Figure 4.

0-1

Why Cells Matter

Chapter 1. Cells are the smallest entity that exhibits all of the

4
characteristics of life.
2. Cells are as fundamental to biology as atoms are to chemistry.
3. An understanding of cell structure and function is essential to
understanding most
human disease.

A Tour of the Cell

PowerPoint® Lectures created by Edward J. Zalisko for

Campbell Essential Biology, Sixth Edition, and
Campbell Essential Biology with Physiology, Fifth Edition
– Eric J. Simon, Jean L. Dickey, Kelly A. Hogan, and Jane B. Reece © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2016 Pearson Education, Inc.

Biology and Society: Antibiotics: Drugs That Biology and Society: Antibiotics: Drugs That
Target Bacterial Cells Target Bacterial Cells
• The first antibiotic to be discovered was penicillin in • Most antibiotics bind to structures found only in
1920. bacterial cells.
• bacterial ribosome, leaving human ribosomes
• The widespread use of antibiotics drastically
unaffected.
decreased deaths from bacterial infections.
• target enzymes found only in the bacterial cells.

Humans versus bacteria: two

kinds of cells. Bacteria that
causes stomach ulcers

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Figure 4.1

The Microscopic World of Cells 10 m

Human height
The
1m
Length of some
nerve and muscle
Microscopic
• Organisms are either 10 cm
cells
Chicken egg Visible with
World of Cells
the naked eye
• single-celled, such as most prokaryotes and 1 cm

protists, or Frog eggs Figure 4.1 shows the size range

1 mm
• multicelled, such as of cells compared with objects
100 m
both larger and smaller.
• plants, Plant and
animal cells
10 m
• animals, and Nuclei
Most bacteria
1 m Mitochondria
• most fungi. Measurement Equivalents
Smallest
bacteria 1 meter (m)  100 cm  1,000 mm  about 39.4 inches
100 nm
Viruses 1
1 centimeter (cm)  102 100 m  about 0.4 inch
Ribosomes
10 nm 1 1
Proteins 1 millimeter (mm)  103 1,000 m 10 cm
Lipids
1 nm 1 micrometer (m)  106 m  103 mm
Small molecules

0.1 nm Atoms 1 nanometer (nm)  109 m  103 µm

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1
 The Microscopic World of Cells The Two Major Categories of Cells

• Cell theory states that all living things are • The countless cells on Earth fall into two basic
composed of cells and that all cells come from categories.
earlier cells. • Prokaryotic cells include
• So every cell in your body (and in every other living • Bacteria and
organism on Earth) was formed by division of a • Archaea.
previously living cell. • Eukaryotic cells include
1. protists,
2. plants,
3. fungi, and
4. animals.

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Table 4.1

The Two Major Categories of Cells

• All cells have several basic features.

• They are all bounded by a thin plasma membrane.
• Inside all cells is a thick, jelly-like fluid called
the cytosol, in which cellular components are
suspended.
• All cells have one or more chromosomes carrying
genes made of DNA.
• All cells have ribosomes, tiny structures that build
proteins according to the instructions from the
genes.

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The Two Major Categories of Cells The Two Major Categories of Cells
A prokaryotic cell lacks a nucleus.
• DNA is coiled into a region called the nucleoid,
• Prokaryotic cells are older than eukaryotic cells. • No membrane enclosed organelles
• Prokaryotes appeared about 3.5 billion years ago. Eukaryotic cells have
• a nucleus
• Eukaryotes appeared about 2.1 billion years ago. • organelles, membrane-enclosed structures that perform
specific functions.
• Prokaryotic cells are
CATEGORIES OF CELLS
• usually smaller than eukaryotic cells and
Prokaryotic Cells Eukaryotic Cells
• simpler in structure.

• Smaller • Larger
• Simpler • More complex
• Lack membrane-bound organelles • Have membrane-bound organelles
• Found in bacteria and archaea • Found in protists, plants, fungi, animals
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2
 The Two Major Categories of Cells The Two Major Categories of Cells

Figure 4.2 depicts • Surrounding the plasma membrane of most

an idealized prokaryotic cell and prokaryotic cells is a rigid cell wall, which
a micrograph of an actual bacterium.
• protects the cell and
Plasma membrane • helps maintain its shape.
(encloses cytoplasm)
Cell wall
(provides rigidity) • Prokaryotes can have
Capsule
(sticky • short projections called pili, which can also attach to
coating) Flagella
(for propulsion)
surfaces, and/or
Ribosomes • flagella, long projections that propel them through
(synthesize proteins)
their liquid environment.
Colorized TEM

Nucleoid (contains
single circular bacterial
chromosome)
Pili (attachment
structures)
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Figure 4.3-1

An Overview of Eukaryotic Cells

Centriole
• Eukaryotic cells are fundamentally similar. Ribosomes
Lysosome
Cytoskeleton
• The region between the nucleus and plasma
membrane is the cytoplasm. Plasma
membrane
• The cytoplasm of a eukaryotic cell has various Nucleus
organelles suspended in the liquid cytosol. Cytoplasm

• Most organelles are found in both animal and plant Mitochondrion

cells. But there are some important differences.
Rough
• Only plant cells have chloroplasts (where endoplasmic
photosynthesis occurs). Smooth
reticulum (ER) endoplasmic
• Only animal cells have lysosomes (bubbles of Golgi reticulum (ER)
digestive enzymes surrounded by membranes). apparatus

IDEALIZED ANIMAL CELL

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Figure 4.3-2

Structure/Function: The Plasma Membrane

Cytoplasm
Cytoskeleton
Mitochondrion Central vacuole • The plasma membrane and other membranes of
Cell wall
Nucleus the cell are composed mostly of phospholipids,
Chloroplast
Rough which group together to form a two-layer sheet
endoplasmic called a phospholipid bilayer.
reticulum (ER)
Ribosomes • Each phospholipid is composed of two distinct
regions:
Plasma
1. a “head” with a negatively charged phosphate
membrane group and
Smooth
endoplasmic 2. two nonpolar fatty acid “tails.”
Channels between
reticulum (ER) Golgi apparatus cells
IDEALIZED PLANT CELL
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3
 Figure 4.4-2
Figure 4.4-1

Membrane Structure • Suspended in the phospholipid bilayer of most membranes are

The plasma membrane separates the living cell from its proteins that
• help regulate traffic across the membrane and
nonliving surroundings.
• perform other functions.
Embedded
Outside of cell proteins
Outside of cell

Hydrophilic
head
Phospholipid
Hydrophilic bilayer
Hydrophobic head
tail
Hydrophobic
tail

Phospholipid
Cytoplasm (inside of cell)
Cytoplasm (inside of cell)
(a) Phospholipid bilayer of membrane
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc. (b) Fluid mosaic model of membrane
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Figure 4.4

Outside of cell Structure/Function: The Plasma Membrane

Membrane Structure: Hydrophilic
Two layers of phospholipids head
Each phospholipid is Hydrophobic
composed of two distinct tail • The plasma membrane is a fluid mosaic:
regions:
1. a “head” with a
• fluid because molecules can move freely past one
negatively charged
Phospholipid
Cytoplasm (inside of cell)
another and
phosphate group and (a) Phospholipid bilayer of membrane • a mosaic because of the diversity of proteins in the
2. two nonpolar fatty acid
“tails.” Outside of cell Embedded membrane.
proteins

Fluid Mosaic Model Hydrophilic

Phospholipid
bilayer
Fluid because molecules can head
move freely past one another Hydrophobic
and tail
a mosaic because of the
diversity of proteins in the
membrane. Cytoplasm (inside of cell)
(b) Fluid mosaic model of membrane
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The Process of Science: What Makes a The Process of Science: What Makes a
Superbug? Superbug?
• Particularly dangerous strains of bacteria, known • Question: Does PSM play a role in MRSA
as MRSA, are unaffected by several commonly infections?
used antibiotics.
• Hypothesis: MRSA bacteria lacking the ability to
• Observation: Some bacteria use a protein called produce PSM would be less deadly than normal
PSM to disable human immune cells by forming MRSA strains that produced PSM.
holes that rip apart the plasma membrane.

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4
Figure 4.5-s3

Colorized SEM
The Process of Science: What Makes a
Superbug?
MRSA bacterium • Experiment: Researchers infected seven mice with normal
producing PSM MRSA and eight mice with MRSA that does not produce
proteins
PSM.
Multidrug-resistant
Staphylococcus aureus • Results:
(MRSA) • All seven mice infected with normal MRSA died.
PSM proteins forming • Five of the eight mice infected with MRSA that does not
hole in human immune produce PSM survived.
cell plasma membrane
PSM
protein
• Conclusions:
Pore • MRSA strains appear to use the membrane-destroying
Plasma
membrane
PSM protein, but
Cell bursting, losing • factors other than PSM protein contributed to the death
its contents through
the holes of mice (possibly other membrane-destroying proteins).

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Cell Surfaces Cell Surfaces

• Plant cells have a cell • Animal cells
wall made from • Fibers made of the protein collagen
cellulose fibers. • lack cell walls and
• most secrete a sticky • hold cells together in tissues and
• Plant cell walls coat called the • can have protective and supportive functions.
• protect the cells, extracellular matrix.
• maintain cell shape, • In addition, the surfaces of most animal cells
and contain cell junctions, structures that connect cells
• keep cells from together into tissues, allowing the cells to function
absorbing too much in a coordinated way.
water.

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Figure 4.6-1

The Nucleus and Ribosomes: Genetic Control of The nucleolus is

the Cell a prominent structure within the nucleus and
the site where the components of ribosomes are
• The nucleus is the control center of the cell. made.
• Each gene is a stretch of DNA that stores the Nuclear Nuclear
Chromatin fiber envelope Nucleolus pore
information necessary to produce a particular
protein. Nucleus has:
• Proteins do most of the actual work of the cell. • Nucleolus
• Nuclear pores
• Chromatin
• Nuclear envelope

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 Figure 4.8
Figure 4.7

Ribosomes
Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
Can be found in two locations in the cell:
• Free in the cytoplasm
The relationship between DNA molecule • Bound to a membrane of endoplasmic reticulum
DNA, chromatin, and a
chromosome
Proteins
Within the nucleus, long
DNA molecules and Ribosome
associated proteins form
fibers called chromatin.
mRNA
Each long chromatin fiber
constitutes one Chromatin
chromosome. fiber Chromosome
Protein

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Figure 4.9
How DNA Directs Protein Production
ER-bound ribosomes: Rough ER
make proteins that are incorporated into
• membranes or • DNA transfers its coded information to a molecule
• secreted by the cell called messenger RNA (mRNA).
Free ribosomes make protein that remain in the cytoplasm
• mRNA
• exits the nucleus through pores in the nuclear
TEM

envelope and
• travels to the cytoplasm, where it binds to a
ribosome.

• A ribosome moves along the mRNA, translating the

genetic message into a protein with a specific
Ribosomes attached amino acid sequence.
to endoplasmic
reticulum visible as
tiny dark blue dots
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Figure 4.10-s3
The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing
DNA → RNA → DNA

protein
and Distributing Cellular Products
1 Synthesis of • The endomembrane system in a cell are
Inherited genes in the mRNA in the membranes that are connected or linked by
nucleus
nucleus have mRNA
vesicles and consists of
instructions to make
proteins • the nuclear envelope,
Nucleus
All of the cells work is • the endoplasmic reticulum,
carried out by proteins
Cytoplasm • the Golgi apparatus,
Nucleus thus controls
the activities of the cell 2 Movement of mRNA • lysosomes, and
mRNA into Ribosome
cytoplasm via • vacuoles.
nuclear pore

3 Synthesis of
protein in the
cytoplasm Protein
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6
 Figure 4.11

The Endoplasmic Reticulum The Endoplasmic

Reticulum
• The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is one of the
main manufacturing facilities in a cell. The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is one of the main
manufacturing facilities in a cell.
• The ER Two types of ER:
• Rough ER
• produces an enormous variety of molecules, • Smooth ER
• is connected to the nuclear envelope, and
• is composed of interconnected rough and smooth Nuclear
ER that have different structures and functions. envelope

Ribosomes

Rough ER
Smooth ER
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Rough ER Rough ER

• The “rough” in rough ER refers to ribosomes that • Some products manufactured by rough ER are
stud the outside of its membrane. chemically modified and then packaged into
transport vesicles, sacs made of membrane that
• The ER makes more membrane. bud off from the rough ER.
• Ribosomes attached to the rough ER produce • Then these transport vesicles may be dispatched
proteins that will be to other locations in the cell.
• inserted into the growing ER membrane,
• transported to other organelles, and
• eventually exported.

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Figure 4.12

3 Secretory 4 Vesicles bud off

Smooth ER
proteins depart. from the ER.

2 Proteins are • The smooth ER

modified in
the ER. • lacks surface ribosomes,
• produces lipids, including steroids, and
• helps liver cells detoxify circulating drugs.
Transport
Ribosome vesicle
1 A ribosome
links amino
acids.

Protein
Rough ER

Polypeptide

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7
Figure 4.13

The Golgi Apparatus The Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus
works in partnership with the ER and • The Golgi apparatus consists of a stack of
receives, refines, stores, and distributes chemical membrane plates.
products of the cell.
“Receiving” side of the • Products made in the ER reach the Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus
Transport vesicle in transport vesicles.
from rough ER

“Receiving” side of
• Proteins within a vesicle are usually modified by
1 the Golgi apparatus enzymes during their transit from the receiving to
New the shipping side of the Golgi apparatus.
vesicle
2 forming • The shipping side of a Golgi stack is a depot from
which finished products can be carried in transport
Transport
3 vesicle vesicles to other organelles or to the plasma
Colorized SEM

from the
Golgi membrane.
“Shipping” side of apparatus
Plasma
the Golgi apparatus
membrane

New vesicle forming

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Lysosomes Lysosomes
• A lysosome is a membrane-enclosed sac of
digestive enzymes found in animal cells. • Lysosomes have several types of digestive
functions.
• Most plant cells do not contain lysosomes. • Many single-celled protists engulf nutrients in tiny
cytoplasmic sacs called food vacuoles.
• Enzymes in a lysosome can break down large
molecules such as • Lysosomes fuse with the food vacuoles, exposing
the food to digestive enzymes.
• proteins,
• Small molecules that result from this digestion, such
• polysaccharides, as amino acids, leave the lysosome and nourish the
• fats, and cell.
• nucleic acids.

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Figure 4.14-1 Figure 4.14-2

Two functions of lysosomes

Lysosomes can also
• destroy harmful bacteria,
• engulf and digest parts of another organelle, and digest
tissues during embryonic development, helping to form
structures such as fingers. Lysosome

Digestive enzymes
Digestion
Vesicle containing
Lysosome damaged organelle

Digestion (b) A lysosome breaking down the molecules of

damaged organelles
Food vacuole
Plasma membrane
(a) A lysosome digesting food
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8
 Figure 4.15-1
Lysosomes Vacuoles
• Vacuoles are large sacs made of membrane that bud off
from the ER or Golgi apparatus.
• The importance of lysosomes to cell function and
human health is made clear by hereditary disorders • Vacuoles have a variety of functions. For example,
called lysosomal storage diseases. • food vacuoles bud from the plasma membrane and
• certain freshwater protists have contractile vacuoles that
• A person with such a disease pump out excess water that flows into the cell from the
• is missing one or more of the digestive enzymes outside environment.
A vacuole filling with water
normally found within lysosomes and
• has lysosomes that become engorged with
indigestible substances, which eventually interfere
with other cellular functions. A vacuole contracting

• Most of these diseases are fatal in early childhood. (a) Contractile vacuole in

LM
Paramecium

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Figure 4.15-2 igure 4.16

Vacuoles
Rough ER
• A central vacuole can account for more than half the Figure 4.16 will
volume of a mature plant cell. help you review
Golgi
apparatus how organelles of
• The central vacuole of a plant cell is a versatile
compartment that may the endomembrane
Transport system are related.
• store organic nutrients, vesicle

• absorb water, and

Transport vesicles
• contain pigments that attract pollinating insects or carry enzymes and
other proteins from
poisons that protect against plant-eating animals. the rough ER to the
Plasma Golgi for processing.
membrane
Lysosomes carrying
Central digestive enzymes
vacuole Colorized can fuse with other
Secretory
TEM vesicles.
protein

Some products are Vacuoles store some

(b) Central vacuole in a plant cell secreted from the cell. cell products.
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Chloroplasts
Energy Transformations: Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
• Most of the living world runs on the energy
A cell converts energy obtained from the environment to provided by photosynthesis.
forms that the cell can use directly.
Two organelles act as cellular power stations: • Photosynthesis is the conversion of light energy
1. chloroplasts and from the sun to
2. mitochondria. • the chemical energy of sugar and
Mitochondrion • other organic molecules.
Chloroplast
• Chloroplasts are
Light energy Chemical
PHOTOSYNTHESIS energy CELLULAR • unique to the photosynthetic cells of plants and
RESPIRATION ATP
(food) algae and
• the organelles that perform photosynthesis.

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Figure 4.17
Chloroplasts Mitochondria
Made of:
Stroma is a thick fluid found inside the innermost membrane. • Mitochondria
Thylakoid- membrane sac
Granum – stacks of thylakoid • are found in almost all eukaryotic cells,

Inner and outer

• are the organelles in which cellular respiration
membranes takes place, and
• produce ATP from the energy of food molecules.

Space between • Cells use molecules of ATP as the direct energy

membranes
Granum source for most of their work.
Stroma (fluid in
chloroplast)

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Figure 4.18

Mitochondria

TEM
Outer
• An envelope of two membranes encloses the membrane
mitochondrion, and the inner membrane encloses a
thick fluid called the mitochondrial matrix.
• The inner membrane of the envelope has Inner
numerous infoldings called cristae. membrane

• The folded surface of the membrane

Cristae
• includes many of the enzymes and other molecules
that function in cellular respiration and Matrix

• creates a greater area for the chemical reactions of Space between

membranes
cellular respiration.

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Mitochondria Mitochondria
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own
DNA that encodes some of their own proteins • This is evidence that mitochondria and chloroplasts
made by their own ribosomes. evolved from ancient free-living prokaryotes that
• Each chloroplast and mitochondrion established residence within other, larger host
prokaryotes.
• contains a single circular DNA chromosome that
resembles a prokaryotic chromosome and • This phenomenon, where one species lives inside a
host species, is a special type of symbiosis.
• reproducing themselves.
• Over time, mitochondria and chloroplasts likely
became increasingly interdependent with the host
prokaryote, eventually evolving into a single
organism with inseparable parts.

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 The Cytoskeleton: Cell Shape and Movement Maintaining Cell Shape
• The cytoskeleton
• The cytoskeleton contains several types of fibers
• is a network of fibers extending throughout the made from different proteins.
cytoplasm and
• Microtubules are hollow tubes of protein.
• serves as both skeleton and “muscles” for the cell,
functioning in support and movement. • intermediate filaments and
• microfilaments, are thinner and solid.
• The cytoskeleton
• provides mechanical support to the cell and • The cytoskeleton provides anchorage and
reinforcement for many organelles in a cell.
• helps a cell maintain its shape.

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Figure 4.19-1

Cilia and Flagella

A cell’s cytoskeleton is dynamic.
Fibers can be broken down by removing protein
subunits and re-formed in a new location by • In some eukaryotic cells, microtubules are
reattaching the subunits. arranged into structures called flagella and cilia,
Such rearrangement can extensions from a cell that aid in movement.
• provide rigidity in a new location,
• change the shape of the cell, • Eukaryotic flagella propel cells through an
• or even cause the whole cell or some of its undulating, whiplike motion.
parts to move.
• They often occur singly, such as in human sperm
cells, but may also appear in groups on the outer
surface of protists.
LM

(a) Microtubules in the cytoskeleton

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Cilia and Flagella Cilia and Flagella

• Cilia (singular, cilium)
• are generally shorter and more numerous than flagella • Because human sperm rely on flagella for
and movement, it is easy to understand why problems
• move in a coordinated back-and-forth motion, like the with flagella can lead to male infertility.
rhythmic oars of a crew team.
• Some men with a type of hereditary sterility also
• Both cilia and flagella propel various protists through water. suffer from respiratory problems because of a
defect in the structure of their flagella and cilia.
On cells lining the
human trachea,
cilia help sweep
mucus with trapped
debris out of the
lungs.
(b) Cilia on a protist (a) Flagellum of a
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 Evolution Connection: The Evolution of Evolution Connection: The Evolution of
Bacterial Resistance in Humans Bacterial Resistance in Humans
• Through natural selection, individuals with • When the advantageous variations have a genetic
variations that make them better suited for the local basis, the offspring of individuals with the variations
environment will survive and reproduce more often will more often also have the favorable adaptations,
(on average) than those who lack such variations. giving them a survival and reproductive advantage.
• In this way, repeated over many generations,
natural selection promotes evolution of the
population.

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Evolution Connection: The Evolution of Evolution Connection: The Evolution of

Bacterial Resistance in Humans Bacterial Resistance in Humans
• Within a human population, the persistent presence • Indeed, recent studies of people from Bangladesh
of a disease can provide a new basis for measuring revealed mutations in several genes that appear to
those individuals who are best suited for survival in confer an increased resistance to cholera.
the local environment.
• In addition to providing insight into the recent
• Because Bangladeshis have lived for so long in an evolutionary past, data from this study reveal
environment that teems with cholera bacteria, one potential ways that humans might thwart the
might expect that natural selection would favor cholera bacterium.
individuals who have some resistance to the
bacteria. • Perhaps pharmaceutical companies can exploit the
proteins produced by the identified mutations to
create a new generation of antibiotics.

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You should now be able to:

The Microscopic World of Cells
• 4.2. Compare the following pairs of terms, noting similarities and differences: (1)
prokaryotic cells versus eukaryotic cells and (2) plant cells versus animal cells.
Membrane Structure
• 4.3. Describe the structure of cell membranes, and explain why the plasma membrane
is called a fluid mosaic.
• 4.4. Compare the structures and functions of a plant cell wall with the extracellular
matrix of an animal cell.
The Nucleus and Ribosomes: Genetic Control of the Cell
• 4.5. Explain how the genetic information in the nucleus is used to direct the production
of proteins in the cytoplasm.
The Endomembrane System: Manufacturing and Distributing Cellular Products
• 4.6. Compare the structures and functions of the following components of the
endomembrane system: nuclear envelope, rough endoplasmic reticulum, smooth
endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, and vacuoles.
Energy Transformations: Chloroplasts and Mitochondria
• 4.7. Compare the structure and function of chloroplasts and mitochondria, and explain
what structures in chloroplasts and mitochondria result in adaptive advantages.
• 4.8. Describe the evidence that suggests that mitochondria and chloroplasts evolved
by endosymbiosis.
The Cytoskeleton: Cell Shape and Movement
• 4.9. Describe the functions of the cytoskeleton and compare the structures and
functions of cilia and flagella.
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