8-Commuication Receivers

Chapter 9
Communication Receivers
Topics Covered in Chapter 9
● 9-1: Basic Principles of Signal Reproduction
● 9-2: Superheterodyne Receivers
● 9-3: Frequency Conversion
● 9-4: Intermediate Frequency and Images
● 9-5: Noise
● 9-6: Typical Receiver Circuits
● 9-7: Receivers and Transceivers
9-1: Basic Principles of Signal
Reproduction
● In radio communication systems, the transmitted
signal is very weak when it reaches the receiver,
particularly when it has traveled over a long
distance.
● The signal has also picked up noise of various
kinds.
● Receivers must provide the sensitivity and
selectivity that permit full recovery of the original
signal.
● The radio receiver best suited to this task is
known as the superheterodyne receiver.
Reproduction
● A communication receiver must be able to
identify and select a desired signal from the
thousands of others present in the frequency
spectrum (selectivity) and to provide sufficient
amplification to recover the modulating signal
(sensitivity).
● A receiver with good selectivity will isolate the
desired signal and greatly attenuate other
signals.
● A receiver with good sensitivity involves high
circuit gain.
Reproduction
Selectivity: Q and Bandwidth
● Selectivity in a receiver is obtained by using
tuned circuits and/or filters.
● LC tuned circuits provide initial selectivity.
● Filters provide additional selectivity.
● By controlling the Q of a resonant circuit, you
can set the desired selectivity.
● The optimum bandwidth is one that is wide
enough to pass the signal and its sidebands but
narrow enough to eliminate signals on adjacent
frequencies.
Reproduction
Figure 91: Selectivity curve of a tuned circuit.
Reproduction
Selectivity: Shape Factor
● The sides of a tuned circuit response curve are
known as skirts.
● The steepness of the skirts, or the skirt
selectivity, of a receiver is expressed as the
shape factor, the ratio of the 60-dB down
bandwidth to the 6-dB down bandwidth.
● The lower the shape factor, the steeper the
skirts and the better the selectivity.
Reproduction
Sensitivity
● A communication receiver’s sensitivity, or ability to
pick up weak signals, is a function of overall gain,
the factor by which an input signal is multiplied to
produce the output signal.
● The higher the gain of a receiver, the better its
sensitivity.
● The more gain that a receiver has, the smaller the
input signal necessary to produce a desired level of
output.
● High gain in receivers is obtained by using multiple
amplification stages.
Reproduction
Sensitivity
● Another factor that affects the sensitivity of a receiver is the
signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio (SNR).
● One method of expressing the sensitivity of a receiver is to
establish the minimum discernible signal (MDS).
● The MDS is the input signal level that is approximately equal
to the average internally generated noise value.
● This noise value is called the noise floor of the receiver.
● MDS is the amount of signal that would produce the same
audio power output as the noise floor signal.
Reproduction
Basic Receiver Configuration
● The simplest radio receiver is a crystal set
consisting of a tuned circuit, a diode (crystal)
detector, and earphones.
● The tuned circuit provides the selectivity.
● The diode and a capacitor serve as an AM
demodulator.
● The earphones reproduce the recovered audio
signal.
Reproduction
Figure 94: The simplest receiver—a crystal set.
Reproduction
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
● In the tuned radio frequency (TRF) receiver
sensitivity is improved by adding a number of
stages of RF amplification between the antenna
and detector, followed by stages of audio
amplification.
● The RF amplifier stages increase the gain
before it is applied to the detector.
● The recovered signal is amplified further by
audio amplifiers, which provide sufficient gain to
operate a loudspeaker.
Reproduction
Figure 95: Tuned radiofrequency (TRF) receiver.
Reproduction
Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver
● Many RF amplifiers use multiple tuned circuits.
● Whenever resonant LC circuits tuned to the same
frequency are cascaded, overall selectivity is
improved.
● The greater the number of tuned stages cascaded,
the narrower the bandwidth and the steeper the skirts.
● The main problem with TRF receivers is tracking the
tuned circuits.
● In a receiver, the tuned circuits must be made variable
so that they can be set to the frequency of the desired
signal.
● Another problem with TRF receivers is that selectivity
varies with frequency.
9-2: Superheterodyne Receivers
● Superheterodyne receivers convert all

incoming signals to a lower frequency, known as
the intermediate frequency (IF), at which a
single set of amplifiers is used to provide a fixed
level of sensitivity and selectivity.
● Gain and selectivity are obtained in the IF
amplifiers.
● The key circuit is the mixer, which acts like a
simple amplitude modulator to produce sum and
difference frequencies.
● The incoming signal is mixed with a local
oscillator signal.
Figure 98: Block diagram of a superheterodyne receiver.
RF Amplifier
● The antenna picks up the weak radio signal and
feeds it to the RF amplifier, also called a low-
noise amplifier (LNA).
● RF amplifiers provide some initial gain and
selectivity and are sometimes called
preselectors.
● Tuned circuits help select the frequency range in
which the signal resides.
● RF amplifiers minimize oscillator radiation.
● Bipolar and FETs can be used as RF amplifiers.
Mixers and Local Oscillators

● The output of the RF amplifier is applied to the input of
the mixer.
● The mixer also receives an input from a local oscillator
or frequency synthesizer.
● The mixer output is the input signal, the local oscillator
signal, and the sum and difference frequencies of these
signals.
● A tuned circuit at the output of the mixer selects the
difference frequency, or intermediate frequency (IF).
● The local oscillator is made tunable so that its
frequency can be adjusted over a relatively wide range.
IF Amplifiers
● The output of the mixer is an IF signal containing
the same modulation that appeared on the input
RF signal.
● The signal is amplified by one or more IF
amplifier stages, and most of the gain is
obtained in these stages.
● Selective tuned circuits provide fixed selectivity.
● Since the intermediate frequency is usually
lower than the input frequency, IF amplifiers are
easier to design and good selectivity is easier to
obtain.
Demodulators
● The highly amplified IF signal is finally applied to
the demodulator, which recovers the original
modulating information.
● The demodulator may be a diode detector (for
AM), a quadrature detector (for FM), or a
product detector (for SSB).
● The output of the demodulator is then usually
fed to an audio amplifier.
Automatic Gain Control

● The output of a demodulator is usually the original
modulating signal, the amplitude of which is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the received signal.
● The recovered signal, which is usually ac, is rectified
and filtered into a dc voltage by a circuit known as the
automatic gain control (AGC) circuit.
● This dc voltage is fed back to the IF amplifiers, and
sometimes the RF amplifier, to control receiver gain.
● AGC circuits help maintain a constant output level
over a wide range of RF input signal levels.
Automatic Gain Control

● The amplitude of the RF signal at the antenna of a receiver
can range from a fraction of a microvolt to thousands of
microvolts; this wide signal range is known as the dynamic
range.
● Typically, receivers are designed with very high gain so
that weak signals can be reliably received.
● However, applying a very high-amplitude signal to a
receiver causes the circuits to be overdriven, producing
distortion and reducing intelligibility.
● With AGC, the overall gain of the receiver is automatically
adjusted depending on the input signal level.
9-3: Frequency Conversion
● Frequency conversion is the process of
translating a modulated signal to a higher or
lower frequency while retaining all the
originally transmitted information.
● In radio receivers, high-frequency signals are
converted to a lower, intermediate frequency.
This is called down conversion.
● In satellite communications, the original
signal is generated at a lower frequency and
then converted to a higher frequency. This is
called up conversion.
Mixing Principles
● Frequency conversion is a form of amplitude
modulation carried out by a mixer circuit or
converter.
● The function performed by the mixer is called
heterodyning.
Mixing Principles
● Mixers accept two inputs: The signal to be
translated to another frequency is applied to one
input, and the sine wave from a local oscillator is
applied to the other input.
● Like an amplitude modulator, a mixer essentially
performs a mathematical multiplication of its two
input signals.
● The oscillator is the carrier, and the signal to be
translated is the modulating signal.
● The output contains not only the carrier signal but
also sidebands formed when the local oscillator
and input signal are mixed.
Figure 99: Concept of a mixer.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer
● The primary characteristic of mixer circuits is
nonlinearity.
● Any device or circuit whose output does not vary
linearly with the input can be used as a mixer.
● One of the most widely used types of mixer is
the simple diode modulator.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: Diode Mixer
● The input signal is applied to the primary winding
of the transformer.
● The signal is coupled to the secondary winding
and applied to the diode mixer, and the local
oscillator signal is coupled to the diode by way of a
capacitor.
● The input and local oscillator signals are linearly
added and applied to the diode, which produces
the sum and difference frequencies.
● The output signals are developed across the tuned
circuit which selects the difference frequency.
Figure 910: A simple diode mixer.
Mixer and Converter Circuits
● Singly balanced mixer: A popular mixer circuit
using two diodes.
● Doubly balanced mixer: This version of the
diode balanced modulator is probably the single
best mixer available, especially for VHF, UHF,
and microwave frequencies.
● FET Mixers: FETs make good mixers because
they provide gain, have low noise, and offer a
nearly perfect square-low response.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: IC Mixer
● The NE602, a typical IC mixer, is also known as a Gilbert
transconductance cell or Gilbert cell.
● It consists of a double balanced mixer circuit made up of two
cross-connected differential amplifiers.
Mixer and Converter Circuits: Image Reject Mixer

● An image reject mixer is a special type of mixer used in designs
in which images cannot be tolerated.
● It uses Gilbert cell mixers in a configuration like that used in a
phasing-type SSB generator.
Figure 9-15: NE602 IC
mixer. (a) Block
diagram and pinout.
(b) Simplified
schematic.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers
● The local oscillator signal for the mixer comes
from either a conventional LC tuned oscillator or
a frequency synthesizer.
● The simpler continuously tuned receivers use an
LC oscillator.
● Channelized receivers use frequency
synthesizers.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers:
LC Oscillator
● A local oscillator is sometimes referred to as a
variable-frequency oscillator, or VFO.
● An amplifier (e.g. FET) is connected as a
Colpitts oscillator.
● Feedback is developed by a voltage divider
made up of capacitors.
● The frequency is set by a parallel tuned circuit.
● The output is taken across an RFC and it is
buffered by a direct-coupled emitter follower.
Figure 917: A VFO for receiver local oscillator service.
Local Oscillator and Frequency Synthesizers: Frequency
Synthesizer
● Most new receiver designs incorporate frequency
synthesizers for the local oscillator, which provides some
important benefits over simple VFO designs.
● The synthesizer is usually of the phase-locked loop (PLL)
design and the output is locked to a crystal oscillator
reference which provides high stability.
● Tuning is accomplished by changing the frequency division
factor in the PLL, resulting in incremental rather than
continuous frequency changes.
Figure 918: A frequency synthesizer used as a receiver local oscillator.
9-4: Intermediate
Frequency and Images
● The primary objective in the design of an IF
stage is to obtain good selectivity.
● Narrow-band selectivity is best obtained at
lower frequencies.
● At low frequencies, circuits are more stable
with high gain.
9-4: Intermediate
● At low frequencies, image interference is
possible. An image is an RF signal two times
the IF above or below the incoming
frequency.
● At higher frequencies, circuit layouts must
take into account stray inductances and
capacitances.
● At higher frequencies, there is a need for
shielding.
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 919: Relationship of the signal and image frequencies.
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 920: Signal, local oscillator, and
image frequencies in a superheterodyne.
9-4: Intermediate
Solving the Image Problem
● To reduce image interference, high-Q tuned
circuits should be used ahead of the mixer or RF
amplifier.
● The IF is made as high as possible for effective
elimination of the image problem, yet low
enough to prevent design problems.
● In most receivers the IF varies in proportion to
the frequencies that must be covered.
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 921: A low IF compared to the signal frequency with lowQ
tuned circuits causes images to pass and interfere.
9-4: Intermediate
Dual-Conversion Receivers
● Another way to obtain selectivity while eliminating
the image problem is to use a dual-conversion
superheterodyne receiver.
● A typical receiver uses two mixers and local
oscillators, so it has two IFs.
● The first mixer converts the incoming signal to a
high intermediate frequency to eliminate the
images.
● The second mixer converts that IF down to a much
lower frequency, where good selectivity is easier to
obtain.
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 922: A dualconversion superheterodyne.
9-4: Intermediate
Direct Conversion Receivers
● A special version of the superheterodyne is known as
the direct conversion (DC) or zero IF (ZIF) receiver.
● DC receivers convert the incoming signal directly to
baseband without converting to an IF.
● They perform demodulation as part of the translation.
● The low-noise amplifier (LNA) boosts the signal before
the mixer.
● The local oscillator (LO) frequency is set to the
frequency of the incoming signal.
● Baseband output is passed via a low-pass filter (LPF).
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 923: A directconversion (zeroIF) receiver.
9-4: Intermediate
● Advantages:
– No separate IF filter is needed.
– No separate detector circuit is needed.
– In transceivers that use half duplex and in which the
transmitter and receiver are on the same frequency,
only one PLL frequency synthesizer voltage-
controlled oscillator is needed.
– There is no image problem.
9-4: Intermediate
● Disadvantages:
– In designs with no RF amplifier (LNA), the LO signal
can leak through the mixer to the antenna and
radiate.
– An undesired dc offset can develop in the output.
– The ZIF receiver can be used only with CW, AM,
SSB, or DSB. It cannot recognize phase or frequency
variations.
9-4: Intermediate
Figure 924: A direct conversion receiver for FM, FSK, PSK,
and digital modulation.
9-4: Intermediate
● To demodulate FM and PM modulations in a
zero-IF receiver, two mixers and filters are

needed.
● There must be a 90° phase shift between the
LO signals to produce I and Q signals for the

DSP demodulation.
9-4: Intermediate
Software-Defined Radio
● A software-defined radio (SDR) is a receiver in
which most of the functions are performed by a
digital signal processor (DSP).
● The benefits of SDRs are improved performance
and flexibility.
● The receiver characteristics (type of modulation,
selectivity, etc.) can be easily changed by
running a different program.
9-5: Noise
● Noise is an electronic signal that gets added
to a radio or information signal as it is
transmitted from one place to another.
● It is not the same as interference from other
information signals.
9-5: Noise
● Noise is the static you hear in the speaker when
you tune any AM or FM receiver to any position
between stations. It is also the “snow” or
“confetti” that is visible on a TV screen.
● The noise level in a system is proportional to
● temperature and bandwidth,
● the amount of current flowing in a component,
● the gain of the circuit, and
● the resistance of the circuit.
9-5: Noise
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
● The signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio indicates the
relative strengths of the signal and the noise in a
communication system.
● The stronger the signal and the weaker the
noise, the higher the S/N ratio.
● It can be expressed in terms of voltage or power.
9-5: Noise
Signal-to-Noise Ratio
● S/N is computed by using either voltage or
power values.
S Vs Voltagesignal
● = =
N Vn Voltagenoise
S Ps Powersignal
= =
N Pn Powernoise
9-5: Noise
Example
● Assume that the signal voltage is 1.2 uV and the
noise is 0.3 uV.
– Calculate the S/N ratio
– Express S/N ratio in dB.
S Vs Voltagesignal 1.2 µV
●
= = = =4
N Vn Voltagenoise 0.3µV
S
dB = 20 log = 20 log 4 = 12dB
N
9-5: Noise
 Most of the S/N ratio are expressed in term of power
rather than voltage.
 Assume that the signal power is 5 uW and the noise is
125 nW.
– Calculate the S/N ratio
– Express S/N ratio in dB.
S Ps Powersignal 5µW

= = = = 40
N Pn Powernoise 125nW
S
dB = 10 log = 10 log 40 = 16dB
N
9-5: Noise
External Noise
● External noise comes from sources over which
we have little or no control, such as:
– Industrial sources
● motors, generators, manufactured equipment
– Atmospheric sources
● The naturally occurring electrical disturbances in the earth’s
atmosphere; atmospheric noise is also called static.
– Space
● The sun radiates a wide range of signals in a broad noise
spectrum.
9-5: Noise
Internal Noise
● Electronic components in a receiver such as
resistors, diodes, and transistors are major
sources of internal noise. Types of internal
noise include:
– Thermal noise
– Semiconductor noise
– Intermodulation distortion
9-5: Noise
Expressing Noise Levels
● The noise quality of a receiver can be expressed
in the following terms:
– The noise factor is the ratio of the S/N power at the
input to the S/N power at the output.
– When the noise factor is expressed in decibels, it is
called the noise figure.
– Most of the noise produced in a device is thermal,
which is directly proportional to temperature. Therefore,
the term noise temperature (TN) is used.
– SINAD is the composite signal plus noise and
distortion divided by noise and distortion contributed by
the receiver.
9-5: Noise
Noise in Cascaded Stages
● Noise has its greatest effect at the input to a
receiver because that is the point at which the
signal level is lowest.
● The noise performance of a receiver is
determined in the first stage of the receiver,
usually an RF amplifier or mixer.
9-6: Typical Receiver Circuits
● Typical receiver circuits include:
● RF amplifiers
● IF amplifiers
● AGC
● AFC
● Special circuits
RF Input Amplifier
● The RF amplifier, also called a low-noise amplifier
(LNA), processes the very weak input signals,
increasing their amplitude prior to mixing.
● Low-noise components are used to ensure a
sufficiently high S/N ratio.
● Selectivity should be such that it effectively
eliminates images.
● The RF amplifier is typically a class A circuit that
can be configured with bipolar or field-effect
transistors.
Figure 930: A typical RF amplifier used in receiver front ends.
IF Amplifier
● Most of the gain and selectivity in a
superheterodyne receiver are obtained in the IF
amplifier.
● If amplifiers are tuned class A circuits capable of
providing gain in the 10- to 30-dB range.
● Usually two or more IF amplifiers are used to
provide adequate receiver gain.
● Ferrite-core transformers are used for coupling
between stages.
● Selectivity is provided by tuned circuits.
Figure 933: A twostage IF amplifier using doubletuned transformer
coupling for selectivity.
Traditional IF Amplifier Circuits: Coupled Circuit
Selectivity
● Changing the amount of coupling between the
primary and secondary windings allows the
desired amount of bandwidth to be obtained. At
some particular degree of coupling, known as
critical coupling, the output reaches a peak
value.
● In FM receivers, one or more of the IF amplifier
stages is used as a limiter, to remove any
amplitude variations on the FM signal before the
signal is applied to the demodulator.
Traditional IF Amplifier Circuits: Coupled Circuit
Selectivity
● Most modern receivers do not use LC tuned
filters but instead use crystal, ceramic,

mechanical, SAW or DSP filters.
Automatic Gain Control Circuits
● Receiver gain is typically far greater than required
for adequate reception. Excessive gain usually
causes the received signal to be distorted and the
transmitted information to be less intelligible.
● Manual gain control can be achieved by using a
potentiometer in RF and IF stages.
● Receivers include volume controls in audio
circuits.
● AGC circuits are more effective in handling large
signals and give the receiver a very wide dynamic
range.
Automatic Gain Control Circuits: Controlling
Circuit Gain
 The gain of a bipolar transistor amplifier is
proportional to the amount of collector current
flowing.
 Two methods of applying AGC are as follows:
1. The gain can be decreased by decreasing the
collector current. This is called reverse AGC.
2. The gain can be reduced by increasing the collector
current. A stronger signal increases AGC voltage and
base current and, in turn, increases collector current,
reducing the gain. This method of gain control is
known as forward AGC.
Figure 9-37: An IF
differential amplifier
with AGC.
Squelch Circuit
● A squelch circuit, or muting circuit, is found in
most communications receivers.
● The squelch is used to keep the receiver audio
turned off until an RF signal appears at the
receiver input.
● In AM systems such as CB radios, the noise level
is high and can be very annoying.
● Squelch circuits provide a means of keeping the
audio amplifier turned off during the time that noise
is received in the background and enabling it when
an RF signal appears at the input.
SSB and Continuous-Wave Reception
● Communication receivers designed for receiving
SSB or continuous-wave signals have a built-in
oscillator that permits recovery of the transmitted
information.
● A circuit called the beat frequency oscillator
(BFO) is usually designed to operate near the IF.
● The BFO signal is applied to the demodulator
along with the IF signal containing the
modulation.
Figure 942: The use of a BFO.
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers
 In new designs, virtually all receiver circuits are
ICs.
 A complete receiver usually consists of three or
four ICs, plus coils, transformers, capacitors,
and filters.
 Most modern receivers are contained on a
single IC.
Integrated Circuits (ICs) in Receivers
● IC receivers are typically broken down into three
major sections:
1. The tuner, with RF amplifier, mixer, and local oscillator
2. The IF section, with amplifiers, demodulator, and AGC
and muting circuits
3. The audio power amplifier.
● The second and third sections are entirely
implemented with ICs. The tuner may or may not
be, for often the LNA is separate.
9-7: Receivers and Transceivers
VHF Aircraft Communication Circuit
● A typical VHF receiver is designed to receive
two-way aircraft communication between planes
and airport controllers.
● They have a typical frequency range of 118 to
135 MHz.
● Amplitude modulation is typical with these
receivers.
● VHF receivers are designed to use a
combination of discrete components and ICs.
Figure 944 The aviation receiver—a superheterodyne unit built
around four ICs—is designed to receive AM signals in the 118 to 135
MHz frequency range. (Popular Electronics, January 1991, Gernsback
Single-IC FM Receiver
● The Motorola MC3363 FM receiver IC chip
contains all receiver circuits except for the audio
power amplifier (a separate chip).
● It is designed to operate at frequencies up to
about 200 MHz
● It is widely used in cordless telephones, paging
receivers, and other portable applications.
● This dual-conversion receiver contains two
mixers, two local oscillators, a limiter, a
quadrature detector, and squelch circuits.
● The first local oscillator has a built-in varactor that
allows it to be controlled by an external frequency
synthesizer.
Figure 945: The Motorola MC3363 dualconversion receiver IC.
Transceiver
● Most two-way radio communication equipment is
packaged so that both transmitter and receiver
are in a unit known as a transceiver.
● Transceivers range from large, high-power
desktop units to small, pocket-sized, handheld
units.
● Transceivers have a common housing and
power supply.
● Transceivers can share circuits, thereby achieve
cost savings, and in some cases are smaller in
size.
Figure 947: An SSB transceiver showing circuit sharing.

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Chapter 9

● Superheterodyne receivers convert all

Mixers and Local Oscillators

Automatic Gain Control

Automatic Gain Control

Mixer and Converter Circuits: Image Reject Mixer

zero-IF receiver, two mixers and filters are

LO signals to produce I and Q signals for the

filters but instead use crystal, ceramic,

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