UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN KIMIA

MATERIALS AND DESIGN OF PROCESS EQUIPMENT
(CPE601)

NITRIC ACID PRODUCTION

PREPARED BY:

1. ANIS MUNIBAH BINTI AHMAD KAILANI (20162341083)

NAME 2. MUHAMMAD AMIRUL AFIF BIN MOHD YUSRI (2016250464)
3. NURUN NAJIHAH BINTI SARIJAN (2016537573)
4. SHARIFAH NUR ATIFAH AL-YAHYA BINTI SYED FIRZATUL
AKBAR (2016564999)

DATE OF SUBMISSION:
13 December 2019

NAME OF LECTURER:
MDM SUHAIZA HANIM
CONTENTS

CONTENT……………………………………………………………………………….. i

INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………………………..… 1

MARKET ANALYSIS…………………………………………………………………… 3

PROCESS SELECTION………………………………………………………………… 9

BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM………………………………………………………… 10

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM………………………………………………………….. 10

MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE …………………………………………………….. 11

CHEMICAL DESIGN……………………………………………………………………. 13

MECHANICAL DESIGN………………………………………………………………… 14

CONCLUSION……………………………………………………………………………. 20

REFERENCE……………………………………………………………………………… 21

APPENDIX………………………………………………………………………………… 22

i
INTRODUCTION

Nitric Acid (Hydrogen Nitrate or Aqua Fortis) is colourless chemical that are highly
corrosive, miscible in water at all concentration, poisonous liquid and will decompose at higher
temperature to form nitrogen oxides.
Nitric Acid was made by Calcining mixture of niter, alum and blue vitriol that first mention
in Psedo-Greber’s De Inventione Veritatis. It stated Calcining is a process of heating something
at very high temperature with air or oxygen.
In 13th century, Albert The Freat and Ramon Lull prepare Nitric Acid by heating Niter and
Clay. This product is called ‘eau forte’ or Aqua Fortis that being usually call nowdays.
A person named Gauber find a new method to produce Nitric Acid by using distillation of
Potassium Nitrate and Sulphuric Acid. At 1985, Henry Carendish has precisely say that the
composition of Nitric Acid e by can be produce by passing a stream of electric sparks through
the moist air.
Nitric Acid production are different for industrial purpose before Ostwald Process. People
use Birkeland – Eyde Process are also called as Arc Process, Prior the Harber Process for the
formation of Nitric Acid. This process consumed too much energy and cost a lot of money.
Therefore, the process being switched with Ostwald Process when Ostwald Process was
introduced.
Ostwald Process are patented in 1902 by the person who discover it, Wilhelm Ostwald. His
founding has become a major change in the formation of Nitric Acid, especially for the industrial
sector.
The nitric acid formed in the absorber is typically sent to an external bleacher in the
dual-stage pressure system, where air is used to remove any dissolved oxides of nitrogen. The
bleacher gases are then compressed and passed through the absorber. The distillate from absorber
is sent to an entrainment separator for acid mist removal and then reheated in the ammonia
oxidation heat exchanger to approximately 200oC.
Prouction of high-strength nitric acid can be obtained by concentrating the weak nitric acid
using extractive distillation. The weak nitric acid cannot be concentrated by simple fractional
distillation, in fact the distillation must be carried out in the presence of a dehydrating agent such
as sulfuric acid. Basically, concentrated 60% sulfuric acid is commonly used for this process.

1
Strong sulfuric acid and 55% to 65% nitric acid is feed to the top of a packed dehydrating
column at approximately atmospheric pressure under the nitric acid concentration process. The
flows is moving countercurrent to ascending vapors. The product that leaves from top of the
column is 99% concentrated nitric acid as vapor, which contained a small amount of NO2 and
oxygen resulting from dissociation of nitric acid. The product of the column are then goes to a
bleacher and a countercurrent condenser system to effect the condensation of strong nitric acid
and the separation of oxygen and oxides of nitrogen. These by-products then flow to an
absorption column where the nitric oxide mixes with auxiliary air to form NO2, which is
recovered as weak nitric acid. Inert and unreacted 2 gases are vented to the atmosphere from the
top of the absorption column. Emissions from this process are relatively minor (R. L. Peer et al,
1995). A small absorber can be used to recover NO2.

2
MARKET ANALYSIS

Nitric acid is one of the world’s largest commodity chemicals and a corrosive mineral acid
which is also known as spirit of niter or aqua fortis. Nitric acid in pure form is colorless and it is
a strong oxidizing agent. It becomes pale yellow due to decomposition of oxides and gives off
choking red or yellow fumes in moist air. Nitric acid forms a good conductor of electricity
because it ionizes readily in solution and it is also miscible with water in all proportions.
Commercially, sold nitric acid has concentration of around 70% and more than 85%
concentration is known as fuming nitric acid. Nitric acid is further categorized as white fuming
and red fuming depending upon the concentrations nitrogen oxide and the color of the solution.
This highly corrosive intermediate chemical is used in the production of nitrate based nylon
presursors, fertilizers and other chemicals. There are a few of nitric acid based compounds which
are unstable and are commonly charged in explosive while the stable compounds are used in the
production of making plastics, manufacturing of paints and dyes. The table below shows the U.S
nitric acid market size, by application, 2012-2022 (USD Billion).

Table 1 U.S nitric acid market size, by application, 2012-2022 (USD Billion).

3
 Ammonia is the key raw material used in the manufacturing of nitric acid and its
production is concentrated mainly in the China, U.S, India and Russia due to the availability of
large natural gas reserves in the countries. Ammonia is used in the manufacturing of nitric acid
which is then further engaged in the production of The largest chemical end uses for nitric
acid including adipic acid, nitrochlorobenzene, toluene di-isocyanate and ammonium nitrate.
Manufacturers of nitric acid is highly in demand due to it is largely dependent on the demand for
end products for which it serves as an input. World nitric acid consumption has exhibited an
increasing trend since 2009, with average annual growth of 2.0% during 2000 to 2016.
Ammonium Nitrate (AN) and Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) are the largest production of
nitric acid, conquering almost 77% of the total world consumption of nitric acid in 2016. Nitric
acid is used predominantly as an intermediate for fertilizer production which is about 80% of
nitric acid was used for fertilizer products in 2016, whereas the remaining 20% was used in
industrial applications.
However, there are some issue arises which brings a major end use for AN fertilizer due
to concerns about nitrate groundwater contamination and security issues. This is due to
nitrification and leaching which causes in the loss of nitrogen to underground water. Therefore,
there is a way by focusing towards limiting the level of nitrogen in groundwater to less than 50
milligrams per liter which is introduced and implemented by EPA and the European Union. Plus,
solid urea replaced the AN fertilizer, which is less costly, less dangerous and also has a higher
nitrogen content (46%) than AN (34%). Adipic acid uses nitric acid during manufacturing
process which is then used in manufacturing of nylon 6,6. Nylon 6,6 is a polymer composite,
which finds extensive application in textiles, automotive and tire among others. Toluene
di-isocyanate is also one of the applications which use nitric acid during manufacturing process.
It is used in manufacturing of polyurethane foams which is used in various industries such as
automotive, carpet, furniture industry and transpiration. Nitrochlorobenzene is an intermediate
for the production of chemicals such as 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene and 3,4-dichloronitrobenzene
in which the growing government are benefiting the growth of the chemical industry by
supporting industrialization along with surging consumption of chemicals in industries especially
in emerging economies of Asia Pacific. The pie chart below shows world consumption of nitric
acid.

4
 Table 2 World consumption of nitric acid

Europe and China were accounted for over 60% of the global consumption as they are
the prime consumers on of nitric acid in 2014. This is due to the presence of large agricultural
and industrial market in Asia Pacific which is expected to be a key factor responsible for the
great growth of the global nitric acid market.

5
COMMON PROCESS

Nitric acid (HNO3) is a nitrogen oxoacid in which the nitrogen atom is bonded to
a hydroxyl group and by equivalent bonds to the remaining two oxygen atoms. It is a strong acid
that occurs in nature only in the form of nitrate salts and it is a conjugate acid of a nitrate. Nitric
acid also known as aqua fortis, it is toxic strong acid and highly corrosive that can cause severe
burns. Pure nitric acid is colourless and older samples tend to acquire a yellow cast resulting
from the accumulation of oxides of nitrogen. Nitric acid is one of the most widely used acids in
the Chemical Processing Industry. Nitric acid are is used in the manufacture of inorganic and
organic nitrates and nitro compounds for fertilizers and is also utilized in a variety of
manufacturing processes, including the production of industrial explosives, dyes, plastics,
synthetic fibres, metal pickling, the recovery of uranium and many more. (James G. Speight,
2017).

The major industrial method of producing nitric acid is the Ostwald Process. The starting
materials, ammonia and molecular oxygen, are heated in the presence of a platinum-rhodium
catalyst to about 800ºC (Considine, 1974). Ostwald process is mainly used in the manufacturing
of nitric acid. This process involves two steps to produce nitric acid by converting ammonia. The
first methods involve oxidation, condensation, and absorption to produce a weak nitric acid,
which have concentrations ranging about 30% to 70% of nitric acid. Meanwhile, the second
method combines dehydrating, bleaching, condensing, and absorption in order to produce a
high-strength nitric acid from a weak nitric acid.

Production of weak nitric acid typically consists of 3 steps; ammonia oxidation, nitric
oxide oxidation, and absorption respectively. Each step corresponds to a distinct chemical
reaction. On the first reaction which is ammonia oxidation. At a temperature of 748.90oC to
798.90oC, a ratio 1:9 of ammonia and air mixture is oxidized as it passes through a catalytic
convertor, according to the following reaction:

4NH3 (g) + 5O2 (g) → 4NO (g) + 6H2O (g)

The oxidation of ammonia to nitric oxide, NO process is an exothermic reaction with a range of
93% to 98% of yield under these conditions. Oxidation temperatures can be vary. Thus, higher

6
catalyst temperatures increase reaction selectivity toward NO production meanwhile the lower
catalyst temperatures tend to be more selective toward less useful products such as nitrogen, N
and nitrous oxide, NO.

For the process of nitric oxide oxidation, the nitric oxide formed during the ammonia
oxidation is oxidized. The nitric oxide reacts non-catalytically with residual oxygen to form
nitrogen dioxide NO2 and its liquid dimer, nitrogen tetroxide;

2NO + O2 2NO2 N2O4

This slow and homogeneous reaction is highly temperature dependent and pressure dependent.
This reaction operating at low temperatures and high pressures. This reaction produce maximum
production of NO within a less reaction time.

Absorption is the final step introduces the nitrogen dioxide into an absorption process
after being cooled. Nitrogen dioxide from secondary oxidation chamber is introduced into the
bottom of special absorption tower while liquid dinitrogen tetroxide is added at a higher point.
Usually, deionized process water enters the top of the column. Both liquids flow counter current.
During process absorption undergoes on the trays, oxidation takes place in the free space
between the trays. Sieve or bubble cap trays were usually used as the absorption trays. By the
absorption process, nitric acid is obtained. The exothermic reaction occurs as follows:

3NO2 + H2O 2HNO3 + NO

A secondary air stream is introduced into the column to re-oxidize the NO formed. This
secondary air also removes NO2 from the product acid. Basically, an aqueous solution of 55% to
65% nitric acid is withdrawn from the bottom of the tower. The acid concentration can vary from
30% to 70% of nitric acid. Temperature, pressure, number of absorption stages, and
concentration of nitrogen oxides that entering the absorber are the factor that affect the acid
concentration.

There are 2 basic types of systems used to produce weak nitric acid which is single-stage
pressure process, and dual-stage pressure process. In the past, nitric acid plants have been
operated at a single pressure, ranging from atmospheric pressure which is 101.35kPa to

7
1399.64kPa. However, newer plants tend to operate a dualstage pressure system, incorporating a
compressor between the ammonia oxidizer and the condenser. The oxidation reaction is carried
out at pressures from slightly negative to about 400kPa, meanwhie the absorption reactions are
carried out at around 800kPa to 1400kPa.

The nitric acid formed in the absorber is typiccally sent to an external bleacher in the
dual-stage pressure system, where air is used to remove any dissolved oxides of nitrogen. The
bleacher gases are then compressed and passed through the absorber. The distillate from absorber
is sent to an entrainment separator for acid mist removal and then reheated in the ammonia
oxidation heat exchanger to approximately 200oC.

Prouction of high-strength nitric acid can be obtained by concentrating the weak nitric
acid using extractive distillation. The weak nitric acid cannot be concentrated by simple
fractional distillation, in fact the distillation must be carried out in the presence of a dehydrating
agent such as sulfuric acid. Basically, concentrated 60% sulfuric acid is commonly used for this
process. Strong sulfuric acid and 55% to 65% nitric acid is feed to the top of a packed
dehydrating column at approximately atmospheric pressure under the nitric acid concentration
process. The flows is moving countercurrent to ascending vapors. The product that leaves from
top of the column is 99% concentrated nitric acid as vapor, which contained a small amount of
NO2 and oxygen resulting from dissociation of nitric acid. The product of the column are then
goes to a bleacher and a countercurrent condenser system to effect the condensation of strong
nitric acid and the separation of oxygen and oxides of nitrogen. These by-products then flow to
an absorption column where the nitric oxide mixes with auxiliary air to form NO2, which is
recovered as weak nitric acid. Inert and unreacted 2 gases are vented to the atmosphere from the
top of the absorption column. Emissions from this process are relatively minor (R. L. Peer et al,
1995). A small absorber can be used to recover NO2.

8
PROCESS SELECTION
We have selected Single-Pressure Process for our project. The factors that make us decide to
select this process from dual pressure process is the process uses a higher ammonia conversion.
In term of equipment design, the higher pressure is advantageous. The higher energy recovery
from the process are also due to the higher temperature and favorable pressure. According to
research, for single-pressure process plant in USA, the plant capital costs have been estimated at
8 million and 9.1 million for dual pressure process.
Dual pressure process requires extra 1.1 million compared to single pressure process as it is
accounted for by the larger vessels required at lower operating pressure. Single pressure process
is favorable as estimations is made for the two plants in European. From, the estimation, we have
found that the location shows differential of 0.8 million. A discounted cash flow is also made by
matching the capital cost advantage of the single pressure process against the production cost
advantage of the dual pressure process. From the analysis, the data indicates that 21 years is the
time required for the lower operating cost of dual pressure process. We also chose this process as
capital cost advantage of this process is higher than the benefits of the superior operating cost
structure of the dual pressure process.

9
 BLOCK FLOW DIAGRAM

Air

NH3

vaporizer Mixer Heater Reactor Cooler Oxidizer Cooler

H2O

HNO3 Absorber

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

STREAM 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
PROPERTIES

STREAM NO
Temperature(°C) 25 -15 262 -15 35 177 250 645 70 140 60 30 30 20
Pressure (kPa) 101.325 500 1090 1240 1240 1240 1060 1060 1060 1060 1200 1100 1200 101.325

Mass Flow 43537.5 2335.89 43537.52 2335.5 2335.89 2335.89 45873.40 45873.40 45873.40 45873.40 45873.40 36380.89 12500 3007.51
Rate(Kg/hr)
Mole flow rate 1514.095 137.40 1514.095 137.40 137.40 137.40 1651.50 1685.85 1685.85 1623.19 1623.19 1304.16 402.77 167.084
(kmol/hr) 8
Mole Fraction
AMMONIA(NH3) - 1 0.1887 1 1 1 0.0832 - - - - - - -
OXYGEN(O2) 0.1887 - 0.8113 - - - 0.1730 0.0696 0.0696 0.0337 0.0337 0.0191 - -
NITROGEN(N2) 0.8113 - - - - - 0.7438 0.7306 0.7306 0.7588 0.7588 0.9446 - -
NITROGEN - - - - - - - - - 0.0772 0.0772 0.0048 - -
DIOXIDE(NO2)
NITRIC OXIDE(NO) - - - - - - - 0.0774 0.0774 0.0032 0.0032 0.0040 - -
WATER(H2O) - - - - - - - 0.1224 0.1224 0.1271 0.1271 0.0275 0.7044 1
NITRIC - - - - - - - - - - - - 0.2956 -
ACID(HNO3)

10
MASS AND ENERGY BALANCE

MASS BALANCE (AMMONIA SUPERHEATER)

Water out

S8 S9

Water in
Component Input S8 (kg/h) Output S9 (kg/h)
NH3 2335.88 2335.88
TOTAL 2335.88 2335.88

Component Input S8 (kmol/hr) Output S9 (kmol/h)

NH3 137.40 137.40
TOTAL 137.40 137.40

11
ENERGY BALANCE (AMMONIA SUPERHEATER)

Water out

S8 S9

Water in

Component Specific heat capacity ( kJ/mol.℃)

a x 103 b x 105 c x 108 d x 1012
NH3 35.15 2.954 0.4421 -6.686

Reference state: 35℃, gas phase, 1240 kPa, Air, NO, H2O
t
ri

t t 퀀䂔 퀀‫؀‬ 퀀 i
t
tt
tt
t
t t 퀀 t 퀀t t t t i

t
t

t t t ttt t ttt t t
t t t
ri

12
CHEMICAL DESIGN

By using heuristic table of heat exchanger;

Rule 1: Conservative estimate set F= 0.9 for shell-and-tube exchanger with no phase changes.
t ܷ .
Rule 8: heat transfer coefficients for estimating purposes [ , ] : gas to gas U = 30-300 .
Take 150 as the average.

t ttt t t
q= =207.7183 kW= 207718.3 W
tt

ttt t
A=
t t t

A = 35.025 m2

Summary;

 By referring to the area obtained, the selected heat exchanger is one shell and two pipe

passes, in which ammonia flow inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the

shell.

 The value of F is obtained by referring rule number 9 in the heuristic table.

 The value of q is 207718.3 W that obtained from energy balance.

 From q obtained, the area can be calculated. Then, proceed to the mechanical design for

more accurate specification design of equipment.

13
MECHANICAL DESIGN
Design of Superheater:

Specification
The project assigned is to design a superheater heat exchanger of tube and shell type to heat
ammonia of flow rate 2335.88 kg/h from 35 °C to 177°C using saturated steam entering at 40
bars.

Component Molecular Molar Flow Mass Flow Mole Mole

Weight (kmol/h) (kg/h) Fraction Y Fraction X
(kg/kmol)
NH 17 137.404 2335.88 1 1

Table 1: Data of Ammonia

Molar Flow = Mass Flow x Molecular Weight
kg kmol
= 2335.88 h x t kg
=137.404 kmol/h

To complete the specification, the duty (heat transfer rate) needed to be added to gas mixture
must be calculated using the formula:
Q=
= 0.6489 kg/s x 2.38 kJ/kg K x (177K-35K)
= 219.30 kJ/s
For steam:
i= =
t h
i = t h
= 0.128 kg/s

Physical Properties
 Ammonia Component
Temperature Inlet: 35℃
Temperature outlet: 177℃
Mean Temperature: 106℃
Component Cp Thermal
Conductivity
(kJ/kg.K) (Pa.s) (kg/ )
(W/m.K)

14
 NH 2.38 1.32 x 1t 0.0364 7.04

Table 2: Physical Properties of at t t t and t = 1240 kPa

Component Cp (kJ/kg.K) t t ℷ
(kJ/kg)
(Pa.s) (W/m.K) (kg/ )
Standard 1.958 1.84 x 1t 0.0388 20.12 1712.9
Steam
Table 2: Physical Properties of standard steam at 40 bars and t t 250.33℃

Overall Coefficient
The heat exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tube passes. For an exchanger of this
type, the overall coefficient will be in the range 30 to 300 W/ K, see Table A in Appendix 2.
Cold fluid is ammonia while hot fluid is condensing steam. Hence, the following value of overall
heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated: U= 50 W/ .

Exchanger Type and Dimensions

As this positions the inlet and outlet nozzles at the same end of the exchanger, an even number of
tube passes is commonly the preferred arrangement, which simplifies the pipework. The heat
exchanger will consist of one shell pass and two tube passes. Hence, start with it.

= ri
ri

t tt 㷟 t
= 㷟 t tt ℃
㷟 t

= 131.79℃
Let = 263.92℃
= 233.84℃
i = 35℃
i = 177℃
㷟 t
R= = = 0.2
i i 㷟 tt
i i 㷟 tt
S= i
=㷟 = 0.62

15
From the value R and S, the value of i can be determined from Figure 12.19 in textbook for
i as function of (R, S).
i= 0.97
= i x = 0.97 x 131.79℃ = 127.84℃

Heat Transfer Area

According to Table A in Appendix A, cold fluid is ammonia while hot fluid is condensing steam.
The value of overall heat transfer coefficient U can be estimated.
U= 50 W/
Required Area for Heat Transfer:
Q = UA
㷟 t kJhs 㷟 ttt
A= = 㷟 t h 㷟 tt
= 34.31

Layout and Tube Size

Choose 25 mm for outside diameter and 21 mm for inside diameter of mild steel tubes to resist
corrosion problems as condensing steam is placed in the shell side. Take tube length, L= 5m (a
popular size).
Number of Tubes
Area of one tube (neglecting thickness of tube sheets)
= x 0.025m x 5 m
= 0.3927
ܷ
Number of tubes, i = =t t
= 87 tubes

So, for 2 passes, tubes per pass = 44

Tube cross-sectional area= (0.021m = 0.0003464

Area per pass= 44 x 0.0003464 = tt

Volumetric Flow = 0.6489 kg/s x t t = 0.0922 /s

tt hs
Tube-side velocity, ri = tt
= 6.05 m/s

16
Bundle and Shell Diameter
From Table C, for 2 tube passes, = 0.249, = 2.207

䂔=
i
㷟

tt
= 25㷟 t tt

= 331.39 mm
=0.3314 m
For a split-ring floating head exchanger the typical shell clearance from Figure A is 63 mm, so
the shell inside diameter,
Shell diameter, = 331.39 mm + 53 mm = 384.39 mm
Tube-side Heat Transfer Coefficient
t tt x t x㷟 x t
Reynold' s Number, = = x t
= 6776
㷟 tx t 㷟 x t
Prandtl Number, t = tt
= 8.63
ttt
t = 238

From Figure 12.23 in Appendix A at Re= 6,776

t 4.0 x t
t
r= = (4.0 x t )( 6776)(8.63 =551.97

tt
= 551.97x 㷟 tt
= 956.75 W/ ℃

This is acceptable since is to be 50 W/ C.

Shell-side Heat transfer Coefficient
Kern’s Method will be used to find area for cross flow of the shell side, ܷ
i
ܷ t㷟
i

Where,
i = tube pinch = 1.25 = (1.25)(25mm)=31.25 mm
= outside diameter (25mm)
= shell inside diameter
= buffle spacing (usually one fifth of shell diameter)

17
 t mm
= = = 76.878 mm

ܷ t㷟 㷟 t mm 㷟t ttt mm = 5,910.23 m

= 0.0059102

t t h
=( ܷ
) = t tt t
= 21.657 kg/

tkgh
Shell-side velocity, ri = t kgh
= 1.076 m/s
t
= ( i t t
t
= [(31.25 - 0.917(25 ] = 17.75 mm = 0.01775 m

For shell side:

t t x tt x 㷟t t tt m
Reynold' s Number, = = t x t
= 20,884.34

㷟 tx t 㷟 t x t
Prandtl Number, t = t t tt
= 0.929

Use segmental baffles with a 25% cut. This should give a reasonable heat transfer coefficient
without too large a pressure drop.
From Figure 12.29, = 4.0 x t
t t ttWhm K t
=㷟 t t mm
x 1t ) x 4.0 x t x 20,884.34 x (0.92 ) = 178.22 W/ .K

Overall Coefficient

t 퀀 퀀 퀀 퀀 㷟

= overall coefficient based on outside area of the tubes

= outside fluid film coefficient = 178.22 W/ .K
= inside fluid film coefficient = 956.75 W/ ℃
do = tube outside diameter = 25 mm
= tube inside diameter = 21 mm
= thermal conductivity of tube wall material = 54 (W/m.oC) for “Mild Steel”
= outside dirt "fouling" coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix 2)

18
 = inside dirt "fouling" coefficient = 3000 (W/m2.oC) (From Table B in Appendix 2)
㷟t t
= tt Wh
퀀 tttWh
퀀 퀀
t
퀀
ttt
㷟

= 131.133 Wh
The value of = 131.133 Wh is well below the initial estimated value of 300 Wh .
The number of tubes does not change, but first check the pressure drops.However, the present
design satisfactory is good.
Pressure Drop
t
i= t 퀀

Where,
ΔPt = tube side pressure drop (N/m2)
Np = Number of tube passes = 2
jf = fraction factor ' depending on Re ' Found from Figure 12.24 in the text book assuming
baffle cut of 0.25 = 5.5 x 10-3
L = length of one tube = 5 m
v = flow velocity inside the tube = 6.05 m/s
m = exponent value depending on type of flow
㷟t t 㷟 t
i= t㷟 x t
tt
퀀

= 9141.56 Pa = 9.14 kPa (Acceptable)

1. The heat exchanger that being selected has one shell pass and two tube passes, which
Ammonia flow inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the shell
2. The tube are made of from mild steel with 25 mm outside diameter, 21 mm inside
diameter, length of 5 m and total number of tube is 87.
3. The shell diameter Ds is 384.39 mm and baffles that being used are 25% cut.
4. The first estimating value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 50 W/m2.℃, while
the final calculation value is 131 W/m2.℃.
5. The pressure drop (ΔP) is 9.14 kPa.

19
CONCLUSION
In this project, we have chosen super heater as our equipment design. We managed to calculate
the mass balance and energy balance of the equipment. We confirmed that the amount that enter
is equal to the amount that out the system.From the energy balance, the value of Q is 207718.3
W Based on the chemical design calculation, referring to the area obtained that is 35.025 m2 the
selected heat exchanger is one shell and two pipe passes, in which ammonia flow inside the tube
and condensing steam flows inside the shell. In the mechanical design section, the heat
exchanger that being selected has one shell pass and two tube passes, which Ammonia flow
inside the tube and condensing steam flows inside the shell. The tube are made of from mild steel
with 25 mm outside diameter, 21 mm inside diameter, length of 5 m and total number of tube is
87. The shell diameter Ds is 384.39 mm and baffles that being used are 25% cut. The first
estimating value for overall heat transfer coefficient Uo is 50 W/m2.℃, while the final
calculation value is 131 W/m2.℃. The pressure drop (ΔP) is 9.14 kPa.

20
REFERENCES
Considine, D.M., ed., (1974): Chemical and Process Technology Encyclopedia, (McGrawHill
Books, New York).
R. L. Peer et al., Characterization Of Nitrous Oxide Emission Sources, U. S. Environmental
Protection Agency, Office of Research and Development, Research Triangle Park, NC, pp. 2-15,
1995.

James G. Speight, Environmental Inorganic Chemistry for Engineers 2017. Retrieved from
https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/nitric-acid

J. M. Coulson J. Richardson, "Chemical Engineering Design", Vol.6, 3rd Ed., Pergamon

Press,1983

J. M. Smith, H. C. Van Ness, M. M. Abbott, "Introduction to Chemical Engineering

Thermodynamics", 7th Edition, McCraw-Hill,2005

Richard M. Felder, Ronald W. Rousseau, " Elementary Principles of Chemical Processes ", Third
edition,2005

21
APPENDIX

22
APPENDIX 1: Steam Characteristics, Vapor, Water, Saturated,
Density, Absolute Pressure, Specific Enthalpy, Vaporization

Specific Specific enthalpy Specific enthalpy of

Absolute volume Density of liquid w ater steam Latent heat of Specific Dynamic
Boiling point (steam) (sensible heat)
pressure (steam) vaporization heat viscosity
(total heat)

bar °C m3/kg kg/m3 kj/kg Kcal/kg kj/kg Kcal/kg kj/kg Kcal/kg kj/kg.K kg/m.s

30 233.84 0.067 15.009 1008.33 240.84 2802.27 669.31 1793.94 428.48 3.4069 0.000017

31 235.66 0.064 15.512 1016.97 242.90 2802.33 669.32 1785.36 426.43 3.4442 0.000017

32 237.44 0.062 16.016 1025.41 244.92 2802.32 669.32 1776.90 424.41 3.4815 0.000017

33 239.18 0.061 16.521 1033.69 246.89 2802.25 669.31 1768.56 422.41 3.5187 0.000017

34 240.88 0.059 17.028 1041.79 248.83 2802.12 669.28 1760.33 420.45 3.5559 0.000017

35 242.54 0.057 17.536 1049.74 250.73 2801.95 669.23 1752.20 418.51 3.5932 0.000017

36 244.16 0.055 18.046 1057.54 252.59 2801.72 669.18 1744.17 416.59 3.6305 0.000017

37 245.75 0.054 18.557 1065.21 254.42 2801.44 669.11 1736.24 414.69 3.6679 0.000017

38 247.31 0.052 19.070 1072.73 256.22 2801.12 669.04 1728.39 412.82 3.7054 0.000017

39 248.84 0.051 19.585 1080.13 257.98 2800.75 668.95 1720.62 410.96 3.7429 0.000018

40 250.33 0.050 20.101 1087.40 259.72 2800.34 668.85 1712.94 409.13 3.7806 0.000018

41 251.80 0.048 20.619 1094.56 261.43 2799.89 668.74 1705.33 407.31 3.8185 0.000018

42 253.24 0.047 21.138 1101.61 263.12 2799.40 668.62 1697.79 405.51 3.8565 0.000018

43 254.66 0.046 21.660 1108.55 264.77 2798.87 668.50 1690.32 403.73 3.8946 0.000018

44 256.05 0.045 22.183 1115.39 266.41 2798.30 668.36 1682.91 401.96 3.9329 0.000018

45 257.41 0.044 22.708 1122.13 268.02 2797.70 668.22 1675.57 400.20 3.9715 0.000018

46 258.76 0.043 23.235 1128.78 269.60 2797.07 668.07 1668.29 398.46 4.0102 0.000018

47 260.08 0.042 23.763 1135.33 271.17 2796.40 667.91 1661.06 396.74 4.0492 0.000018

48 261.38 0.041 24.294 1141.80 272.71 2795.69 667.74 1653.89 395.03 4.0884 0.000018

49 262.66 0.040 24.827 1148.19 274.24 2794.96 667.57 1646.77 393.32 4.1279 0.000018

50 263.92 0.039 25.362 1154.50 275.75 2794.20 667.38 1639.70 391.64 4.1676 0.000018

51 265.16 0.039 25.898 1160.73 277.23 2793.41 667.19 1632.68 389.96 4.2076 0.000018

52 266.38 0.038 26.437 1166.88 278.70 2792.58 667.00 1625.70 388.29 4.2479 0.000018

53 267.58 0.037 26.978 1172.97 280.16 2791.74 666.79 1618.77 386.64 4.2885 0.000018

54 268.77 0.036 27.521 1178.98 281.59 2790.86 666.59 1611.88 384.99 4.3294 0.000018
55 269.94 0.036 28.067 1184.93 283.02 2789.95 666.37 1605.03 383.35 4.3706 0.000018

56 271.09 0.035 28.614 1190.81 284.42 2789.02 666.15 1598.21 381.73 4.4122 0.000018

57 272.23 0.034 29.164 1196.64 285.81 2788.07 665.92 1591.43 380.11 4.4541 0.000018

58 273.36 0.034 29.716 1202.40 287.19 2787.09 665.68 1584.69 378.50 4.4963 0.000019

59 274.47 0.033 30.270 1208.10 288.55 2786.08 665.44 1577.98 376.89 4.5389 0.000019

60 275.56 0.032 30.827 1213.75 289.90 2785.05 665.20 1571.31 375.30 4.5819 0.000019

61 276.64 0.032 31.386 1219.34 291.23 2784.00 664.95 1564.66 373.71 4.6253 0.000019

62 277.71 0.031 31.947 1224.88 292.56 2782.92 664.69 1558.04 372.13 4.6691 0.000019

63 278.76 0.031 32.511 1230.37 293.87 2781.82 664.43 1551.45 370.56 4.7133 0.000019

64 279.80 0.030 33.077 1235.81 295.17 2780.70 664.16 1544.89 368.99 4.7578 0.000019

65 280.83 0.030 33.646 1241.20 296.45 2779.55 663.89 1538.36 367.43 4.8029 0.000019

66 281.85 0.029 34.218 1246.54 297.73 2778.39 663.61 1531.85 365.88 4.8483 0.000019

67 282.85 0.029 34.792 1251.84 299.00 2777.20 663.32 1525.36 364.33 4.8943 0.000019

68 283.85 0.028 35.368 1257.09 300.25 2775.99 663.03 1518.90 362.78 4.9407 0.000019

69 284.83 0.028 35.948 1262.31 301.50 2774.76 662.74 1512.45 361.24 4.9875 0.000019

70 285.80 0.027 36.529 1267.48 302.73 2773.51 662.44 1506.03 359.71 5.0348 0.000019

71 286.76 0.027 37.114 1272.61 303.96 2772.24 662.14 1499.63 358.18 5.0827 0.000019

72 287.71 0.027 37.702 1277.70 305.17 2770.95 661.83 1493.25 356.66 5.1310 0.000019

73 288.65 0.026 38.292 1282.75 306.38 2769.64 661.52 1486.89 355.14 5.1798 0.000019

74 289.59 0.026 38.885 1287.77 307.58 2768.31 661.20 1480.54 353.62 5.2292 0.000019

75 290.51 0.025 39.481 1292.75 308.77 2766.97 660.88 1474.21 352.11 5.2791 0.000019

76 291.42 0.025 40.080 1297.70 309.95 2765.60 660.55 1467.90 350.60 5.3295 0.000019

77 292.32 0.025 40.681 1302.61 311.12 2764.22 660.22 1461.61 349.10 5.3805 0.000019

78 293.22 0.024 41.286 1307.49 312.29 2762.81 659.89 1455.32 347.60 5.4321 0.000019

79 294.10 0.024 41.894 1312.34 313.45 2761.39 659.55 1449.06 346.10 5.4843 0.000019

80 294.98 0.024 42.505 1317.15 314.60 2759.95 659.20 1442.80 344.61 5.5370 0.000019

81 295.85 0.023 43.118 1321.94 315.74 2758.50 658.86 1436.56 343.12 5.5904 0.000020

82 296.71 0.023 43.735 1326.70 316.88 2757.03 658.50 1430.33 341.63 5.6443 0.000020

83 297.56 0.023 44.356 1331.42 318.01 2755.54 658.15 1424.11 340.14 5.6989 0.000020

84 298.40 0.022 44.979 1336.12 319.13 2754.03 657.79 1417.91 338.66 5.7542 0.000020

85 299.24 0.022 45.606 1340.79 320.24 2752.50 657.42 1411.71 337.18 5.8101 0.000020
86 300.07 0.022 46.235 1345.44 321.35 2750.97 657.06 1405.52 335.70 5.8666 0.000020

87 300.89 0.021 46.869 1350.06 322.46 2749.41 656.68 1399.35 334.23 5.9239 0.000020

88 301.71 0.021 47.505 1354.66 323.55 2747.84 656.31 1393.18 332.76 5.9818 0.000020

89 302.51 0.021 48.146 1359.22 324.65 2746.25 655.93 1387.02 331.28 6.0404 0.000020

90 303.31 0.020 48.789 1363.77 325.73 2744.64 655.55 1380.87 329.82 6.0998 0.000020

91 304.11 0.020 49.436 1368.29 326.81 2743.02 655.16 1374.73 328.35 6.1599 0.000020

92 304.89 0.020 50.087 1372.80 327.89 2741.39 654.77 1368.59 326.88 6.2208 0.000020

93 305.67 0.020 50.741 1377.27 328.96 2739.73 654.37 1362.46 325.42 6.2825 0.000020

94 306.45 0.019 51.399 1381.73 330.02 2738.07 653.98 1356.34 323.96 6.3450 0.000020

95 307.22 0.019 52.061 1386.17 331.08 2736.38 653.57 1350.22 322.49 6.4083 0.000020

96 307.98 0.019 52.726 1390.58 332.13 2734.69 653.17 1344.11 321.03 6.4725 0.000020

97 308.73 0.019 53.396 1394.98 333.18 2732.98 652.76 1338.00 319.57 6.5376 0.000020

98 309.48 0.018 54.069 1399.35 334.23 2731.24 652.35 1331.89 318.12 6.6036 0.000020

99 310.22 0.018 54.746 1403.71 335.27 2729.50 651.93 1325.79 316.66 6.6705 0.000020

100 310.96 0.018 55.427 1408.05 336.31 2727.74 651.51 1319.69 315.20 6.7385 0.000020
APPENDIX 2 : Equipment Design Reference
Table A: Typical overall coefficients

Shell and tube exchangers

Hot fluid Cold fluid U (W/m2.oC)

Heat exchanger
Water Water 800-1500

Organic solvents Organic solvents 100-300

Light oils Light oils 100-400

Heavy oils Heavy oils 50-300

Gases Gases 10-50

Coolers
Organic solvents Water 250-750

Light oils Water 350-900

Heavy oils Water 60-300

Gases Water 20-300

Organic solvents Brine 150-500

Water Brine 600-1200

Gases Brine 15-250

Heaters

Steam Water 1500-4000

Steam Organic solvents 500-1000

Steam Light oils 300-900

Steam Heavy oils 60-450

Steam Gases 30-300

Dowtherm Heavy oils 50-300

Dowtherm Gases 20-300

 Flue gases Steam 30-100

Flue Hydrocarbon vapor 30-100

Condensers

Aqueous vapors Water 1000-1500

Organic vapors Water 700-1000

Organic (some non-

condensable) Water 500-700

Vacuum condensers Water 200-500

Vaporizers

Steam Aqueous solutions 1000-1500

Steam Light organics 900-1200

Steam Heavy organics 600-900

 Table B: Fouling factors (coefficients), Typical values

Fluid Coefficient (W/m2.oC)

River water 3000-12000
Sea water
1000-3000
Cooling water (towers)
Towns water (soft) Towns 3000-6000
water (hard) Steam 3000-5000
condensate Steam (oil free)
1000-2000
Steam (oil traces)
Refrigerated brine 1500-5000
Air and industrial gases 4000-10000
Flue gases
2000-5000
Organic vapors Organic
liquids Light 3000-5000
hydrocarbons Heavy 5000-10000
hydrocarbons Boiling
organics Condensing 2000-5000
organics Heat transfer
fluids 5000

Aqueous salt solutions 5000

5000
2000

2500

5000

5000
3000-5000
 Table C: Triangular pitch constants for use

Triangular pitch pt = 1.25do

No. 1 2 4 6 8
Passes
K1 0.319 0.249 0.175 0.0743 0.0365
n1 2.142 2.207 2.285 2.499 2.675
APPENDIX 3: Temperature Correction Factor
APPENDIX 4: Shell-Bundle Clearance
APPENDIX 5: Heat Transfer Equipment