British Gas Painting Notes

BRITISH GAS
PAINTING COURSE - ERS GRADES III & II
British Gas
Painting Course Notes
ERS
Painting Inspector
Grade Levels III & II
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Title Section Page
Corrosion ……………………………… 1 3
Millscale 1 3
The Galvanic Series 1 3
Methods of Arresting Corrosion 1 4
Surface preparation 2 4&5
Dry Abrasive Blast Cleaning 5
Cabinet & Vacuum reclaiming 6&7
systems
Hand & Power tool cleaning 7
B.S. 7079 & S.I.S. 05-59-00 7
Testing for surface contamination 7&8
Wet blast cleaning 8
Needle gunning 8
Flame cleaning 8
Chemical cleaning 9
Paints 9
Paints - added ingredients 10
Solvent characteristics 10
Pigments 11 - 12
Maintenance painting 12
Glossary of Terms – Metal 12 - 13
preparation and paints
Paint manufacturer 13 - 14
Paint & paint film testing 14
Artificial weathering 14 – 15
B.S. 2015 – Paint faults 15
Fineness of Pigment grind 15
Viscosity 16
Density 16
Opacity 16
Drying & Curing tests 17
Wet Film Thickness WFT 17
Dry Film Thickness DFT 17
Calculation of VS%, WFT & DFT 17
Adhesion testing 17 – 18
Weather conditions 18
Contractor malpractices 18 – 19
Application of paints 19 – 20
Paint colours 20 - 21
Health & Safety 21 - 22
Specifications 22
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Corrosion Theory
Ferrous materials (i.e. those which contain iron) corrode for the following reasons. The iron content which
goes into the steel making process starts its life as an ore beneath the ground, where it is in harmony with its
surroundings and is chemically inactive. When we mine this ore and heat it to very high temperatures during
steel making, its chemical nature changes and ever after it attempts to revert back to its former natural inert
state. This is what we see as rusting.
The rust of steel is an electrochemical process called Electrolysis. When metal is immersed in an electrolyte,
an electrical current will flow between certain areas of the metal known as Anodes and Cathodes. The current
flows from the Cathode through the metal to the Anode and returns through the electrolyte, which is capable
of conducting electricity. This is called the Electrolytic Cell and the result is the destructive corrosion of the
Anode area, whilst the Cathode remains protected.
The air itself is an electrolyte and contains sufficient moisture and impurities for the promotion of corrosion
to occur in the steel. the speed and severity at which corrosion can occur depends on how strong the
electrolyte can become. The factors which influence this area as follows:
 Variations in oxygen content on the steels surface (wet/dry)

 R.H.% (above 60% is critical)
 Presence of impurities in the air (acids, alkalis, salts etc.)
 Higher nobility metals in contact with the steel (e.g. millscale)
The above conditions represent the reasons why corrosion is particularly severe in industrial and marine
environments. Here moisture, salts and other impurities in the air are to be found in much higher quantities.
Millscale
Millscale is a thin black flaky layer of oxidised iron on the steel during its manufacture. It occurs because
when the steel is being forges into various components it is worked at very high temperatures, around 1000ºC.
whilst the steel is at these high temperatures it is also in contact with the cool air, which causes the millscale
to be formed.
It is essential for Millscale to be removed from the steel surface during blast cleaning operations, for the
following two reasons.
1 Millscale is more noble that steel and when parts of the Millscale break away, the exposed areas of
the steel (Anode) will sacrifice themselves to preserve the more noble surrounding Millscale
(Cathode).
2 If painted over, the Millscale which is loosely adhering and flaky will leave the steel, bringing the
paint away from the substrate, thus causing early breakdown of the system due to lack of adhesion.
The Galvanic Series
Metals and metal compounds carry an order of nobility which determines their ability to corrode or not.
Gold Noble (stable)

Silver
Copper
Millscale (Corrosion Factor)
Steel
Aluminium
Zinc Ignoble (unstable)
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This nobility is found by testing in seawater at ambient temperature.
We can use the Galvanic Series to bring about cathodic protection to steel. there are two ways in which this
can be achieved.
Bi-Metallic Corrosion
When two differing metals are attached closely together, the less noble one will act as an anode, to the more
noble one (cathode) and sacrifice itself.
Sacrificial coating
When a coating whose metallic pigment particles are less noble than steel (e.g. Zinc or Aluminium) are
coated onto steel they will sacrifice themselves in order to preserve the more noble steel. When coatings are
used for this purpose they must contain around 90% of the metallic pigment.
Methods of Arresting Corrosion
Barrier Principle This isolates the substrate from the environment by means of a low permeability
coating system. This type of system is usually made up from around four coats and
contains an M.I.O. coat which helps give the paint system its low permeability.
Sacrificial Principle This involves making a paint whose pigment particles (Zinc or Aluminium) are less
noble than the steel onto which it is coated. The result is that the less noble coating
(Anode) sacrifices itself to the more noble steel (Cathode).
Galvanising Involves the dipping of steel components into a bath of molten zinc (anode) at around
450ºC, this leaves a zinc coating on the steel component of between 85µm 130µm
and is directed under BS 729 – Hot Dip Galvanising.
Sheradising The tumbling of small fittings etc, in a hot zinc dust which leaves a coating of
between 15µm - 30µm.
Passivation Chemical reactions which are achieved between rust inhibitive pigments in the
primer and the substrate.
Metal Spraying The spraying of molten zinc or aluminium onto steel. often used for components
which operate at high temperatures and which are usually sealed to improve
appearance and extend the life pf the coating.
Sacrificial anodes Blocks of metal ignoble to steel which are attached to steel structures as a sacrificial
anode.
SURFACE PREPARATION
Correct and effective surface preparation forms the basis for providing a paint system which will successfully
achieve the required length of life and quality of finish needed to meet the particular demands of
specifications. Sometimes this preparation needs to achieve a high degree of cleanliness and a profile on the
steel, whereas on other occasions a brief clean down would suffice, depending on the location of the system,
the type of paint being applied and other operational restraints.
There are many methods used to prepare metals prior to painting.
Dry abrasive blast cleaning Flame cleaning

Water blasting Needle gunning
Pressure washing (cleaning only) abrasive discs
Chemical cleaning Scraping
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Wire brushing Weathering
Before any type of surface preparation takes place it is essential that all oil, grease and other contaminants are
completely removed, due to the fact that they still may be present after surface preparation has taken place.
In addition the preparation process needs to be carried out with a high degree of safety in mind as this process
can require the use of pneumatic equipment and the incidence of dust which can on occasions be toxic.
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Open site blast cleaning
The equipment required including the safety features are as follows:
Compressor (max 100psi)

Pressurised pot
Carbon impregnated hoses (reduces static shock possibility)
Reinforced hoses
External couplings (helps prevent blow-out)
Dead mans handle
Personal equipment (air fed helmet, ear defenders, boots, gloves, leather apron)
In addition, warning signs, tapes or barriers and safety sheeting / or encapsulated area should be present in
order to protest other site workers and or surrounding buildings or equipment.
The abrasives used in open site blast cleaning should be expendable, which means they are only used once. In
essence when they hit the steel at high speed they shatter on impact and fall harmlessly to the floor.
Types of expendable abrasive are:
Copper slag
Crushed glass
Ice
Walnut shells
Note: Free sand must not be used in dry blasting operations due to the risk of silicosis
Nozzle types There are two types of nozzles in common use, both are usually lined with tungsten carbide to
give longer life.
VENTURI Which can generate the speed of abrasive at up to 450mph and which gives an even blast
pattern over a relatively large area.
STRAIGHT Which can generate the speed of abrasive at up to 220mph and is used for small or BORE
repair areas and softer metals.
The pressure at which the abrasive is delivered to the blast nozzle can be measured by using a hypodermic
needle gauge.
When site blast cleaning, the cleanliness of the steel surface and its amplitude are governed by the abrasive
characteristics and the human factors as follows:
Abrasive Human Factors

Size Speed
Hardness Angle
Density Distance
Shape Time
Cabinet and Vacuum reclaim dry blast cleaning systems
These are found in factory situations and are usually in a fixed position, although they can be obtained in a
portable form for blasting flat areas. Often items such as large quantities of pipes are cleaned by this method
which is both effective and easily controlled.
The abrasive used is usually iron or steel shot and grit, which can be reclaimed, cleaned, monitored for size
and reused for up to twenty times. To obtain the required grade of cleanliness and to keep the amplitude to
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within the specification requirements, the shot and grit are mixed together. E.g. if the amplitude was min
30µm and max 75µm then the mix of shot and grit might be around 75% shot to 25% grit.
It is essential that steel or iron shot/grit are used in a closed cleaning system as thy do not shatter on first
impact. They ricochet back from the steel surface creating a danger to nearby people and equipment. Also
they are very expensive and must be reclaimed to warrant the cost of using them.
The British Standard which deals with this type of abrasive is B.S. 2451
Hand and Power Tool Cleaning
This means of cleaning refers to methods by hand such as grinding, use of abrasive discs, scraping, etc. but it
is usually concluded by wire brushing in order that a visual standard is achieved compared with SIS 05-59-00
as contained in B.S. 7079.
Wire brushing standards are achieved by both manual and mechanical wire brushing. Care must be taken
when carrying out the wire brushing process, that the steel surface is not polished as this would lead to poor
adhesion of the coating system.
For safety reasons it is often specified that the brushes used are of the non-sparking type, made of phospher or
beryllium bronze.
Wire brushing is only carried out on rust grades B, C & D.
B.S. 7079 & S.I.S. 05-59-00
The Swedish Pictorial Standard 05-59-00 is contained within B.S. 7079 – Preparation of Steel Substrates
Prior to the Application of Paint and Related Products.
The Swedish Standard gives visual information on the following:
Rust Grades – which depict the condition of the steel before preparation.
A. covered in Millscale with little or no rust

B. A mixture of Millscale and rust
C. Millscale gone, rusted with slight surface pitting
D. Heavily rusted and pitted.
Blast Cleaning Grades
SA1 Light blast cleaning

SA2 Thorough blast cleaning
SA21/2 Very thorough blast cleaning
SA3 Blast cleaning to visually clean steel
Grades of wire brushing
ST2 Thorough Hand and Power Tool cleaning (Manual)

ST3 Very Thorough Hand and Power Tool cleaning (Mechanical)
Testing for Surface Contamination
Various tests exist to determine contamination left on a surface after blast cleaning. The contamination
usually consists of either Hygroscopic Salts or Millscale and the tests are as follows.
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Hygroscopic salts
Soluble Iron Salts Potassium Ferricyanide test
Soluble Chlorides Silver Nitrate
Millscale
Copper Sulphate
Hygroscopic salts are water loving salts and if left on a blast cleaned surface and painted over will react and
cause extensive blistering in the paint film. (Osmotic Blistering)
Wet Blast Cleaning
The use of wet blast cleaning is becoming more popular due mainly to the following two reasons.
1. It is more environmentally friendly than dry blast cleaning

2. The equipment used is becoming increasingly effective as it develops.
The equipment used can be with or without and abrasive injection and can operate from 100psi to up to
60,000psi which represents the latest developments in water blasting equipment. At these very high pressures
all contamination is removed and a profile can be cut on the steel. In addition, wet blast cleaning is useful in
removing toxic coatings as it does so without dust.
Pressure washing
Whereas wet blast cleaning is designed to remove scale, rust and paint from steel, pressure washing is a low
pressure (typically 100psi) process mainly used for cleaning painted surfaces. This can be with or without
detergent and is useful for removing salt and chloride contamination from the surfaces particularly when
maintenance painting.
Needle Gunning
A needle gun is air operated, the head of which consists of many small cross section tungsten needles. These
bounce in and out rapidly and independently, there by making for effective cleaning around bolt and rivet
heads. Usually permission is required for their use as they can create amplitudes above 100m, can leave
rogue peaks and impress impurities into the surface.
Flame cleaning
Is where a high temperature flame of around 3000C is passed over a corroded surface. this causes the metal
and rust to expand at different rates and loosens them from each other. The intense heat also causes the rust to
dehydrate and become a powder and frees the surface from moisture, oil and grease.
Disadvantages
Dealing safely with the high temperature naked flames
Damage and warping to thin materials
Heat causing loss of strength to steel fastenings
Advantage
Metal is perfectly dry for painting
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Chemical Cleaning
Is a factory process for cleaning small steel components, which can go on to be painted, but which are often
galvanised as part of the factory operation.
Sequence of operations
Degreasing using a suitable solvent
Pickling immersion in a tank of dilute sulphuric acid at a given temperature
Neutralising spray washing to remove acid and remaining contamination
Phosphating if specified
Disadvantages
The size of the metal to be cleaned is governed by the size of the acid tank
Associated dangers with handling acids.
(Phosphoric acid 80C – phosphating)
Footners Duplex process
Pickling 5 – 10% solution of Sulphuric acid at 65-70C
PAINTS
It is commonly believed that the definition of a paint is “ a liquid which is capable of drying to a continuous
film. A great deal of technology is being applied to the development of new paints and coatings. Apart from
the paints performance, the need for solvent reduction or even elimination is of the utmost importance, this is
because solvents are very harmful to both the environment and the individual. To this end powder based
coatings, water based coatings and compliant solvent based (low solvent content) coatings have been
developed. However the vast majority of paints in use today are traditional solvent carrying paints, so it is
those and their constituents which we need to study.
A traditional solvent carrying paint consists of the three basic constituents:
Binder Binds the particles together and holds them in suspension

Gives the paint its finish.
Makes the coating adhere to the surface.
Gives flexibility to the paint film.
Converts the coating to a solid dry film
Gives resistance to water, chemicals and abrasion.
Pigment Gives colour to the paint - Volume solids %

Gives opacity to the paint - Hiding power
Gives resistance to acids, alkalis and light (UV)
Solvent Forms the evaporative part of the drying process

Thins the paint so it can be applied easily
Washes out brushes and equipment.
Acts as a degreasing agent – if approved
(Quality & Quantity only at manufacturers recommendations)
Note - A binder solvent are both liquid, they must be compatible and fully dissolve with each other,
whereas a pigment is a powder and can be mixed into any binder/solvent combination. Many
paints take their name from the binder they possess.
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Added Ingredients
Other items which can be added to a paint in order to improve its performance
Drier or Catalyst Some binders such as oils or resins need added driers to speed up the drying
process. Two pack paints rely on a chemical reaction to bring about drying
and the catalyst provides this.
Extenders Are cheap mineral powders which can be added to paint in order to make it
flow more easily, increase opacity and lower the coat of the paint.
Plasticiser Added to the paint to prevent a brittle film
Thixotropic agent gives a jelly like structure, which gives the paint high build and anti-sag
properties.
Anti-skinning agent Helps prevent oil based paints from skinning over.
Stabiliser Holds modern synthetic film formers intact and helps to prevent flocculation
(inorganic paints – synthetic, chemically complex. Flocculation – separation of the pigment, binder, solvent)
Solvent Characteristics
As stated previously the binder and solvent in a paint must be entirely compatible with each other, with the
solvent evaporating from the wet paint film as the first and sometimes the only part of the drying process.
List of binder and solvent compatibility
Strongest binder Epoxy Acetone Solvent

Chlor Rubber Xylene
Alkyd resin White spirit
Weakest binder Emulsion paint Water Solvent
Stronger solvents are required for powerful binders as their drying process is more complicated, this is known
as Solvent Power. Where the power of the solvent matches the strength of the binder.
If the solvents rate of evaporation is too rapid, problems can be caused with the paint film, usually dry spray
occurs.
Flash point Each solvent has a flash point, that is the temperature at which the vapours of a liquid will
ignite if an external source of ignition is introduced. This is determined in a closed cup of the Abel type.
Toxicity The amount of toxic solvent content in the air can be measured by a Draeger tube and which gives
the results in P.P.M. (parts per million) all solvent exposure limits are published in the C.O.S.H.H.
Regulations of 1998.
Compatibility
1) Evaporation – high temperature = dry spray
2) Low temperature – solvent entrapment = Osmotic blistering – containing water, gas, solvent
(Solvents should be stored at least 5C below flash point temperature)
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Pigments
Pigments are powders which can be obtained from the earth, or which can be organic or inorganic. In many
modern coatings the pigments used are inorganic as man can now make pigments on a laboratory bench much
more successfully than nature products which were previously used. Each pigment has certain information
catalogues about its characteristics and qualities.
These are as follows
Origin Earth, organic, inorganic (synthetic)

Specific gravity
Opacity Ability to cover over a previous coating or surface
Tinting strength Ability to colour a paint
Resistance to Acids, Alkalis and light (UV)
The opacity, tinting strength and resistance to acids, alkalis and light of a pigment are graded on a scale of 1 –
5, 1 being good and 5 being bad.
There are many pigments but so far as the painting of metals are concerned it is important that the primer used
has a rust inhibitive pigment. Examples are :
Calcium plumbate White Read Lead Red

Coal Tar Black Zinc Chromate Yellow
Red Iron Oxide Red Zinc Phosphate White
Certain of these pigments are toxic and their use is restricted
Laminar Pigments
Pigments such as M.I.O., Graphite, Mica, Aluminium Flakes and Glass Flakes, have a particle shape like
small leaves or hands and upon drying of their paint film, overlap and interweave with each other, forming a
coating which is highly resistant to the passage of water.
C.V.P.C.
Critical Pigment Volume Concentration – refers to the amount of pigment contained in a paint and how this
affects its characteristics, i.e. a paint containing a lot of pigment and little binder will be a primer or mid-coat,
will have good opacity and a flat finish. Whereas a paint containing very little pigment and a lot of binder will
have poor opacity but will carry a high gloss finish.
Paint Drying and Curing
Paints employ differing methods of drying and curing, according to the type.
Examples are:
Emulsion Coalesence - (coming together)
Alkyd Solvent evaporation, followed by oxidation
Chlorinated Rubber Solvent evaporation only
2 Pack Epoxy Solvent evaporation, followed by chemical curing
Fusion Bonded Epoxy Heat curing
Convertible Coatings
Are those which undergo a chemical change upon drying and afterwards cannot be softened or damaged by
contact with their own solvent.
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Non-Convertible Coatings
Are those which dry by solvent evaporation only, therefore no chemical change takes place. On drying the
paint would be softened or damaged if it came into contact with its own solvent.
Induction Period
Is the length of time a 2 Pack Paint has to stand after mixing and before application. This time allows air
bubbles to escape and/or chemical reactions to take place and is stated by the manufacturer.
Potlife
Is the length of time following the induction period that a 2 pack paint remains in an applicable condition
according to the manufacturers instructions.
Maintenance Painting
Once a metal has been painted when new it must be treated periodically to maintain its resistance to corrosion
attack and maintain its appearance.
Before maintenance painting can take place the nature of the existing coating must be established in order to
make the informed decisions about what type of preparation needs to take place prior to re-coating.
a) It needs to be established whether the existing system contains any toxic coatings as this will dictate
the method of preparation used.
b) Are the existing coatings compatible to the new system in terms of –
a. Adhesion
b. Possibility of solvent stripping
c. Possibility of bleeding
c) Further information required – extent of surface contamination
extent of paint breakdown
extent of corrosion.
Where adhesion problems, solvent stripping or bleeding might occur, a tie-coat would be employed to prevent
these particular problems from arising.
Glossary of Terms for Metal Preparation and Paint Technology
Ferrous Metals Those which have an iron content

Non-Ferrous Metals Those which do not have an iron content
Galvanic series A table of named metals given in their ability to resist corrosion
Millscale A thin black flaky layer of oxidised iron formed on the steel during its
manufacturer
Abrasive A metallic or mineral material hurled at the steel to bring about its cleaning
C.O.S.H.H. Regulations which govern the use of solvents and sand in the Industrial
Painting industry.
H.A.S.W.A. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
Control of Lead at Work Methods of dealing with coatings which have a lead content
Act 1974
Rust Grade An A – D grade given to the condition of unprepared steel
Grade of Cleanliness A grade given to blast cleaned steel following preparation
Amplitude The given measurement of the peak to trough height of a blast cleaned
surface
Rogue Peaks Peaks which rise above the permitted amplitude
B.S. 7079 British Standard document which relates to metal preparation and which
contains the Swedish visual Standard 05-59-00
Enclosed Blast Cleaning That which is carried out under factory controlled conditions and which often
uses steel or iron shot/grit as an abrasive
Site Blast Cleaning That which is carried out on site or in an open situation and which employs
an expandable abrasive for its operation
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Hypodermic Needle gauge An instrument to determine the pressure being delivered at the blast nozzle
Wet Blast Cleaning A method of blast cleaning of up to 60,000psi, which employs water or water
plus abrasive, which is environmentally friendly and which is particularly
useful for the removal of toxic coatings
Pressure Washing A low pressure method of removing contamination from a surface
Steam Cleaning A low pressure method of removing contamination from a surface,
particularly oil and grease
Hand & Power Tool Cleaning Methods of surface preparation by hand
Burnishing An undesirable polishing of a surface leading to possible adhesion problems
caused by wire brushing
Chemical Cleaning The cleaning of metals by dipping into an acid solution
Solvent Based Paint One whose solvent is entirely compatible and will fully dissolve in its binder
Water Borne Paints One whose solvent is water
Pigment A powder which is surrounded and wetted by a binder and which represents
the VS% of a paint
Paint Drying The transition of a wet paint film to a solid dry state
Solvent Power The ability of a solvent to allow the molecules in the paint to move easily
during the drying process
Rate of Evaporation The rate at which the solvent evaporates during the drying of the paint film.
Too rapid drying can cause dry spray
Flash Point The minimum temperature at which the vapours of a liquid will ignite if an
external source of ignition was introduced
Toxicity The poison value of a solvent measured in P.P.M.
Laminar Pigment A pigment which gives a coating low permeability
Metallic Pigment One which is used to produce finish coatings or coatings which will provide
cathodic protection
C.V.P.C. The relationship between the pigment and binder in a paint and its effects on
the paints characteristics
Induction Period The length of time a 2 Pack Paint needs to stand after mixing and before
application
Pot Life The length of time after the induction period that a 2 Pack Paint can be
applied
Tie Coat A coat of paint which can tie two normally incompatible systems together
Stripe Coat An extra coat of paint applied by brush to welds and edges which guarrantees
min d.f.t. of the system in these areas
Data Sheet Information on a particular product regarding all aspects of that product and
supplied by the paint manufacturer
PAINT MANUFACTURE
Manufacturing paint is a relatively simple process. The skill in making paint is how the paint maker utilises
the vast array of various ingredients at his disposal. Paint is manufactured in paint mills, whose main job is to
grind down the pigment to the finest possible degree, whilst at the same time mixing the ingredients to
smooth high quality paint.
Types of Paint Mills
Direct Charge Mills

Which take and mix all the raw ingredients together
Types are Ball Mill
Attritor Mill
High Speed Disperser
Pre-Mix Mills
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Take the ingredients which have been pre-mixed to a rough consistency and refine
this mixture to a high quality paint. This system is used for large production runs.
Types are Sand Mill
Pearl Mill
Bead Mill
Colloidal Mill
Single Roll Mill
Triple Roll Mill
Typical Manufacturing Process

Select and assemble raw materials
Mill the paint
Carry out any quality testing required
Can the paint
Warehouse and distribute the paint
(QC tests – viscosity, density, light reflectance)
Paint and Paint film Testing
The testing of paints and paint films is a wide ranging affair. These tests have been built up over many years
and often involve somewhat strange and unlikely methods for achieving results.
The British Standard for dealing with testing is B.S. 3900 Method of Test for Paints. This document is
divided into eight separate parts, each one dealing with a separate aspect of testing procedures.
These are:-
Group A. – Test on Liquid Paint (excluding chemical tests)
Group B. – Tests involving chemical examination of Liquid paints and Dried Paint films
Group C. – Tests associated with Paint Film formulation
Group D. – Optical tests on paints
Group E. – Mechanical tests on Paint Films
Group F. – Durability tests on Paint Films
Group G. – Environmental tests on Paint Films
Group H. – Designation of intensity, quality and size of common types of defect. General principles and
rating scheme
The eight separate groups of tests can be obtained individually as required for any particular testing need
Each set deals with a different aspect of paint testing and that each set of tests is identified by a title and the
letter A – H.
Artificial Weathering
Formerly natural weathering of painted samples provided information on how well paints performed when
subjected to various environmental conditions. This however was a slow process which sometimes took years
to bring back results. In order to speed up this process a number of accelerated weathering devices were
devised, which brought back test results in a much shorter time.
Common tests in use
Salt Spray Box

Simulates how paints behave under marine conditions
Water Soak Test
Tests for Paint Film permeability
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Tropical Box
Simulates how paints behave in a high humidity environment
Temperature Cycling
Tests for Paint Film flexibility by subjecting samples to alternate high and low temperatures
Cold Check Testing
Tests for low temperature contraction cracking.
Paint Faults
Faults which occur with paints are described in B.S. 2015 Glossary of Paint Terms
These faults are due to three main causes:
1. Faults “in the can” (manufacturing faults)
2. Problems which occur due to poor preparation
3. Problems which occur due to incorrect or poor application or interference by weather
Examples:
Bleeding The action of a material in penetrating and discolouring a coating applied on top of it. In
Particular, Bitumen, Red pigments and Creosote cause problems
Blistering The formation of dome shaped blisters in a Paint Film. They can be Dry Blisters- usually
caused by the expansion and contraction of the Paint Film against the substrate, or Osmotic
Blisters which can be caused by water or solvent entrapment or hygroscopic salts left on a
blast cleaned surface.
Chalking The breaking down of a Paint Film to become chalky or powdery, usually due to
disintegration of the binder caused by attack from U.V. light or severe weather conditions.
Cissing A failure of the paint to form a continuous film usually due to oil or grease present on the
surface.
Flocculation The separating out of a paints constituents in the tin and their refusal to be stirred back
together again.
Grinning Seeing the underlying surface through the finish coat. Usually due to poor application
technique, too great a difference in colour between the mid-coat and the finish coat, or too
few coats being specified to bring about good opacity.
Holidays Missed or poorly coated areas on a painted surface.
Pinholing Small defects down through the paint coating caused by escaping air bubbles.
Fineness of Pigment Grind

During the milling process the pigment content of the paint is ground down to a very fine degree. This is
required in order to give the finished Paint Film smoothness, but more importantly, it enables the paint to
carry a high degree of gloss, where this is required. If a pigment has only been coarsely ground the surface
finish will be relatively rough and subjected to a light box test will appear somewhat dull due to the reflected
light being scattered rather than reflected.
The fineness of grind gauge which is sometimes called a Hegman Grind Gauge is a block of stainless steel
around 175mm long by 65mm wide. It has a channel running along its length from 0 m to 100m, the depth
is identified along its length. Paint is applied to the channel and then a flat edged scraper is pulled from the
100m deep end towards the shallow end. At some point along the way as the paint in the channel becomes
shallower, pigment particles will break the surface. where between 5 – 10 particles break the surface this is
said to be the pigments fineness of grind.
Typical values
Primers and mid-coats – ground to between 40m - 50m
Finish coats – to between 10m - 15m.
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Viscosity
The term viscosity means the “Measure of a Fluids Resistance to Flow”
We test for viscosity to find out how much solvent has been added to a paint. In order to provide a level
playing field all paint is tested at 20C  0.5C.
There are two types of paint and they are tested using different equipment
1. Thixotropic paint – Rotation viscometer
2. Free Flowing paint – Ford Flow Cup No. 4
Density
Density is termed as weight per unit volume and so is found out by using the following formulae:
Weight unit used is g/cm3

Volume
We test for the density of a paint in order to find either how much solvent has been added to the paint or to
find out if a two pack paint has been mixed to the exact correct ratio.
A density cup is a small black cup made from aircraft alloy, usually it holds 100cc and the lid has a hole in the
top.
Calculating Density
The density of a paint is calculated by Weight

Volume
There fore if a 5 ltr tin of paint weighed 7.5Kg its density would be 7.5 = 1.50g/cm3
5
(convert formula by multiplying units by 1000)
Calculating the density of a two pack paint when mixed
This involves finding the average density of all the parts when mixed together. Therefore if the density of Part
A (paint) was 2.64 g/cm3 and the density of Part B was 1.86 g/cm 3 (assuming a mix ratio of 1:1) the density
pf the paint when mixed would be.
2.64
+ 1.86
4.50 / 2 = 2.25 g/cm3
Opacity
Describes how well a paint will cover the underneath surface and is the opposite to transparency. The opacity
of a paint is determined mostly by the amount of pigment in the paint. The greater the pigment quantity the
better the covering power the paint will possess.
Any piece of equipment which measures opacity is called a CYPTOMETER
Two types in common use are

Hiding power charts (which consist of varnished hardboard plates)
Pfund cryptometer
(Quality of opacifying pigment scaled 1 – 5
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BRITISH GAS
Drying and Curing Tests
Ballotini test
Ballotini are tiny glass balls which are dropped on to a wet painted panel. The time in hours is given at the
side of the panel and where the Ballotini fail to stick to the painted panel, drying has occurred.
Stylus Test
Similar to the Ballotini test, the Stylus test employs a series of trailing needles which pass over the wet
painted panel, because the needles are set at different tensions, it can be established when the paint is tack dry,
hard dry and fully cured.
Wet Film Thickness

Wet Film Thickness readings are taken with each coat as an indication of what the D.F.T. will be, except in
the case of coatings which contain M.I.O., when the W.F.T. is taken and used to make the calculation for the
D.F.T. reading.
Two methods are used to take W.F.T. readings.
1) Eccentric Wheel
2) W.F.T. Comb Gauges
When a comb is selected for use, the range for the thickness will be obtained from the specification. This
thickness should fall in the centre of the range of teeth, as this should eliminate the possibility of an error in
reading.
The reasons are taken immediately after the paint has been applied for the following two reasons.
a) The sprayer will still be on standby so that the thickness can immediately by rectified if necessary
b) A lapse in time would mean that wet paint film would be starting to shrink, therefore a true W.F.T.
reading would not be obtained.
Dry film Thickness

There are four methods of determining the D.F.T. of a paint film
a) Non-Destructive test gauges e.g. electronic gauge and banana gauge
b) Destructive test gauges P.I.G (Paint Inspection Gauge)
c) Test Panels, Panels which are prepared in advance of the job commencing. These panels which are
exactly the same as the substrate to be painted are prepared and coated with the same materials and by
the same application method. This proves in advance that the specification requirements can be met.
d) Calculation by using the formula VS x WFT
100
Calculation of Volume Solids, W.F.T. & D.F.T.
VS% = DFT x 100

WFT
W.F.T. = 100 x DFT

VS
D.F.T. = VS x WFT
100
Adhesion Testing
Adhesion of a paint system is of the utmost importance, because if good adhesion is lacking very early
breakdown will occur
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Tests for adhesion
Cross Cut Test
Cross Hatch Test
Dolly Test
Method Clean, degrease and roughen surface
Stick down dolly with regular araldite
Leave for 24hrs at 25C
Cut around dolly to isolate paint underneath
Apply pull off force
Check at what psi failure occurred and whether failure was adhesive or cohesive
Weather Conditions
It is of the utmost importance that weather conditions can be correctly established by the inspector. He should
take readings each day before work commences and several more times, both in the morning and afternoon.
Also if there is an apparent weather change. As well as needing to carry this out in order to give permission
for work to commence, the readings obtained are entered on the inspection records.
Under B.Gas specifications paint may be applied when.
The air or metal temperature is at least 3C above the dew point temperature.
The relative humidity is less than 90%.
The temperatures for application are within the manufacturers given limits.
Dew Point Is the temperature at which condensation would form on a surface and which is
obtained by calculation from the wet and dry bulb temperatures.
Relative Humidity Is the amount of water vapour in the air expressed as a percentage and which is
obtained from the dry bulb and dew point temperatures.
Metal Temperatures It is most important that the metal temperature is established prior to painting, this is
obtained by using a magnetic steel thermometer or a digital thermometer.
Note – If the D.B. temperature is the same as the W.B. temperature, the D.P temperature
would be the same as the D.B and W.B temperatures and the R.H. would be 100%.
Contractor Malpractices
The inspector should be aware of malpractices which the contractor might attempt. These could be intended
or accidental.
1) Using unqualified personnel

2) Using unsafe plant and equipment
3) Using equipment which is in a poor condition
4) Carrying out further work before inspection has taken place
5) Attempting to skip a coat
6) Applying a coating system in the wrong sequence
7) Preparing and painting when weather conditions are unsuitable
8) Using incorrect paint
9) Using a paint which is out of date
10) Applying too much solvent to a paint
11) Incorrect storage of a paint
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BRITISH GAS
12) applying low thickness coatings
13) Using incorrect solvent for degreasing
14) Using cotton cloths for cleaning
15) Not observing induction and pot life times
16) Using a compressor at above 100psi
17) Attempting to re-use expendable abrasives
18) Insufficient attention paid to awkward areas
Items 1 & 2 are site safety considerations – priority!

Items 3 – 18 are Inspectors responsibilities
Application of Paints
There are several ways in which paint can be applied. Each method has advantages and disadvantages for
quality and cost effectiveness when in comparison with each other.
The principle methods are
Brush
Roller
Spray – conventional, airless, electrostatic
Brush
The quality of a brush is determined by its filling. The best types have a pure bristle (Hoghair) which allows
for the maximum amount of paint to be held by the brush. The brush is very effective for applying primer as it
works the paint into a substrate and in the right hands can produce an excellent finish. It is however very slow
to use, so it is suitable only for small areas. (synthetic brushes do not give good finishes)
Rollers
Rollers are produced in several versions
Single arm
Double arm
Curved – pipes, corrugates, etc
Pressure fed – constant application
The heads or filament of rollers can be either natural (lambswool, mohair) or synthetic (nylon, dynel, sponge).
The synthetic heads are designed to simulate the performance of natural filaments. A roller applies paint more
quickly than a brush, but does not work paint into a surface as well. In addition an uneven thickness coating is
a disadvantage. In their favour is the fact that they can be used in conjunction with extension poles which
improve access to working areas.
Conventional spray
Conventional spray set ups operate at relatively low pressure, so are only suitable for applying relatively thin
materials. In addition they hold only small quantities of paint so if applying paint to large areas, constant re-
filling of the container would be required. Also the gravity and suction versions can only be used with the gun
in an upright position.
Airless spray
Up to 30 times faster than application by brush, this method is suitable for applying paint to very large areas,
it produces very little overspray, has a large spray pattern and applies a thick coating at one application. Its
disadvantages are that it is very costly to purchase, the very high velocity of fluid can present a hazard, the
guns have a tendency to block up and as with conventional spray the cleaning time is significant. The airless
spray is in common use in the painting of steel structures and it is important to give further information on
how the system works and its safety features.
A non-pressurised container is held remote from the gun. The paint from the container is sucked in using a
fluid pump and fed to the gun by means of a high pressure reinforced fluid line. The pressure is supplied by a
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BRITISH GAS
compressor which produces approximately 100psi to the fluid pump. The air inlet pressure is adjustable. The
fluid pump. This air inlet pressure is adjustable. The fluid pump multiplies the pressure, by a ration governed
by the pump, e.g. a 35 to 1 ratio pump supplied with an inlet air pressure of 100psi would produce a fluid
pressure of 3500psi.
Spray tips on airless spray units are usually lined with Tungsten Carbide. They can usually be reversed by
turning a lever 180 degrees, which clears tip blockages. A Titan tip exists which has an adjustable hole size.
The size of the orifice governs the amount of paint delivered and the angle of the orifice governs the size of
the pattern.
Important Safety Requirements

 Use correct tips
 Fluid lines in good condition
 No kinks in fluid lines
 Ensure safety catch is on when not in use
 Never point gun at anyone or yourself
 Never attempt to clean or adjust nozzles when pressure is on
 Ensure equipment is earthed to prevent static shock
 Wear an air fed helmet
Electrostatic Spray
This method of application requires a special spray gun which applies a charge to the paint particles.
The substrate is positively earthed and the paint particles are given a negative charge at the tip as they leave
the gun. The result is that the paint particles which are drawn to the earth can wrap themselves around small
tubular components, an even thickness coating is obtained and there is very little wastage through overspray.
the equipment however is very expensive to purchase.
PAINT COLOURS
BS5252 Framework for Colour Co-ordination for Building Purposes, establishes a framework within which
237 colours have been selected as the source for all building colour standards and the means of coordinating
them. It is not used to specify British Standard Colours. A colour is only standardised when it is included in
another British Standard, such as those that have been derived for paints BS4800, Vitreous Enamel BS4900,
Plastics BS4901 and Sheet and Tile Flooring BS4092. Such Standards contain only a portion of the total
colours contained in BS5252 and are selected to meet design requirements within relevant technical and
economic constraints.
BS4800
Paint Colours for Building Purposes, specifies 100 colours which have been selected from the framework of
the 237 colours contained within BS5252.
Each colour in BS4800 is identified by three parts as follows
HUE - colour
The first part signifies hue or colour and consists of an even number of two numerals (e.g. 04), twelve main
hues are used and numbered.
2 Red purples
4 Reds
6 Yellow Reds
08 Yellow Reds
10 Yellows
12 Yellow Greens
14 Greens
16 Green Blues
18 Blues
20 Purple Blues
22 Violets
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22 Purples
GREYNESS
The second part signifies greyness, i.e. the apparent amount of difference in greyness between one colour
with another. Five grades are used, each defined by a single letter. There are four steps of diminishing
greyness from A(maximum) to D(minimum). Beyond this colours are pure or free from greyness as E, e.g.
pure yellows are prefixed 10-E.
WEIGHT
When coded only on the two above grades it was found that the yellow hues (yellow-red and yellow –green)
at minimum greyness looked heavy in comparison with the other colours. This was overcome by raising the
value of the yellowish colours. The result was more uniform in weight. The weight is given in pairs of
numbers from 01 to 56. groups of colours within each of the five greyness ranges are graduated from high to
low value.
Each of these graduations is numbered
A greyness – 01 to 13
B greyness – 15 to 29
C greyness – 31 to 40
D greyness – 43 to 45
E greyness – 49 to 56
E.G. 18 E 53
Hue (colour) Greyness Weight
02-24 A–E Colour saturation

Even numbers A is neutral 01 – 56
E is pure colour
The above example signifies a Deep bright blue
Black, White or any grey made up from only black and white are not colours, but are called neutrals and are
always prefixed by 00-
Black is 00-E-53
White is 00-E-55
BS4800 can be used to identify existing colours when maintenance painting and is a method by which all
manufacturers can make exactly the same colour. It is also used for specifying colours for new construction.
HEALTH 7 SAFETY COSH REGULATIONS 1988
Scope
The Control of substances Hazardous to Health 1988 came into force on 1 st October 1989. these regulations
referred to as COSHH Regulations define a substance hazardous to health as:
 A substance listed in 1A of the approved list of dangerous for supply, see Classification, Packaging
and Labelling Regulations 1984(b) – nature of risk classified as very toxic, harmful, corrosive or
irritant.
 One which has an MEL in Schedule 1 of COSHH or if the H & S Commission has approved an OES.
 A micro-organism which creates a hazard to health.
 Dust in air – when substantial.
 A substance comparable with the above.
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The COSHH regulations are not applicable to the control of lead, radioactivity, explosive or flammable
properties of materials, high or low temperatures, high pressures, medical treatment or below ground working
(mining).
Responsibilities
The exposure of an employee to substances hazardous to health is under the control of the employer. A
training organisation is responsible for exposure by trainees.
Employers must prevent exposure to substances hazardous to health, or control exposure when total
prevention is not reasonably practicable. Personal protective equipment, e.g. masks, are a second choice for
control.
Employees have a duty to report any problems in exposure control procedures or any defects found in
protective equipment.
Employers must keep records of examinations/monitoring tests carried out. These are kept for 5 years, 30
years for identifiable employees.
H.A.S.W.A. Health and Safety at Work Act 1974.
SPECIFICATIONS
B.S. 410 Specification for Test Sieves

B.S. 2015 Glossary of Paint Terms
B.S. 2451 Specification for Chilled Iron Shot and Grit
B.S. 3900 Methods of Test for Paints
B.S. 5252 Frame work for Colour Co-ordination for Buildings Purposes
B.S. 4800 Specification for Paint Colours for Building Purposes
B.S. 7079 Preparation of Steel Substrates before Application of Paint and Related Products(ISO 8501-1)
SIS 05-59-00 Pictorial Surface Preparation Standards for Painting Steel Surfaces
B.G. PA 9 Paint Properties and Performance Requirements
B.G. PA 10 New and Maintenance /painting at Works and Site for Above Ground Pipeline and Plant
Installations.
I.G.E./S.R./21 Blast Cleaning Operations 1990
British Gas Transco P.A. 9 & P.A. 10 Documents
B.Gas P.A.9 Refers to the ordering of paints and performance of paint systems. Any paint used on B.Gas
work must comply with P.A. 9, whose title is:
Paint Systems – Properties and Performance Requirements
B.Gas P.A. 10 Is the Technical Specification for

New and Maintenance Painting at Works and Site for Above Ground Pipeline and Plant
Installations.
The current P.A. 10 came into force in August 1995 superseding its predecessor of June 1987.
It is arrange into three sections:
1 Preliminary Information
2 General Painting Information
3 Information for Specific Painting Applications (S.P.A.)
The specification covers all types of Ferrous and Non-Ferrous engineering components, but is not
suitable for use with the following.
1 Below Ground (Buried)
2 Offshore Installations
3 Internal Coating of Pipes
4 Stove enamel Coatings
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Abridged Definitions from PA 10
Compliant coating A coating which complies with the Environmental Protection

Act of 1990
Contractor A person, firm or company which enters into a contract with
Transco and to which the PA10 specification applies
Long Term Protection Typically 10 years
Medium Term Protection Typically 5 years
Short Term Protection Typically 2 –3 years
Damp Surfaces Temperature below Dewpoint, but on which water is not readily
detectable
Moist Surfaces Where standing water and droplets have been removed but
which still displays a noticeable film of water
Wet Surfaces Surfaces on which standing water or droplets are present. (when
these may be in evidence final surface preparation is not
normally carried out)
New Galvanising A galvanised steel surface upon which a cohesive oxide layer
has not yet formed. (bright and shiny – less than 3 months old)
Fully Weathered Galvanising A galvanised steel surface upon which a cohesive oxide layer
has formed by natural weathering.(dull and lacking in sheen)
Dew Point The temperature at which condensation would form on a
substrate
Relative Humidity The amount of water vapour in the air, expressed as a
percentage
Induction Period The length of time a paint is required to stand after mixing and
before application. This time allows air bubbles to escape and
chemical reactions to take place and is specified by the paint
manufacturer
Pot Life The length of time (following induction) that a paint remains in
an applicable condition according to the manufacturers
instructions
Multi Component Paint A paint supplied as separate components (two pack) M.C.L.
Multi Component Liquid.
T Wash An etch primer for zinc metal surfaces. Blue in colour it turns
black upon drying if it has been successfully applied
Hot Duty Surfaces Metal surfaces that will reach a temperature in excess of 99C
when in use
Inspection No deviation from PA10 will be permitted unless in writing
from the Engineer.
Test Areas May be requested in order to demonstrate that the selected
system is capable of meeting its requirements. This refers to the
method and standard or preparation, equipment to be used,
paint specified, correct number of coats and on the same
substrate
Access Equipment Safe scaffolding is identified by a green tag. Unsafe scaffolding
by a red tag. Scaffolding is inspected by a competent person at
least every seven days and always after bad weather.
Sheeting for Protection Sheeting of a non-flammable nature must be employed to
protect areas not being prepared of painted from contamination.
(in particular tarpaulins must not be used)
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Abridged Definitions from PA 10
Waste Products The contractor is responsible for removing all waste materials
from site (corrosion products, empty containers, brushes, tissues
etc) and must dispose of hazardous waste in accordance with
the appropriate statutory requirements. In all cases the operation
must comply with current environmental requirements.
Masking Out The contractor must mask out items to be protected during
preparation and painting, in particular to prevent malfunction of
the plant. Such areas typically are (fire protection equipment,
weld end preparations, atmosphere sensing heads, spray heads,
vents on control equipment, flame traps, lubrication points,
name plates.) The contractor is responsible for removing all
masking materials.
Metallic Zinc Paints Special care must be taken not to allow zinc rich paints to
contaminate stainless steel not be applied within 75mm of weld
end preparations
Water Jetting High pressure jetting is useful in removing paint scale and
corrosion products. Care must be taken to ensure safety
measures are observed and that the equipment being prepared is
not damaged
Grit Blasting plus Water Similar to dry blast cleaning but with a water injection, which
Injection damps down the dust, therefore making it a suitable method to
remove toxic coatings from substrates
Safety on Site
Personnel shall comply with all relevant regulations when cleaning, painting and disposal procedures are
being carried out.
All site work is normally subject to a permit to work system. This shall be complied with at all times and no
work shall take place until a permit to work or form of authority has been issued. The Engineer shall interpret
any doubt over hazardous areas, working areas, permits to work or forms of authority.
The contractor shall acquaint himself with safety and security restrictions on site. Any accident on site shall
be notified to the Engineer and entered in the installations accident record book. This does not relieve the
contractor of his responsibilities in this respect.
The method of work and equipment used by the contractor may be inspected at any time without prior notice.
No inspection shall relieve the contractor of any responsibility under the Factories Act 1961.
A representative shall be nominated by the contractor to act on his behalf. His duties shall include
Obtaining permits to work or forms of authority (appropriate)
Extent of work under taken (usually daily)
Precautions required
Keeping to the agreed programme
Ideally two days notice shall be given in obtaining permits to work or forms of authority. This is to allow
proper arrangements to be made. If the contract is to last for more than six weeks, the contractor must notify
the Factory Inspector. All equipment, whether electrically or pneumatically operated shall be earthed. No
smoking regulations shall be observed, any person disregarding this may be removed from site.
Fire or flames shall not be used to dispose of rubbish or to clean out paint kettles.
The contractor shall not operate any valves or plant belonging to TransCo.
Where areas are termed hazardous, non-spark tools and flameproof equipment shall be compulsory. Where
sheeting is used for protection this must be non-flammable. In particular tarpaulin sheets must not be used.
This site shall be kept in an orderly manner, so as no materials or plant can endanger persons passing by on
their normal duties. Vehicles shall only be allowed on site at the discretion of the Engineer. They shall keep to
roadways and act under the direction of TransCo staff.
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BRITISH GAS
Environmental Requirements
Environmental Protection
All waste materials resulting from surface preparation and painting operations shall be properly disposed of in
accordance with the Environmental Protection Act E.P.A. (Duty of Care)
When surface preparation and painting operations are in the vicinity of rivers, lakes or other water courses,
special precautions may be necessary to prevent the possibility of pollution. Care should be taken to ensure
operations are carried out in accordance with the requirements of the Water Resources Act.
Abrasive Blast Cleaning Methods
Safety requirements for abrasive blast cleaning shall comply with document IGE/SR/21 Blast Cleaning
Operations 1990. the standard for surfaces prepared by blast cleaning shall comply with BS 7079 (SID 05-59-
00). The type of abrasive used shall provide a blast cleaned profile of 30m min and 75m max unless
otherwise required by an S.P.A.
The profile shall be measured by means of Testex tape and dial micrometer or an alternative method approved
by the Engineer. Non metallic abrasives shall be silica free. Other media for blast cleaning shall be clean, dry
and oil free. Abrasives used in an open blast system shall be of the expendable type. They should not be re-
used.
For closed blast cleaning systems, abrasives can be re-cycled for use providing they are monitored for
cleanliness and size. Wet blast systems or enclosed recovery systems shall be used for the removing of lead
based paint. Following wet blasting, dry blasting shall be carried out to remove any subsequent flash rusting.
All traces of corrosion, chemical contamination, existing paints etc, shall be removed from the surface.
All surface defects such as laminations or inclusions shall be referred to the Engineer. Where dressing is
undertaken those areas must be re-blasted to remove all rust and to provide an adequate key.
Eight Factors affecting a blast profile

Abrasive – size, hardness, density, shape
Human – angle, time, distance, speed
Garnet types, - Australian is considered the best and may be reused if cleaned properly, (correct size sieves
and washing, drying.)
Manual and Mechanical Methods of Preparation
These methods are used when blast cleaning is considered unsuitable and are undertaken with the approval of
the Engineer. They represent a lower standard of preparation, therefore care must be taken to ensure that the
agreed standard is reached (ST2 ST3). The danger always exists of a reduced life expectancy of the paint
system where inferior preparation has taken place. (Short Term Preparation)
Ferrous impact tools shall not normally be used, where scrapers are used, wire brushing to an agreed standard
will follow and the scrapers must be of the type having a carbide tip.
Needle Gunning
The guns shall have needles of a small cross-section, the profile created must not exceed 100 m, no sharp
craters must be left and all rogue peaks must be removed.
Abrasive Discs
May be permitted in certain circumstances. Approval for their use must be sought and particular care must be
taken on pressure containing parts not to create notches.
Grinding
Shall only be carried out under the supervision of the Engineer.
Conditions for Final surface Preparation
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BRITISH GAS
When conditions in the working area are such that metal surfaces are moist, damp or wet, final preparation
shall not be carried out. Any surface preparation, procedure or method of cleaning shall not be allowed to
contaminate wet paint films. Equipment used shall be of the non-sparking type. Electrically operated tools are
not permitted.
Power tools operated by compressed air shall have oil and vapour traps fitted to the compressed air lines. All
contaminants shall be removed by means of an approved solvent.
Algae and mould growth when in evidence, shall be treated with a biocidel agent and left for 24hrs at least, in
order that the biocide can kill the spores. It shall then be removed by scrubbing with stiff bristle brushes and
clean water or by the use of a high pressure water wash. All surfaces shall normally be dry before painting
commences.
Surface Preparation of Weld Areas
All weld areas including primed surfaces damaged by heat shall be blast cleaned to the required standard
immediately prior to painting. All weld flux and spatter shall be removed prior to preparation and painting.
Any painted areas next to the weld area shall e suitably protected from any other operation.
Cleaning Down
Immediately prior to painting all surfaces shall be free from contamination. (dust, chemical contaminants, oil
& moisture). All grease and oil, etc. found on an existing paint surface shall be removed with an approved
solvent. Where large areas are involved consideration can be given to low pressure detergent washing, which
must be followed by rinsing with clean water and thorough drying. all surfaces immediately before painting
commences must be cleaned down with clean, dry oil free air, vacuum cleaned or brushed down.
If oil or grease is found on a surface after it has been prepared that area must be swabbed with an approved
solvent, followed by a 2% detergent wash, further following by washing with clean water, thorough drying
and re-blasting.
Where cleaning and swabbing of steel and painted surfaces takes place, disposable lint free swabs must used
and only once. Cloth rags shall not be used.
The Selection of Paint Systems
Each painting job is unique, therefore paints systems must be carefully chosen for each individual job and a
correct and manageable specification drawn up to meet its requirements. For new painting work the
specification for any particular system chosen should consider cost as important.
For maintenance painting special treatments may be required in order to produce compatibility between
existing and new systems. (tie-coat, abrading etc).
Considerations for the above as follows:
1 Appropriate and cost effective methods of surface preparation.
2 Appropriate cost effective paint system to meet the required service life
When repainting or maintaining present systems it should be determined,

1 What the existing paint system is.
2 The extent of breakdown and corrosion.
3 The in-service environmental conditions.
4 The nature and extent of any surface contamination.
Variants
A contractor may propose variants to PA 10 only where the text states that TransCo would consider these.
Application of Paint
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BRITISH GAS
Paint shall normally be applied when:
1 The RH% is less than 90%
2 The air and metal temperature is at least 3C above the D.P.
These measured figures are obtained by the use of a whirling hygrometer and a dew point calculator. Ambient
and substrate temperature should not be below the minimum and maximum set out be the paint manufacturer
for any particular paint or coating product or as stipulated by TransCo.
Paint shall not normally be applied when conditions In the working zone are such that the working surface
becomes damp or moist during the painting operation. When this condition prevails reference should be made
to PA10 S.P.A. 4. 9Painting of Damp Ferrous Surfaces).
Painting equipment shall be used in accordance with paint manufacturers recommendations (type and
operation) spray or brush normally. All paint shall be applied in order to produce a firmly adhering
continuous film, free from misses, runs, tears, sags etc.
Strip coating shall be carried out to welds, edges, etc in order to achieve a full paint film thickness as
specified. All painted areas must be thoroughly dry before being overcoated and any contamination of the
paint film should be removed before further coats are applied. The final coating shall be free from significant
visible imperfections.
Measurement of Paint Thickness
The measurement of both wet and dry film thickness shall be carried out with each separate coat. The D.F.T.
is the reading which determines the final correctness of the application, except in the case of M.I.O. and the
subsequent coats covering M.I.O. where a W.F.T. comb gauge is used
Information for the W.F.T. required to achieve the D.F.T. as specified by the manufacturer, is to be found in
the manufacturers literature. The W.F.T./D.F.T. differential is governed by the V.S.% contained within a
paint.
Specific Painting Application
S.P.A. 1 New and Maintenance Painting for Long Term Protection of Installations and Components.
S.P.A. 1 applies to the painting at works or site of new installations and components and to site maintenance
painting of carbon steel surfaces operating at below 100C.
Normally new components are prepared and part painted at works prior to subsequent completion at site.
S.P.A. 1 applies to:

1 Part painting of new components at works
2 Completion of component painting on site
3 Site painting of uncoated or unsuitably coated surfaces
4 Site maintenance painting.
Each coat of paint shall be of a contrasting colour to the previous coat.
S.P.A. 1. Operation Chart
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BRITISH GAS
For Painting of Uncoated or Unsuitably Coated Surfaces at Works or Site and Application of Paint to
Prepared Surfaces
MASK
OUT
Remove
contaminants
Oil, Grease etc
Clean surfaces
On Site System immediately prior to On Site System
Compliant Solvent Based painting Water Borne Acrylic
AT WORKS
High Build Epoxy Primer 50m min
Aluminium High Solids Solvent Based
75m min Epoxy Primer 75m min
M.I.O. 75m min
Epoxy M.I.O.
Epoxy M.I.O. 75m min
75m min U/Coat 50m min
Completion on Site
High Build Epoxy
(Max period of 3 months
U/Coat for
75m min Finish Coat
finalising painting) 50m min
Epoxy or
Polyester Acrylic Total System
finish 40m min DFT 225m min
or DFT 250m
min, if Primer
and 1st Mid coat
Total System
applied at Works
DFT 265m min
NB. Other compliant systems may be put forward as a variant, provided they comply with PA 9 and provide
equivalent long term performance to the above systems.
Primer in all cases to be applied within 4 hours of metal preparation.
Stripe coating to welds and edges before primer is applied in order to assist achievement of DFT minimum
requirements.
Any system is made up of 4 coats of paint with the 1st mid-coat always containing M.I.O.
Compliant being with EPA 1990 on the limitations of solvent % content.
S.P.A. 1 Operation Chart for Maintenance Painting
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BRITISH GAS
Reference to previous chart and for coatings with limited damage
Mask out
Remove
contaminants
Oil, Grease e
Prepare existing system by

providing a key if required
Surface preparation or exposed substrate or

where paint is to be removed (blast cleaning or Feather
wire brushing as specified) edges
Clean all Surfaces Immediately prior

to painting
Overlap existing
Spot Prime coating by at least
100mm
Spot with M.I.O. Overlap primer

edge
Apply U/Coat
Overall or to areas
spot painted as
Apply Finish specified
NB. The Engineer will normally specify the areas to be painted, the method of preparation and the paint
system to be applied. The number of coats required will be dictated by the breakdown of the existing system
and its required life. )The minimum DFT will comply with the previous chart page).
Specific Painting Application
29
BRITISH GAS
S.P.A. 2. New and Maintenance Painting for Indoor Use or Short Term Protection.
S.P.A. 2. applies to new and maintenance painting for indoor use or short term protection of carbon steel
surfaces operating below 100C
New Painting for Indoor Use and Short Term Protection

Compliant materials normally based on drying oil, or water borne acrylic paints shall be specified. If a
decorative finish is required, one coat of undercoat and one coat of finish shall be applied. The undercoat
should be slightly complementary to the finish coat in colour. This complementation should allow the
sprayer/painter to see clearly what parts he has completed and further should allow him to apply a sufficiency
of material in order to eliminate “grinning”
Maintenance of the above

Damaged areas shall be prepared by wire brushing to BS 7079 05-59-00 ST3 as a minimum and spot primed,
this to be followed by a coat of M.I.O. Depending on the required finish, either one full coat of M.I.O. or
alternatively one full coat of undercoat and finish to the required colour shall be applied.
Mask out
Remove all deposits
Wire brush ST3 min
Clean areas immediately

prior to painting
Apply primer within 4 hrs

45m DFT min
M.I.O. 50m
DFT min
s Apply U/Coat 45m M.I.O. 50m

DFT min DFT min
Apply finish 25m

DFT min
30
BRITISH GAS
S.P.A. 3. Applies to the Painting of New Installations and Maintenance of Surfaces which are likely to
Operate at 100C to 149C, 150C to 340C and Above 340C
100C to 149C
Primer – Heat Resistant Aluminium Pigmented Epoxy or Urethane Primer to be used. Several coats to be
applied until min D.F.T. has been achieved, - 100m for Urethane and 250m for epoxy.
NB Heat resistant paints are normally pigmented with Aluminium flake, therefore a colour finish may not be
possible.
150C to 340C
Thermally Sprayed Aluminium (T.S.A.) shall be applied in accordance with BS EN 22063 and/or BS 2569 Pt
2. where this is not practical due to operational restraints or because it is considered too high a standard of
coating, consideration may be give to inorganic zinc silicate or polysiloxane primers.
Note Care must be taken not to apply over-thickness of inorganic zinc silicate, as this can lead to mud
cracking.
Above 340
Thermally Sprayed Aluminium T.S.A. is the preferred choice. As above where not practical, inorganic zinc
silicate or polysiloxane primer can be considered. At these temperatures where T.S.A. or I.Z.S. are used they
should be sealed with a high temperature sealer. These coatings are applied and cured to the manufacturers
recommendations.
(Operational restraints – i.e. due to the application process it cannot be used on live plants)
S.P.A. 3. Operation Chart. 100C to 149C Heat Resistant Aluminium Pigmented Epoxy or Urethane
Primer
Mask out
Remove contamination
Oil, Grease etc.
Blast clean to SA 21/2

75m Max
Clean areas
immediately prior to
painting
Apply primer within 4

hrs. D.F.T. depends on
primer used
Further coats to build

100m Urethane or
250m epoxy
31
BRITISH GAS
S.P.A. 3. Operation Chart 150C to 340C T.S.A., I.Z.S. or Polysiloxane System
Mask out
Oil, Grease etc
Blast clean SA
3 75m Max

prior to painting
ALTERNATIVE PREFERRED SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE
I.Z.S. To T.S.A. Polysiloxane Inorganic

manufacturers (LONG SERVICE Coating to manufacturers
instructions LIFE) instructions
S.P.A. 3. Operation Chart – Above 340C I.S.A., I.Z.S. or Polysiloxane system
Mask out
Oil, Grease etc
Blast clean SA
3 75m Max

prior to painting
ALTERNATIVE PREFERRED SYSTEM ALTERNATIVE
I.Z.S. Sealer Heat T.S.A. Polysiloxane Inorganic

to cure, all to (LONG SERVICE Coating
manufacturers LIFE)
recommendations
Metallic coatings require a sealer to be applied, with heat to cure the sealer. Sealer is required due the
fact that these coatings are inevitably porous.
S.P.A. 4. Painting of Damp Ferrous Surfaces
S.P.A. 4 Applies to the painting of ferrous surfaces where condensation during painting cannot be prevented.
32
BRITISH GAS
A number of paint systems are available which are tolerant to damp surfaces, but which are not usually wet
surfaces. Further they shall not be used when ice is present or when the surface temperature is likely to be
below 3C
Types of material modified satisfactorily for use on damp metal surfaces include;
1 Moisture curing polyurethanes
2 High Solids multi-component epoxy paints
The above paints are specially modified by the manufacturer to be moisture tolerant.
S.P.A. 4. Operation Chart – For damp ferrous surfaces
Moisture Curing Polyurethane or High Solids Multi-Component Epoxy Paints
Remove surface contamination.

Swab with grease removing solvents.
Wash with 2% detergent solution
Blast clean SA 21/2

75m max
Wash with clean water (To

remove grit and dust)
Remove droplets and

standing water (surface
shall not be wet)
Moisture curing High solids multi-

polyurethanes to component epoxy paint
manufacturers to manufacturers
instructions (by brush) instructions (by brush)
Slight “Gingering” rust blooming may be tolerated.

Surface is to be painted immediately in a “sequential continuous operation with a single application. A brush
is used to “work” the paint into the surface.
S.P.A. 5. Maintenance painting for Low Pressure Gasholders
S.P.A. 5. Detailed procedures for the planning, surface preparation, cleaning and painting of external surfaces
of low pressure water sealed gasholder.
33
BRITISH GAS
Waterless gasholders of the Wiggins, Hammond, Klonne and M.A.N. types and the above ground frame work
and water tank associated with water sealed gasholders, shall be painted in accordance with S.P.A. 1.
Damp surfaces such as tank bottom plates and gas mains in pits which extend into the gasholder foundation
are covered in S.P.A. 4.
Tender documents
Shall clearly identify the following
 Surfaces to be painted
 The method of surface preparation
 Painting systems to be applied
 Finished colours to BS 4800
 Surfaces and items not to be painted
 Areas which need to be protected during preparation and painting
Paint systems selection criteria

 Environmental in-service conditions
 Existing paint system
 Extent of paint breakdown
 Method and extent of preparation
 Standard of cleanliness achievable
 Service life requirement
Water borne acrylics, compliant alkyds and moisture cured urethanes may be used satisfactorily in
most cases.
Surface preparation for Low Pressure Gasholders
A number of techniques may be used e.g. blast cleaning, water jetting, mechanical cleaning, manual cleaning
etc.
Precautions must be taken not to allow debris to enter the cups, the tank or any other vulnerable area.
Preparation methods for particular areas must be clearly defined. Non drying paint can mask severe corrosion
and should be removed prior to painting. Steam cleaning, hot water washing, detergent cleaning, heavy duty
solvent wash and scraping are acceptable methods of paint removal.
Where blast cleaning takes place it shall be to SA 2 1/2. where other methods are used the surface should be to
S.T. 3. or equivalent. In the event of the surface containing toxic material (e.g. lead) no dry blast cleaning or
abrading shall take place.
The edges of remaining coatings will be feathered.
Application of Paint to Low Pressure Gasholders
When the surface has not been totally blast cleaned, or where areas of the previous coating remain, the primer
must be applied by brush. Succeeding coats can be applied by spray or brush. Application by roller is not
recommended.
Where there is exposed prepared metal, the primer D.F.T. must meet the manufacturers recommendations.
This could be spot or overall surface priming. Spot priming should overlap existing coating by at least 100mm
Strip coating may be necessary to achieve D.F.T. at edges, rivets and weld areas. The manufacturers
overcoating times shall be followed, although not more than seven days shall have elapsed before
overcoating.
The coating shall be allowed to dry for as long as possible and in any case at least two weeks prior to any
operation of the gasholder. The finish coat on any one lift or on a single storey tank shall be of the same
manufacturers batch number.
34
BRITISH GAS
Non-slip paint made by mixing dry softwood, coarse grade sawdust with the top coat paint should be applied
as an extra coat to access areas such as walkways and stairs. A one metre band across the crown and around
the inside of the crown perimeter shall also be applied.
When non-drying paint has been removed and some final traces still remain a white spirit based primer rather
than a water based primer shall be applied.
Water based paints require the movement of air to dry quickly, otherwise localised spot rusting will occur.
This problem can be overcome by replacing the primer coat of the water based system with a quick drying
solvent based primer. For surfaces which are predominantly immersed in water one coat of moisture tolerant
epoxy shall be applied by brush to a minimum D.F.T. of 100m (measured by W.F.T. gauge).
S.P.A. 5. Operating Chart – For maintenance painting of Low Pressure Gasholders
Protect defined areas against effects

of preparation and painting
Remove contamination particularly

non-drying paints and oil films
Surface preparation, blast clean or

mechanical / hand cleaning as specified
Apply primer within 4 hours, spot or

full coat. Stripe coat welds and edges,
overlap existing coat by 100mm min
M.I.O. spot or full coat within seven

days Additional M.I.O.
if specified. (to
extend system
Apply finish (if required) min 2 weeks life)
before gasholder can be operated
On the crown of the gasholder the number of coats of paint should be kept to a minimum. Where grit blasting
has taken place only a two coat system of primer and M.I.O. need be applied. This M.I.O. finish coat should
be of a light silver grey colour on order to provide a reflective surface which minimises the crowns
temperature. Reducing coating thickness will also improve flexibility and resist cracking.
S.P.A. 5. Operation Chart – for Cups, Grips and steel tank wind and water lines
Position Gasholder
35
BRITISH GAS
Protect defined
areas
Remove sediment
from cups
Surface preparation
min ST 3
Clean all surfaces

(immediately prior to
painting
Apply moisture
tolerant Epoxy paint
full coat 100m DFT
min
Restore water levels

before leaving site
S.P.A. 6. Painting of Non-Ferrous Surfaces
S.P.A. 6. Applies to the painting on site of the following non-ferrous surfaces.
 New galvanised surfaces

 Weathered galvanised surfaces
 Previously painted galvanised surfaces
 Aluminium surfaces
 Stainless steel
 Pre-painted cladding (Plastisol cladding or equivalent)
 Glass Reinforced Plastics (G.R.P.)
 Fusion Bonded Epoxy (F.B.E.)
 Multi Component Liquids (M.C.L.)
 Concrete
All the above shall be thoroughly cleaned by removing all dust, salts, chemical contaminants, oil,
grease and moisture from the surface prior to preparation and paint application.
36
BRITISH GAS
S.P.A. 6. Preparation of Non-Ferrous Surfaces - table
Surface Preferred option First option Comments
New galvanising Sweep blast Hand abrade An etch primer (T Wash) used
where the two options are
impractical
Weathered galvanising Stiff bristle Patch prime with Weathering provides its own
brushing or wire zinc rich epoxy key
brushing
Previously painted Sweep blast Hand abrade
galvanising
Aluminium Sweep blast Hand abrade For thin gauge aluminium, etch
primer used prior to
intermediate and finish coats.
Not to be blast cleaned.
Chlorinated hydrocarbon
solvent shall not be used
Stainless steel Sweep blast Only aluminium oxide used as
blasting medium
Pre-painted cladding, Sweep blast Hand abrade
Plastisol or equivalent
Glass reinforced Sweep blast Hand abrade
plastics
Fusion bonded epoxy Sweep blast Hand abrade
Multi component Sweep blast Hand abrade
liquid
Concrete (exterior To manufacturers Surface abrasion may not be
surfaces) instructions required for new concrete. Old
paint, if required should be
removed with scrabblers
S.P.A. 6b. & S.P.A. 6c. Paint systems for Non-Ferrous Surfaces, with Initial coats
Surface System / Primer System / Primer System / Primer Comments

New galvanising Water borne Epoxy high build Alkyd or Damaged
acrylic modified alkyd galvanising
Weathered M.I.O. pigmented Pigmented high Alkyd or Repaired with
galvanising water borne build epoxy 65m modified alkyd zinc rich epoxy
min 40m min
Previously Acrylic 65m Pigmented high Pigmented high Repaired with
painted DFT min build epoxy 65m build epoxy 65m zinc rich epoxy
galvanising min min
Aluminium Water borne Pigmented high Alkyd or
acrylic, M.I.O. build epoxy 65m modified alkyd
pigmented water min 40m min
borne acrylic,
45m min
Stainless Steel Water borne Epoxy high build, Zinc rich paints
acrylic, M.I.O. Chloride free must not be used
pigmented water epoxy high build on stainless steel
borne acrylic, 65m min (zinc
45m min embrittlement)
37
BRITISH GAS
Pre-painted Water borne Moisture cured Alkyd or Where steel

cladding acrylic, M.I.O. urethane, modified alkyd. substrate is
(Plastisol or pigmented water compatible Compatible alkyd exposed, repair as
equivalent) borne acrylic, moisture cured 40m DFT min in S.P.A. 1
45m min urethane 25m
DFT min
Glass Reinforced Water borne Moisture cured Alkyd or
Plastic, acrylic, M.I.O. urethane, modified alkyd.
Fusion Bonded pigmented water Compatible Compatible alkyd
Epoxy, borne acrylic, moisture cured 40m DFT min
Multi component 45m DFT min urethane 25m
liquids DFT min
Concrete (walls & Water borne Moisture cured Alkyd or For new concrete
floors acrylic, Single urethane. modified alkyd. a sealer coat may
pack water borne Moisture cured Compatible alkyd be required
acrylic primer urethane sealer 40m DFT min
30m DFT min
Other compliant systems which meet the requirements of P.A. 9. may be proposed to TransCo as variants.
STATUTORY REGULATIONS
All operations shall be subject to Health and Safety at Work Act 1974 together with other relevant
legislation. Hazardous substances shall be with and handled according to the Control of Substances
Hazardous to Health (C.O.S.H.H. Regulations 1988)
Statutes and Regulations other than H.A.S.W.A. and C.O.S.H.H. listed in P.A. 10.
No 1145 1948 The Building (Safety, Health and Welfare) Regulations

No 1580 1961 The Construction (General Provisions) Regulations
No 1581 1961 The construction (Lifting Operations) Regulations
1989 The Construction (Head Protection) Regulations
No 1248 1980 Control of Lead at Work Regulations
1963 The Contracts of Employment Act
1961 The Factories Act
1947 The Fire Services Act
1963 The Offices, Shops and Railway Premises Act
1990 Environmental Protection Act
1991 Environmental Protection Act – EPA – (Duty of Care Regulations)
1974 Control of Pollution Act (1974) & Amendment (1989)
1980 Control of Pollution special Waste Regulations (Amendment 1988)
1988 Collection and Disposal of Waste Regulations
1989 Noise at Work Regulations
1989 Management or Health & Safety at Work Regulations
1989 Manhandling Operations Regulations
1992 Provision and Use or Work Equipment Regulations
1992 Personal Protective Equipment at work Regulations
1992 workplace (Health, Safety & Welfare) Regulations
1994 Certification, Packaging and Labelling (CPL) Regulations (for Carriage of
Dangerous Goods by Road and Rail)
38
BRITISH GAS
1993 Chemicals Hazard Information and Packaging (CHIP) Regulations
1993 Water Resources Act
British Standards listed in P.A. 10.
BS 1129 Specification for portable timber ladders, steps, trestles and lightweight stagings
BS 1139 Metal scaffolding
BS 2569 Specification for sprayed metal coatings: Part 2 – Protection iron and steel against corrosion
and oxidation at elevated temperatures.
BS 2830 Specification for suspended safety chairs and cradles for the use in the construction industry
BS 2842 Specification for Whirling Hygrometer
BS 3900 Methods of test for paints

Part C5 – Determination of film thickness
BS 4800 Schedule of paint colours for building purposes
BS 5493 code of Practice for protective coating of iron and steel structures against corrosion
BS 7079 Preparation of steel substrates before application of paints and related products
Part 0 Introduction
Part A Visual assessment of surface cleanliness
Part A1 Specification for rust grades and preparation grades of uncoated steel
substrates after overall removal of previous coatings.
Part A1 – Supplement 1 – Representative photographic examples of the change of appearance
imparted to steel when blast-cleaned with different abrasives.
Institute of Gas Engineers I.G.E. Recommendations
IGE/SR/3 Electrical equipment in gas production, transmission, storage and distribution
IGE/SR/4 Low pressure gasholders storing lighter-than-air gases
IGE/SR/5 Opening of gas works plant and working in confined spaces
IGE/SR/12 Handling of methanol
IGE/SR/21 Blast cleaning operations
IGE/TD/6 Handling, transport and storage of steel pipes, bends, tees, valves and fittings
British Gas Specifications
BG/PS/G11 Notes for guidance on the issue of Permits to Work
BGES/CW5 Code of Practice for the selection and application of field applied external pipework coatings
PA9 Technical specification for paint properties and performance requirements
GBE/DIS 3.1 Engineering Procedures – Safety – Health and Safety at Works
39
BRITISH GAS
GBE/DIS/ 3.5 Engineering Procedures – Health, Safety and Environmental Protection.
Other British Gas publications
Handbook on Safe Handling of Substances in Use within the Gas Industry

Computerised Information system for Substances in Use in British Gas (CISSUB)
40

British Gas Painting Notes

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BRITISH GAS

PAINTING COURSE - ERS GRADES III & II

Painting Course Notes

Grade Levels III & II

 Variations in oxygen content on the steels surface (wet/dry)

The Galvanic Series

Gold Noble (stable)

Methods of Arresting Corrosion

There are many methods used to prepare metals prior to painting.

Dry abrasive blast cleaning Flame cleaning

The equipment required including the safety features are as follows:

Compressor (max 100psi)

Types of expendable abrasive are:

Abrasive Human Factors

Cabinet and Vacuum reclaim dry blast cleaning systems

Hand and Power Tool Cleaning

B.S. 7079 & S.I.S. 05-59-00

The Swedish Standard gives visual information on the following:

A. covered in Millscale with little or no rust

Blast Cleaning Grades

SA1 Light blast cleaning

Grades of wire brushing

ST2 Thorough Hand and Power Tool cleaning (Manual)

Testing for Surface Contamination

Wet Blast Cleaning

1. It is more environmentally friendly than dry blast cleaning

(Phosphoric acid 80C – phosphating)

Footners Duplex process

Pickling 5 – 10% solution of Sulphuric acid at 65-70C

A traditional solvent carrying paint consists of the three basic constituents:

Binder Binds the particles together and holds them in suspension

Pigment Gives colour to the paint - Volume solids %

Solvent Forms the evaporative part of the drying process

Plasticiser Added to the paint to prevent a brittle film

List of binder and solvent compatibility

Strongest binder Epoxy Acetone Solvent

(Solvents should be stored at least 5C below flash point temperature)

These are as follows

Origin Earth, organic, inorganic (synthetic)

Calcium plumbate White Read Lead Red

Paint Drying and Curing

Glossary of Terms for Metal Preparation and Paint Technology

Ferrous Metals Those which have an iron content

Types of Paint Mills

Direct Charge Mills

Typical Manufacturing Process

(QC tests – viscosity, density, light reflectance)

Paint and Paint film Testing

Common tests in use

Salt Spray Box

Fineness of Pigment Grind

Weight unit used is g/cm3

The density of a paint is calculated by Weight

Calculating the density of a two pack paint when mixed

Two types in common use are

(Quality of opacifying pigment scaled 1 – 5

Wet Film Thickness

Two methods are used to take W.F.T. readings.

Dry film Thickness

Calculation of Volume Solids, W.F.T. & D.F.T.

VS% = DFT x 100

W.F.T. = 100 x DFT

Cross Cut Test

Cross Hatch Test