Social Studies II

Professional Education Professor

February 2020
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I. PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION
Psychological Foundations of Education presents some of the principles of psychology that are relevant to learning and teaching. It presents an alternative answer
to the problem of the bifurcation of general and educational psychology in the curriculum of teacher preparation. While the solution is provisional and has obvious imperfections,
it is offered in the hope that it may stimulate discussion of the problem and other solutions and/or explicit justifications for past practice. Key concepts discussed include
teachers’ attitudes and behavior, different types of learning, technology in education, forgetting and extinction, child development, and intelligence measurements.

a. Motivational Theories. According to Green (1995), motivation refers to the initiation, direction, intensity, and persistence of human behavior. Theory suggests that there
are actually two motivation systems: intrinsic and extrinsic that corresponds to two kinds of motivators: intrinsic motivators: Achievement, responsibility and competence.
Motivators that come from the actual performance of the task or job -- the intrinsic interest of the work. These are some motivational theories in education:

RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER

CN THEORIST THEORY MAIN IDEA APPLICATION IN TEACHING
THEORIES
The school and teacher should
This theory holds the tangible and
ensure water supplies, nutritious
intangible demands and needs of
Human beings have wants and desires, snacks, and security in the
the learners. It presents as an
Hierarchy of Human which influence their behavior, only classroom and the campus. Support
001 Abraham Maslow umbrella theory for Drive Reduction
needs Theory unsatisfied needs, can influence behavior, students in all of those stages
Theory, Need Achievement, etc.
satisfied needs cannot. noted, students could perform at
The difference is it is a hierarchical
their fullest potential, which is the
stage of needs.
self-actualization stage.

Drive-Reduction Theory focuses on how Unlike with other motivational and Teachers conduct feeding
motivation originates from biological needs behavioral theories, it does not programs, empower physical
Drive Reduction
002 Clark Hull or drives and a person's behavior is an explain why people engage in activities, and activities boost their
Theory
external display of his desire to satisfy his behaviors that do not reduce physiological needs to motivate
physical deficiencies. drives. them into active learning.

It envisages that a person has need for Theory focuses on needs for Teacher’s application involves
three things but people differ in degree in achievement, power, and affiliation students into group activities that
Need Achievement
003 David McCleklland which the various needs influence their but ignore the claim of Drive empower teamwork, the school
Theory
behavior. Need for achievement, power, Reduction Theory which basic encourage for student organization
and affiliation. needs like food (on, shelter and of the needs of affiliation and

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It occurs when an individual experiences
some degree of discomfort resulting from
an incompatibility between two cognitions.
Cognitive Dissonance
004 Leon Festinge One of the most powerful motivators, as
Theory
learners want to avoid the discomfort,
pressure, and tension that a dissonance can
cause
It proposes that you can change a person's
behavior through use of positive
Burrhus Frederic Reinforcement reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
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Skinner Theory punishment, and extinction. Positive
reinforcement involves rewarding desired
behavior with positive consequences.
safety) and the hierarchical needs
of Maslow.
Cognitive dissonance theory is
contradictory to most behavioral
theories, which would predict
greater attitude change with
increased incentive (i.e.,
reinforcement).
This theory is in relation to the and prizes in the classroom to teach
theory of operant conditioning.
This theory focuses “reward” and
“positive reinforcement” as the
intent of encouraging and
motivation. Unlike other
motivational theories, demands and
needs were less in focus.
ranking basis for the students to
create competitions for the needs of
power.
Learners try to achieve consistency
between their beliefs, opinions, and
other cognitions. Teachers should
check the atmosphere of the
classroom (such as the cleanliness
or room temperature) to ensure
student’s comfort before teaching
the class.
Educators use positive
reinforcement tactics like rewards
new skills and encourage positive
outcomes. For example, if the
desired behavior is for students to
read more books each month, the
teacher could award students with
a sticker for each book they read.
The sticker serves as a positive
reinforcement to encourage
students to read more books.
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b. Cognitive Theories. These psychological theories provides many central concepts in the field that concerned the growth of intelligence, meant the ability to more accurately
represent the world and perform logical operations on representations of concepts grounded in the world.

CN THEORIST THEORY MAIN IDEA RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER THEORIES APPLICATION IN TEACHING

Teachers and instructors shall

practice information-processing
Information processing theories differ in their
skills of their learners to test their
views on which cognitive processes are
focusing, information gathering,
important and how they operate, but they
Information processing theories focus on remembering, and organizing skills.
share some common assumptions. One is
how people attend to environmental
Information that information processing occurs in stages
events, encode information to be learned For example, Remembering skills
006 George A. Miller Processing that intervene between receiving a stimulus
and relate it to knowledge in memory, involve encoding and recalling,
Theory and producing a response. A corollary is that
store new knowledge in memory, and which are both directly linked to
the form of information, on how it is
retrieve it as needed mnemonics. Organizing skills
represented mentally, differs depending on
include comparisons,
the stage. The stages are qualitatively
categorization, sequencing and
different from one another.
visual, verbal or symbolic
representations.
Teaching should be based on
diversity and empowers student’s
The theory of multiple intelligences Some critics claim that this theory only
skills and talents such as
Multiple differentiates human intelligence into emphasizes on talents rather than cognitive
culminating activities, intramurals,
007 Howard Gardner Intelligences specific 'modalities', rather than seeing construct. However, this theory gives multiple
academic festivals, and etc.
Theory intelligence as dominated by a single scopes of development and claims to other
Classroom teaching should be
general ability. cognitive theories.
consider the diversity of the
learners in cognitive capabilities.
Sternberg's definition of human m. A word problem question asking
Triarchic Theory and Multiple Intelligences
intelligence is "(a) mental activity the students to finding the age for
Triarchic claimed diversity of cognitive capabilities of
directed toward purposive adaptation to, someone who is three years older
008 Robert J. Sternberg Theory of the learners. However, this theory
selection and shaping of, real-world than twice another person. A
Intelligence emphasizes that intelligence has three
environments relevant to one's life". formula can be used pr a visual
aspects not multiple intelligences.
Thus, Sternberg viewed intelligence as representation to show the patter
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 how well an individual deals with
environmental changes throughout their
lifespan. Sternberg's theory comprises
three parts: componential, experiential,
and practical.
It is based on the notion that individuals
Goal Setting sometimes have a drive to reach clearly
009 Edwin Locke
Theory defined end state. Often, this end state
is a reward in itself.
Social cognitive theory utilized both in
psychology and communications posits
that portions of an individual’s
Social
knowledge acquisition can be directly
010 Albert Bandura Cognitive
related to observijng others within the
Theory
context of social interactions,
experiences, and outside media
influences.
can also be used. Real world
examples and word problems can
help the practical intelligence.
Giving situations with a problem
and using group work can allow
these students to use their practical
intelligence and learn more.
Goal Setting Theory also does not account for
actions motivated by the subconscious; as
Academic goals should be
the goal-setting theory focuses on cognition
objectively defined and intelligible
with no regard to the subconscious just like
for the individual. For instance, a
in other cognitive theories. Unlike other
poorly specified goal is to get the
theories, goal-setting theory focuses on how
highest possible grade. Most
goals are related to job performance, but
children have no idea how much
does not take into account the "why" now
effort they need to reach that goal.
how this is related to increased job
performance.
Learner’s behavior is guided by
cognitive processes rather than
Social Cognitive Theory deals with the
formed or shaped by reinforced
philosophy of pragmatism that learning can
practice. In the classroom, learners
be only found on experience and observation.
are motivated by goals, such as a
However, it opened another medium, which
high GPA, popularity with
are social interaction, and outside media.
classmates or even being the class
clown. These goals direct behavior.
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c. Learning Theories. Learning is the acquisition and development of memories and behaviors, including skills, knowledge, understanding, values, and wisdom. It is the goal of
education and the product of experience. It is therefore a relatively permanent change in behavior.

CN THEORIST THEORY MAIN IDEA RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER THEORIES APPLICATION IN TEACHING

Informal learning is a significant

aspect of our learning experience.
Formal education no longer
Connectivism is a learning theory comprises the majority of our
that explains how Internet Connectivism only applies for the 21st Century learning. Learning now occurs in a
technologies have created new skills in education. Unlike in other theories, it variety of ways—through
George Siemens And Connectivism
011 opportunities for people to learn is more traditional and learner-centered communities of practice, personal
Stephen Downes Learning Theory
and share information across the based. Through this, it creates more channels networks, and through completion
World Wide Web and among in learning. of work-related tasks.
them. Teacher should encourage usage of
Internet as another channel of
information and learning. Such as
multimedia and computers.
Teachers and the school should
It is a theory of learning process
observe proper conduct and values
and social behavior, which Social learning theory agrees to the
Social Learning pertaining them as role models of
012 Albert Bandura proposes that new behaviors can philosophy of pragmatism which learning
Theory their students. Learners will imitate
be acquired by observing and acquires through experience and observation.
values rather than misconduct and
imitating others.
immoral doings.
Teachers should encourage their
students to discover the relationship
The primary focus of this theory Unlikely with other theories, weak areas
of the elements that make up a
Max Wertheimer is on perception and how people include a lack of detailed understanding of
problem. Incongruities, gaps, or
013 Wolfgang Köhler Gestalt Theory assigned meanings to visual embodiment, lack of developmental theory,
disturbances are essential stimuli in
Kurt Koffka stimuli. “The whole is more than and theoretical limits in the integration of
the learning process. Educational
the sum of all its parts” spirituality in treatment.
instruction should be based on the
Laws of Organization.

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It is based on the principle of
active learning that learning is
achieved when an individual is
able to form associations
Connectionism
014 Edward Thorndike between a particular stimulus and
Theory
a response. The three main laws
are the Law of Readiness, the
Law of Exercise, and the Law of
Effect.
Learning involves there
Instrumental simultaneous processes:
015 Jerome Bruner
Conceptualism Acquisition, transformation, and
evaluation.
Teaching in inductive approach.
Teaching started from the easier
Connectionism possessed much
aspect towards its difficult side.
comprehensiveness than other learning
This approach will benefit the
theories. Some disadvantages of this theory
weaker and backward children. For
include the difficulty in deciphering how
instance, teaching the child rectifies
artificial neutral networks ANNs process
the writing after committing
information and a resultant difficulty
mistakes. It is more emphasis has
explaining phenomena at a higher level. It
been laid on motivation. Thus,
has contradictory on the Connectivism
before starting teaching in the
learning theory.
classroom the students should be
properly motivated.
Instrumental Conceptualism is in lined with
the older version of the Bloom’s Taxonomy to
the hierarchical models used to classify Traditional teaching methods
educational learning objectives into levels of include discussion, lectures, and
complexity and specificity. Leading inputs quizzes.
(knowledge) into outputs (evaluation and
feedback)
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II. PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

The word Philosophy is said to be invented by Pythagoras. According to him, only gods should be called wise while men should be called “lovers” or “friends” of wisdom.
Hence, the term “philo” and “Sophia” were formulated which literally mean “love” and wisdom” respectively. Philosophy is defined as “certa Scientia per ultima causas” which
means certain knowledge trough ultimate causes-acquired by the use of human reason along. While philosophy establishes the fundamental principles (concepts, theories,
learning), it is education that carries out these principle. Furthermore, philosophy provides the goal or aims while education is the instrument in realizing these goals. Philosophy
and education complement each other. Both them spouse theory and practice. The absence of one will make a man insufficient and aimless.

RELATIONSHIP WITH OTHER

CN THEORIST THEORY MAIN IDEA APPLICATION IN TEACHING
THEORIES
Naturalism stands for a democratic and
universal way that everyone must be
It denies everything that has
Naturalism and realism focuses on the educated in the same manner. Education is
Thales supernatural significance such as
external environment (nature) rather in accordance to human development and
016 Anaximander Naturalism dogmas and revelations for all can be
than the rationality and thinking of growth. Emphasis is given more on the
Anaximenes accounted by scientific laws. It preserves
human mind. physical environment, informal exercises
the natural goodness of man
and hygiene of the students rather than the
3Rs.
Organized, separate, and systematically
It concerns with the actualities of life, Naturalism and realism focuses on the arranged matter – emphasis is on subject
Aristotle
what is rea. The ultimate reality is the external environment (nature) rather matter concerning science and
017 St. Thomas Realism
world of physical objects. Hence, reality than the rationality and thinking of mathematics. Methods used in teaching
Jonathan Herbart
is independent of the human mind. human mind. include recitation, experimentation, and
demonstration.
Existentialism contradicts the claim of Subject matter is a personal choice.
Known as the Philosophy of Subjectivity. realism and naturalism. Existentialism Learning is based on the willingness of the
Soren Kierkegaard
018 Existentialism Proclaims man’s freedom in the much focused on the human destiny, student to choose and give meaning to the
Jean Paul Sartre
accomplishment of destiny. subjectivity, rather than external subject. Emphasis is given on the students
environment and learning. rather than on curriculum content

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 Defining feature is “essence Education focuses on the basics – reading,
precedes existence”. It refers to the writing, speaking, and the ability to
traditional or back to the basic compute (arithmetic). Methods of teaching
William Bagley Essentialism is rooted in idealism and
approach in education. Concerns centers on giving regular assignments,
019 James Koerner Essentialism realism and arose in response to
with the fundamental of education drills, recitation, frequent testing and
Paul Copperman progressive education.
skill and knowledge without which a evaluation. Students should be taught to
person cannot either be efficient think logically and systematically – grasping
individually or socially. not just the parts but also the whole.
Experiences and observations are Education involves student to work in
true. It focuses more on “praxis”. Pragmatism denies claims in groups. Methods of teaching include
Charles Sanders
Thought must produce actions naturalism, realism, and existentialism experimentation, project making, and
020 Peirce Pragmatism
(realizations) rather than to that true can only found on problem solving. Stresses on the application
John Dewet
continue lying inside the mind and experience and observation. of what have learned rather than the
leading into certainty. transfer of organized body of knowledge
Curriculum should contain cognitive subjects
that cultivate rationality, morality,
Truth is universal and does not
aesthetics, and religious principles. It must
depend on circumstances of place,
Robert Hutchins Perennialism is influenced by the be based on recurrent themes of human life
021 Perennialism time and person. To learn means to
Mortimer Adler philosophy of realism. for it view education as a recurring process
acquire understanding of the great
based on eternal truths. Teacher must have
works of civilization.
the mastery of the subject matter and
authority in exercising it.
It aim to discover the full potential in child
and cultivates it in order to prepare him for
It focuses on conscious reasoning of
a better position in the society and form to
the mind in order to attain truth. Idealism contradicts naturalism and
serve the society better. Emphasis is gven
Socrates This includes activities pertinent to realism that the ideas are the only
022 Idealism on subject such as philosophy, literature,
Plato the human mind such as true reality rather than the external
religion and history that will develop and
introspection and intuition and the environment
enhance the mind of the child. Methods
use of logic.
used in teaching include lecture, discussion
and Socratic dialogue.
Theodore Brameld A philosophy that aims to awaken Reconstructivism goal is to achieve Schools should originate policies and
023 Reconstructivism
George Counts the consciousness of individuals elusive social change. It much in progress that will bring social reforms and
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 Paulo Frieire about the social issues, concerns
and problems that confront him.
This should involve him to look for
solutions and engage in addressing
this social concerns and issues.
It aims for the preservation and
Jonathan Herbart glorification of the state. It
024 Johan Heinrich Nationalism emphasizes on the development of
Pestalozzi loyalty, patriotism, national feeling,
and responsible citizen.
It stressed that man is a social
animal who learns well through
025 John Watsonn Progressivism active interplay with other. Learning
is based from the questions of one’s
experience of the world.
References:
Schunk, D. (2012). Learning Theories. Boston, United States of America: Pearson Education, Inc.
applications learning rather than
knowledge-based learning.
Nationalism and Reconstructivism is
aligned on the ideas in social studies
on molding to the betterment of the
society.
Progressivism contrasted the
traditional view of essentialism and
perennialism.
orders. Teacher should be an instrument to
encourage and lead students in the
programs of social reforms. Curriculum
emphasizes on social reform as the aim of
education. Method of teaching includes
problem-oriented type, group discussions,
inquiry, dialogues, interactions, and
community based learning.
Stresses on the teaching of the principles of
democracy and duties of citizenship.
Curriculum includes the teaching of
grammar, geography, and history. Method
of teaching includes content regarding
nature studies, physical exercises, and paly
activities. For instance, NSTP and ROTC in
the Philippines.
Focuses on the child as a whole rather than
the content or the teacher. Methods of
teaching include discussion, interaction, and
group dynamics.
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