o m p a r e d w i t h between-area
log of this i n t e r c e p t is t a k e n , w e o b t a i n t h e c o n - differences. T h i s s l o p e s t a t i s t i c w o u l d therefore
seem to be a valuable one which m i g h t relate
10
closely t o s e d i m e n t p r o d u c t i o n .
Mean slope curve—Another m e a n s of a s s e s s i n g
t h e slope p r o p e r t i e s of a d r a i n a g e b a s i n is t h r o u g h
t h e m e a n s l o p e c u r v e [Strahler, 1952, p . 1125-
1128]. T h i s r e q u i r e s t h e u s e of a g o o d contour
t o p o g r a p h i c m a p . T h e p r o b l e m is t o e s t i m a t e t h e
a v e r a g e , or m e a n s l o p e of t h e b e l t of g r o u n d s u r f a c e
lying between successive c o n t o u r s . T h i s m a y be
d o n e b y m e a s u r i n g t h e a r e a of e a c h c o n t o u r b e l t
with a planimeter and dividing this area b y the
l e n g t h of t h e c o n t o u r b e l t t o y i e l d a m e a n w i d t h .
T h e m e a n s l o p e will t h e n b e t h a t a n g l e whose
t a n g e n t is t h e c o n t o u r i n t e r v a l d i v i d e d by the
m e a n belt width. M e a n s l o p e of e a c h contour
i n t e r v a l is p l o t t e d f r o m s u m m i t p o i n t t o basin
- 1 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 m o u t h . C u r v e s of t h i s t y p e will differ f r o m r e g i o n
LOG TOTAL STREAM LENGTH, F T , t o region, d e p e n d i n g u p o n geologic s t r u c t u r e a n d
CUMULATIVE log, ILCO o
t h e s t a g e of d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e d r a i n a g e s y s t e m .
FIG. 6 - C o n s t a n t of channel maintenance, C. If t h e m e a n s l o p e for e a c h c o n t o u r b e l t is w e i g h t e d
D a t a replotted on logarithmic scales from
for p e r c e n t of t o t a l b a s i n s u r f a c e a r e a , i t is p o s s i b l e
Schumm (1956, p . 606)
918 ARTHUR N. STRAHLER

t o a r r i v e a t a m e a n s l o p e v a l u e for t h e s u r f a c e of i n g e o l o g i c a l a n a l y s i s of t e r r a i n , t h e m e t h o d mjght
t h e watershed a s a whole. b e a p p l i e d t o a w a t e r s h e d a s a m e a n s of assessing
Slope maps—Another means of determining b o t h s l o p e s t e e p n e s s a n d o r i e n t a t i o n simultane­
s l o p e c o n d i t i o n s o v e r a n e n t i r e g r o u n d s u r f a c e of a ously.
watershed is t h r o u g h t h e slope m a p [Strahler, Relief ratio—Schumm [1956, p . 612] h a s devised
1 9 5 6 a ] . (1) A g o o d t o p o g r a p h i c m a p is t a k e n . (2) a n d a p p l i e d a s i m p l e s t a t i s t i c , t h e relief ratio
O n t h i s m a p t h e s l o p e of a s h o r t s e g m e n t of l i n e d e n n e d a s t h e r a t i o b e t w e e n t o t a l b a s i n relief (that
n o r m a l t o t h e t r e n d of t h e c o n t o u r s is d e t e r m i n e d is, d i f f e r e n c e i n e l e v a t i o n of b a s i n m o u t h and
a t a l a r g e n u m b e r of p o i n t s . T h e s e m a y b e r e c o r d e d s u m m i t ) a n d b a s i n l e n g t h , m e a s u r e d a s t h e longest
a s t a n g e n t s o r s i n e s , d e p e n d i n g u p o n t h e k i n d of d i m e n s i o n of t h e d r a i n a g e b a s i n . I n a general way
map desired. (3) T h e s e r e a d i n g s a r e c o n t o u r e d t h e relief r a t i o i n d i c a t e s o v e r a l l s l o p e of t h e water­
w i t h l i n e s of e q u a l s l o p e , h e r e c a l l e d i s o t a n g e n t s . s h e d s u r f a c e . I t is a d i m e n s i o n l e s s n u m b e r , readily
(4) T h e a r e a s b e t w e e n s u c c e s s i v e iso t a n g e n t s a r e c o r r e l a t e d w i t h o t h e r m e a s u r e s t h a t d o n o t depend
measured with a planimeter a n d t h e areas s u m m e d o n t o t a l d r a i n a g e b a s i n d i m e n s i o n s . Relief ratio is
for e a c h s l o p e c l a s s . (5) T h i s y i e l d s a s l o p e f r e ­ s i m p l e t o c o m p u t e a n d c a n often b e obtained
quency percentage distribution. Because the w h e r e d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n o n topography is
entire ground surface h a s been analyzed, t h e m e a n , lacking.
standard deviation, and variance are treated as Schumm [1954] h a s p l o t t e d m e a n a n n u a l sedi­
p o p u l a t i o n p a r a m e t e r s , a t l e a s t f o r p u r p o s e s of m e n t l o s s i n a c r e f e e t p e r s q u a r e m i l e a s a function
comparison w i t h small samples taken a t r a n d o m of t h e relief r a t i o f o r a v a r i e t y of s m a l l drainage
from the same area. b a s i n s i n t h e C o l o r a d o P l a t e a u p r o v i n c e [Fig. 7].
L i n e s of e q u a l s i n e of s l o p e , o r isosines, m a y T h e s i g n i f i c a n t r e g r e s s i o n w i t h small scatter
a l s o b e d r a w n . T h e i n t e r v a l b e t w e e n isosines o n s u g g e s t s t h a t relief r a t i o m a y p r o v e useful in
t h e m a p b e c o m e s t h e s t a t i s t i c a l class o n t h e h i s t o ­ e s t i m a t i n g s e d i m e n t y i e l d if t h e p a r a m e t e r s for a
gram. Sine values are designated as g values g i v e n c l i m a t i c p r o v i n c e a r e o n c e established.
b e c a u s e t h e s i n e of s l o p e r e p r e s e n t s t h a t p r o p o r t i o n Hypsometric analysis—Hypsometric analysis, or
of t h e a c c e l e r a t i o n of g r a v i t y a c t i n g i n a d o w n - t h e r e l a t i o n of h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l drainage
slope direction parallel w i t h t h e ground surface. b a s i n a r e a t o e l e v a t i o n , w a s developed in its
Rapid slope sampling—The construction of m o d e r n d i m e n s i o n l e s s f o r m b y Langbein a n d others
s l o p e m a p s a n d t h e i r a r e a l m e a s u r e m e n t is e x ­ [1947]. W h e r e a s h e a p p l i e d i t t o r a t h e r large water­
tremely time-consuming. Experiments have shown s h e d s , i t h a s s i n c e b e e n a p p l i e d t o s m a l l drainage
that essentially the same information can be b a s i n s of l o w o r d e r t o d e t e r m i n e h o w t h e mass is
achieved by random point sampling [Strahler,
1956a, p . 589-595]. Both random coordinate-
sampling a n d grid sampling h a v e been tried. I n
t h e r a n d o m - c o o r d i n a t e m e t h o d a s a m p l e s q u a r e is
s c a l e d in 100 l e n g t h u n i t s p e r s i d e . F r o m a t a b l e of
r a n d o m n u m b e r s t h e c o o r d i n a t e s of s a m p l e p o i n t s
a r e d r a w n for w h a t e v e r s a m p l e size is d e s i r e d . T h e
g r i d m e t h o d d o e s m u c h t h e s a m e t h i n g , b u t is n o t
flexible a s t o s a m p l e size.
P o i n t samples, which a r e easy to take, were
compared with t h e frequency distribution meas­
u r e d f r o m a s l o p e m a p . N o t e w o r t h y is t h e e x ­
t r e m e l y close a g r e e m e n t i n m e a n s a n d v a r i a n c e s ,
a n d e v e n i n t h e f o r m of t h e f r e q u e n c y d i s t r i b u t i o n s ,
including a m a r k e d s k e w n e s s . T e s t s of sample
variance and mean are discussed by Strahler
[1956a].
Chapman [1952] h a s d e v e l o p e d a method of
a n a l y z i n g b o t h a z i m u t h a n d a n g l e of s l o p e f r o m
FIG. 7 - Regression of sediment loss on
contour topographic maps. Although based on
relief ratio, after Schumm ( 1 9 5 4 ,
p e t r o f a b r i c m e t h o d s a n d d e s i g n e d l a r g e l y for u s e p. 218)
 QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS OF WATERSHED GEOMORPHOLOGY 919

distributed w i t h i n a b a s i n f r o m b a s e t o t o p [Strah­ c u r v e is a p l o t of t h e c o n t i n u o u s f u n c t i o n r e l a t i n g
ler 1952; Miller, 1 9 5 3 ; Schumm, 1956; Coates, r e l a t i v e h e i g h t y t o r e l a t i v e a r e a x.
1956]. A s t h e l o w e r r i g h t - h a n d d i a g r a m of F i g u r e 8
Figure 8 i l l u s t r a t e s t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e two s h o w s , t h e s h a p e of t h e h y p s o m e t r i c c u r v e v a r i e s
dimensionless variables involved. Taking the i n e a r l y g e o l o g i c s t a g e s of d e v e l o p m e n t of the
drainage b a s i n t o b e b o u n d e d b y v e r t i c a l sides a n d drainage basin, but once having attained an
a horizontal b a s e p l a n e p a s s i n g t h r o u g h t h e m o u t h , equilibrium, or m a t u r e stage (middle curve on
the relative h e i g h t is t h e r a t i o of h e i g h t of a g i v e n graph), tends to v a r y little thereafter. Several
contour h t o t o t a l b a s i n h e i g h t E. R e l a t i v e a r e a is d i m e n s i o n l e s s a t t r i b u t e s of t h e h y p s o m e t r i c c u r v e
the ratio of h o r i z o n t a l c r o s s - s e c t i o n a l a r e a a to a r e m e a s u r a b l e a n d c a n b e u s e d for c o m p a r a t i v e
entire b a s i n a r e a A. T h e p e r c e n t a g e h y p s o m e t r i c purposes. T h e s e include t h e integral, or relative

Percentage hypsometric
Summit curve

-CLX

Mouth

Area a
Area A 0 .2 .4 .6 .8
(entire basin) Relative area, -J-

Y Model hypsometric Characteristic curves

function: of erosion cycle-.
Inequilibrium
{young)
stage
Equilibrium
(mature)
stage
.Monadnock
phase

0 Relative area 1.0

FIG. 8 - M e t h o d of hypsometric analysis (Strahler, 1954a. p . 353)
920 ARTHUR N. STRAHLER
area lying below the curve, the slope of the curve
at its inflection point, and the degree of sinuosity
of the curve. Many hypsometric curves seem to be
closely fitted by the model function shown in the
lower left corner of Figure 8, although no rational
or mechanical basis is known for the function.
Now that the hypsometric curves have been
plotted for hundreds of small basins in a wide
variety of regions and conditions, it is possible to
observe the extent to which variation occurs.
Generally the curve properties tend to be stable in
homogeneous rock masses and to adhere generally
to the same curve family for a given geologic and
climatic combination.
C01!clusion-This paper has reviewed briefly a
variety of geometrical properties, some of length
dimension or its products, others dimensionless,
which may be applied to the systematic descrip-
tion of drainage basins developed by normal
processes of water erosion. Among the morpho-
logical aspects not mentioned are stream profiles
and the geometry of stream channels. These, too,
are subject to orderly treatment along the lines
suggested. The examples of quantitative methods
presented above are· intended to show that, com-
plex as a landscape may be, it is amenable to
quantitative statement if systematically broken
down into component form elements. Just which of
these measurements or indices will prove most
useful in explaining variance in hydrological
properties of a watershed and in the rates of
erosion and sediment production remains to be
seen when they are introduced into multivariate
analysis. Already there are definite indications of
the usefulness of certain of the measures and it is
only a matter of continuing the development of
analytical methods until the most important geo-
morphic variables are isolated.
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Department of Geology, Columbia University, NftW York
27,N. Y.
(Manuscript received April 1, 1957; presented as part
of the Symposium on Watershed Erosion and Sedi·
ment Yields at the Thirty-Seventh Annual Meeting,
Washington, D.C., May 1, 1956; open for formal dis·
cussion until May 1, 1958.)