VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV.

JUNE, 7977 39

A N ILLUSTRATED SERIES OF ASSESSMENT KEYS FOR PLANT DISEASES,

THEIR PREPARATION AND U S A G E '

W.CIive James

Abstract
The percentage s c a l e was e x c l u s i v e l y used t o d e f i n e d i f f e r e n t d i s e a s e
s e v e r i t i e s i n an i l l u s t r a t e d series of d i s e a s e assessment keys f o r c e r e a l ,
f o r a g e , and f i e l d crops. The s t a n d a r d a r e a diagrams were a c c u r a t e l y
prepared w i t h an e l e c t r o n i c scanner. Procedures f o r a s s e s s i n g the
d i f f e r e n t d i s e a s e s a r e o u t l i n e d i n o r d e r t o achieve some degree of
s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n i n d i s e a s e assessment methods.

Introduction
The main reason f o r measuring plant series of d i s e a s e assessment keys u s i n g t h e
d i s e a s e s is t o o b t a i n q u a n t i t a t i v e d a t a on sane g u i d i n g p r i n c i p l e s throughout. The
t h e Occurrence and development of d i s e a s e s . o b j e c t i v e of t h i s paper i s t o p r e s e n t such a
Such d a t a a r e a v i t a l requirement i n most series of keys f o r v a r i o u s crops so t h a t
a s p e c t s o f p l a n t pa&ology and are used to p a t h o l o g i s t s can u s e them and r e p o r t on t h e i r
assess t h e r e l a t i v e importance of d i f f e r e n t merits and f a u l t s with a view t o producing
d i s e a s e s by comparing t h e i r incidence and better keys f o r t h e future. The work
intensity on a g r i c u l t u r a l crops. These r e p o r t e d h e r e is p a r t i c u l a r l y concerned with
measurements are a l s o used i n con j u n c t i o n developing d i s e a s e assessment methods t h a t
w i t h y i e l d o r q u a l i t y d a t a t o determine t h e can subsequently be used i n connection w i t h
r e l a t i o n s h i p between d i s e a s e i n t e n s i t y and estimates of crop l o s s .
c r o p l o s s so t h a t economic l o s s e s can be
c a l c u l a t e d from s u r v e y s conducted t o assess
t h e importance o f d i s e a s e s . Under c e r t a i n Methods and discussion
circumstances d i s e a s e measurements provide a
critical t o o l f o r distinguishing treatment Disease assessment methods f a l l i n t o two
d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t cannot be detected by categories. The f i r s t i s r e p r e s e n t e d by t h e
measuring y i e l d o r q u a l i t y ; hence use is made g e n e r a l d e s c r i p t i v e type of key ( 1 , 19) i n
o f d i s e a s e measurements i n t r i a l s conducted which p l a n t s with varying amounts of d i s e a s e
t o t e s t t h e r e l a t i v e e f f i c a c y of f u n g i c i d e s are described. Probably t h e b e s t known key
and t h e i r r e s p e c t i v e formulations, and i n i n t h i s category i s t h e one used ( 1 ) f o r
v a r i e t y t r i a l s designed t o d e t e c t small a s s e s s i n g l a t e b l i g h t of p o t a t o caused by
d i f f e r e n c e s i n d i s e a s e r e s i s t a n c e between Phytophthora i n f e s t a n s (M0nt.i de Bary (see
varieties. Key No. 3.1.2). The second category of
assessment methods u t i l i z e s s t a n d a r d - a r e a
Diagnosis and measurement of plant diagrams; t h e f i r s t example w a s published i n
diseases represent two of the basic 1892 by Nathan Cobb ( 3 ) , and it i l l u s t r a t e d
principles practised i n plant pathology. different severities of rust w i t h f i v e
With a few exceptions, methods for s t a n d a r d a r e a diagrams. These s t a n d a r d a r e a
identifying pathogens are standardized diagrams t y p i f i e d t h e p a t t e r n of t h e d i s e a s e
throughout t h e world as a r e s u l t of taxonomic on wheat leaves where 1,5,10,20, and 50% o f
classifications which are universally t h e l e a f a r e a w a s occupied by r u s t p u s t u l e s .
accepted. However t h e measurement of p l a n t The assessment keys p r e s e n t e d here are a l s o
d i s e a s e s h a s r e c e i v e d less a t t e n t i o n and even based on s t a n d a r d a r e a diagrams, although
t h e published methods lack consistency. The guidance n o t e s a r e provided w i t h some of t h e
Food and A g r i c u l t u r e Organization of t h e keys.
United Nations h a s prepared a manual (4) i n
an e f f o r t t o p u b l i c i z e and standardize The specifications of a successful
methods f o r e s t i m a t i n g crop l o s s e s , and s i n c e d i s e a s e assessment key are very demanding;
t h i s i n e v i t a b l y i n v o l v e s d i s e a s e assessment however, t h e r e are t w o major requirements.
some degree of s t a n d a r d i z a t i o n w i l l r e s u l t . The f i r s t i s t h a t o b s e r v e r s u s i n g t h e key on
Large ( 2 1 ) reviewed many of t h e methods used a p a r t i c u l a r group of d i s e a s e d p l a n t s must be
f o r measuring d i s e a s e t h a t have appeared as able to arrive a t s i m i l a r assessments
isolated examples in the literature. consistently, and the second is that
However, t o t h e a u t h o r ' s knowledge t h e r e has assessment be achieved simply and quickly.
been no attempt t o develop o r p u b l i s h a
The keys p r e s e q t e d i n t h i s paper a r e
based on a percentage s c a l e because of t h e
C o n t r i b u t i o n No. 277, Research S t a t i o n , many advantages t h a t such a scale o f f e r s .
Canada Department of A g r i c u l t u r e , Ottawa, The upper and lower l i m i t s of a percentage
Ontario s c a l e a r e always uniquely d e f i n e d , and t h e
40 V O L . 51, N0.2, CAN. P L A N T DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

scale is f l e x i b l e i n t h a t it can be chosen as 37% of t h e l e a f or stem cover, w a s

conveniently d i v i d e d and subdivided, e.g. l a b e l l e d 1 0 0 % . The modified Cobb S c a l e was
SO%, l o % , 176, 0.1%. Another advantage is expanded by Peterson e t a l . (26) t o r e p r e s e n t
t h a t it is u n i v e r s a l l y known and accepted. a d d i t i o n a l l e v e l s of i n f e c t i o n , b u t an a c t u a l
It can be used to r e c o r d t h e p r o p o r t i o n of a f f e c t e d a r e a cover of 37% was a l s o l a b e l l e d
plants i n f e c t e d , t h e a r e a damaged by a 1001, a s i n t h e modified Cobb Scale.
f o l i a g e o r r o o t pathogen, or t h e number of
roots o r f r u i t s a f f e c t e d expressed a s a The degree of accuracy d e s i r e d i n d i s e a s e
percentage of t h e t o t a l number present. assessment v a r i e s according to t h e p a r t i c u l a r
Although only a few degrees of i n f e c t i o n a r e objectives of a research program.
shown i n t h e keys p r e s e n t e d h e r e , e.g. Consequently, t h e usage of a p a r t i c u l a r
1,10,20, and 50%, i n t e r p o l a t i o n s can be made d i s e a s e assessment method. w i l l n o t be t h e
when assessments a r e recorded, e.g. 3,15,40%. same i n a l l s i t u a t i o n s . This i s p a r t i c u l a r l y
The e x t e n t of interpolation should be t r u e i n r e l a t i o n t o sample s i z e , which v a r i e s
d i c t a t e d by t h e a b i l i t y of t h e observer t o enormously , depending upon t h e o b j e c t i v e s of
d e t e c t d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e v e l of i n f e c t i o n . t h e experiment o r survey. However, it may be
h e l p f u l t o note some of the guiding
In t h i s paper, the percentage of p r i n c i p l e s t h a t should be followed i n making
i n f e c t i o n noted r e p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u a l a r e a d i s e a s e assessments, b e a r i n g i n mind t h a t
covered by the pustules or lesions each s i t u a t i o n demands s p e c i a l cons i d e r a t i o n
i l l u s t r a t e d ; f o r example, i n t h e key f o r l e a f leading to modification of the
r u s t of c e r e a l s 1 % r e p r e s e n t s t h e a c t u a l a r e a specifications.
o f t h e lamina covered by t h e black spots
(which r e p r e s e n t p u s t u l e s ) expressed a s a Whenever disease assessments are
percentage of the area of the leaf recorded, t h e growth s t a g e should be n o t e d ,
illustrated. ~n a d d i t i o n a l assessment is according to a published key (171, i f
made of y y c h l o r o t i c o r dead t i s s u e possible. Similarly, i f the assessment
a s s o c i a t e d with t h e p u s t u l e s and i s added t o r e f e r s to any p a r t i c u l a r p l a n t component, f o r
t h e p u s t u l e o r l e s i o n assessment to provide example p a r t i c u l a r l e a v e s , t h i s f a c t should
an estimate o f t h e " v i s i b l e a r e a a f f e c t e d " ; be recorded so t h a t meaningful comparisons
f o r example i f t h e p u s t u l e a r e a i s 1% and can be made a t a l a t e r d a t e . The method of
c h l o r o s i s 4%, t h e d i s e a s e percentage recorded s e l e c t i n g t h e sample f o r assessment s h o u l d
is 5%. Similarly, i f a hypersensitive a l s o be recorded, i.e. random o r s y s t e m a t i c
r e a c t i o n i s observed, such a s t h e development sampling of s i n g l e l e a v e s , i n d i v i d u a l p l a n t s ,
of necrotic areas r a t h e r than sporing groups of p l a n t s , l e n g t h of row, a r e a of
p u s t u l e s when c e r t a i n v a r i e t i e s of wheat a r e crop, o r o t h e r u n i t s . The average i n f e c t i o n
infected with stripe rust (23), t h e should be c a l c u l a t e d by d i v i d i n g t h e t o t a l
percentage o f v i s i b l e a r e a affected is d i s e a s e recorded by t h e number of u n i t s i n
e q u i v a l e n t to t h a t of t h e n e c r o t i c area. t h e sample; t h e average is t h e r e f o r e based on
Also i f it i s known t h a t a p a r t i c u l a r l e s i o n t h e h e a l t h y and i n f e c t e d u n i t s in the
w i l l i n c a p a c i t a t e a l a r g e r area than t h a t sample (see example f o r cereal l e a f
occupied by t h e l e s i o n , f o r example a p e t i o l e rust). An exception to t h i s r u l e o c c u r s when
l e s i o n may i n c a p a c i t a t e t h e whole lamina , the average infection within f o c i is
then t h e percentage recorded i s t h a t of t h e c a l c u l a t e d (see t h e example f o r l a t e b l i g h t
l a r g e r area. I t w i l l be a p p r e c i a t e d t h a t it of p o t a t o ) . Lack of time sometimes p r e c l u d e s
is n o t p o s s i b l e to i l l u s t r a t e a r e a s of t h e assessment of i n d i v i d u a l l e a v e s o r root
c h l o r o t i c o r dead t i s s u e i n t h e keys because systems, b u t f o r some d i s e a s e s i n d i v i d u a l
t h e v a r i a b i l i t y i s SO g r e a t . This technique p l a n t s must be examined c l o s e l y .
f o r recording. d i s e a s e by a s s e s s i n g percentage
l e a f a r e a a f f e c t e d i s j u s t i f i a b l e i f t h e aim The s i m p l e s t technique i s u s u a l l y t h e one
i s t o r e l a t e d i s e a s e levels to l o s s e s i n l e a s t prone t o e r r o r . The assessment of
p l a n t production because a measure of t h e d i s e a s e on i n d i v i d u a l c e r e a l l e a v e s is an
p u s t u l e a r e a p l u s t h a t of any a s s o c i a t e d example of a simple e f f e c t i v e method. Each
damage i s probably a b e t t e r i n d i c a t i o n of t h e d i s e a s e p r e s e n t is a s s e s s e d i n d i v i d u a l l y and,
damage caused by t h e d i s e a s e than a measure because t h e o b s e r v e r i s a s s e s s i n g one d i s e a s e
of t h e p u s t u l e area alone. However, t h i s on one l e a f a t one t i m e , t h e e r r o r a t t a c h e d
approach could n o t be j u s t i f i e d i f the to an o b s e r v a t i o n i s small. Additional
o b j e c t i v e w a s d i f f e r e n t , f o r example i n an readings a r e made f o r t h e percentage of g r e e n
epidemiological s t u d y designed to measure t h e t i s s u e remaining and t h e percentage of dead
number of spores i n a diseased plant t i s s u e not visually a t t r i b u t a b l e t o disease.
population. If the keys a r e used as When s e v e r a l l e a v e s have been a s s e s s e d , t h e
suggested, it i s q u i t e p o s s i b l e t h a t , i n information recorded can be used t o c a l c u l a t e
p r a c t i c e , l e v e l s of 100% i n f e c t i o n may never the mean and i t s s t a n d a r d e r r o r ; t h e d a t a may
be encountered, b u t t h i s i s n o t c o n s i d e r e d t o a l s o be used t o e s t i m a t e t h e number of l e a v e s
be a disadvantage. When d i s e a s e l e v e l i s r e q u i r e d to g i v e a d i s e a s e mean w i t h a
r e l a t e d t o y i e l d l o s s t h e r e is no reason why desired standard e r r o r . The principles
t h e maximum l e v e l of disease should be involved i n sampling t e c h n i q u e s have been
recorded as 100%. I n t h i s connection reviewed r e c e n t l y by Church ( 2 ) .
Melchers and Parker (24) modified the
o r i g i n a l Cobb S c a l e ( 3 ) so t h a t t h e maximum The n o t e s t h a t accompany t h e d i s e a s e
a r e a covered by r u s t , which was a r b i t r a r i l y assessment keys i n t h i s paper a r e i n t e n d e d
 VOL.51, N 0 . 2 , CAN. PLANT D/S..SURV. JUNE, 1977 41

f o r g e n e r a l guidance and can be modified t o Use of disease assessment keys

s u i t i n d i v i d u a l requirements. The s t a n d a r d
area diagrams presented h e r e have been A. Cereal crops (wheat, barley, oats)
i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t o a d i s e a s e assessment manual
designed f o r use i n t h e f i e l d . The manual Growth Stages. U s e t h e growth s t a g e key (17)
c o n s i s t s of a series of d i s e a s e assessment t o i n d i c a t e t h e s t a g e of crop growth.
keys and growth s t a g e diagrams of h o s t
plants. The keys have been p r i n t e d on Samplinq. S e l e c t a random sample of f e r t i l e
durable p l a s t i c material so t h a t they can b e t i l l e r s . For p l o t s up t o 0.01 of an acre
used r e p e t i t i v e l y under rigorous field (0.004 h e c t a r e ) select 10 primary f e r t i l e
conditions. Each key i s p r i n t e d a s a t i l l e r s . For l a r g e r p l o t s and f i e l d s select
s e p a r a t e 7 x 4 inch (17.8 x 10.2 cm) pocket- up t o 50 t i l l e r s a t random along one d,iagonal
s i z e s h e e t , so t h a t it can be taken o u t of o r o t h e r a p p r o p r i a t e area. Sample s i z e i s
t h e loose l e a f f o l d e r f o r use; when new keys determined by t h e v a r i a b i l i t y of d i s e a s e and
are a v a i l a b l e t h e y w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d f o r by t h e accuracy d e s i r e d .
i n c l u s i o n i n t h e manual. The manual has been
prepared i n an attempt t o s t a n d a r d i z e d i s e a s e Assessin Disease. Assess t h e percentage
assessment methods, and it
complementary t o t h e FA0 Manual on Crop Loss
is therefore d a r e n f e c t e d by disease on
i n d i v i d u a l laminae, s h e a t h s , or s p i k e s . Make
,
Assessment Methods ( 4 ) i n which only proven s e p a r a t e assessments i f t h e r e i s more t h a n
methods f o r a s s e s s i n g l o s s e s due t o d i s e a s e , one d i s e a s e p r e s e n t and assess t h e percentage
r a t h e r than d i s e a s e assessment keys, are a r e a remaining green; t h e percentage dead
published. Copies of t h e p u b l i c a t i o n , A
planual of Assessment Keys f o r P l a n t Diseases,
are a v a i l a b l e from t h e author.
t i s s u e n o t a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i s e a s e can be
- -
c a l c u l a t e d l a t e r by s u b t r a c t i o n , v i z . 100%
(total percentage d i s e a s e ) (percentage
green t i s s u e ) = percentage dead t i s s u e .

Preparation of keys C a l c u l a t e average i n f e c t i o n s f o r each

s p e c i f i c group of l e a v e s (see example).
The p r e p a r a t i o n of s t a n d a r d a r e a diagrams Make estimates a t v a r i o u s growth s t a g e s
can be laborious, especially when and n o t e l e a f p o s i t i o n so t h a t meaningful
v e r i f i c a t i o n i s needed t h a t t h e 1% i n f e c t i o n comparisons can be made f o r v a r i o u s leaves.
r e p r e s e n t e d a c t u a l l y occupies 1% of t h e area
on t h e standard a r e a diagram. By u s i n g These keys have been specifically
conventional apparatus such as a planimeter, developed f o r a s s e s s i n g cereal d i s e a s e s b u t
it is very d i f f i c u l t t o measure a small a r e a they may be used f o r d i s e a s e s of g r a s s e s i f
a c c u r a t e l y ; f o r example, 1% on t h e key f o r t h e symptoms are similar.
l e a f r u s t of cereals i s made up of 20 u n i t
areas. This problem w a s solved by using an
IBM drum scanner which measures a r e a s t o
EXAMPLE - Assessment of c e r e a 1 , l e a f rust.
w i t h i n 1/62,500 sq inch. A l l t h e keys were Determine percentage l e a f area a f f e c t e d
drawn approximately 4 times l a r g e r t h a n t h e by l e a f r u s t of c e r e a l s , based on 10 f e r t i l e
s i z e shown, t h u s s i m p l i f y i n g t h e t a s k of tillers from a plot. Data f o r o t h e r
drawing t h e l e s i o n s , which w e r e copied from d i s e a s e s , green t i s s u e , and dead t i s s u e 'can
d i s e a s e d leaves. The drawings were made on be t r e a t e d i n a similar way.
24 x 36 inch "Cronaflex" s h e e t s , and t h e
necessary areas w e r e measured on t h e scanner. Percentage l e a f (lamina) area affected

The scanner system c o n s i s t s of a scan Tiller Flag Second

head c o n t a i n i n g a p h o t o e l e c t r i c c e l l t h a t no. leaf leaf
r e c o r d s black areas i n u n i t s of 1/62,500 sq
inch. The recorded information w a s s t o r e d on 1 5 10
magnetic t a p e and t h e n processed t o determine 2 4 8
t h e measurement of t h e area. For example, 3 0 5
f o r t h e l e a f r u s t of c e r e a l s key t h e l e a f 4 3 7
area o u t l i n e d w a s shaded black, and t h e t o t a l 5 4 0
area of t h e l e a f measured. S i m i l a r l y , t h e 6 5 4
t o t a l area of t h e l e s i o n s r e p r e s e n t i n g 1% w a s 7 0 7
measured ( a p a r t from t h e l e a f o u t l i n e ) and 8 5 0
expressed as a percentage of t h e t o t a l l e a f 9 5 10
area. A f t e r t h e f i r s t scan w a s completed, 10 5 10
t h e area designated a s 1% w a s i n c r e a s e d or Total 36 61
decreased as r e q u i r e d , and rescanned to
verify t h a t t h e c o r r e c t i o n produced t h e Mean 3.6 6.1
d e s i r e d e f f e c t . A 2 4 x 36 inch s h e e t can b e Standard Error 0.64 1.2
scanned i n approximately 10 minutes.
42 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

Growth stage key for cereals

GROWTH STAGES
Stage IN CEREALS
1 One shoot (number of l e a v e s can T I LLERING
be added) = " brairding" ,
2 Beginning of t i l l e r i n g
3 T i l l e r s formed, leaves o f t e n
t w i s t e d s p i r a l l y . I n some
v a r i e t i e s of w i n t e r wheats,
p l a n t s may be "creeping" o r
prostrate STAGE I
4 Beginning o f t h e e r e c t i o n of STAGE S I
the pseudo-stem, l e a f s h e a t h s
STAGE
beginning t o lengthen
5 Pseudo-stem (formed by s h e a t h s
ST?' 3 rtrong
sheaths erect2
of l e a v e s ) s t r o n g l y e r e c t e d
tlllerlng formed lengthen
6 F i r s t node o f stem v i s i b l e a t
base of shoot
7 Second node of stem formed,
next- to- last l e a f j u s t
visible
8 L a s t leaf visible, but still
r o l l e d up, s p i k e beginning t o
swell
9 Ligule of l a s t l e a f j u s t
visible STEM EXTENSION
10 Sheath of l a s t l e a f completely
grown o u t , s p i k e swollen b u t
not yet visible
10.1 F i r s t s p i k e s j u s t v i s i b l e (awns
j u s t showing i n b a r l e y , s p i k e
escaping through s p l i t of
s h e a t h i n wheat o r o a t s ) In boot
10.2 Quarter of heading
process completed
10.3 Half of heading process
completed
10.4 Three- quarters of heading
process completed
10.5 All s p i k e s o u t of sheath
10.5.1 Beginning of flowering
(wheat)
10.5.2 Flowering complete to
top of s p i k e
10.5.3 Flowering over a t base
of s p i k e
10.5.4 Flowering o v e r , k e r n e l
watery r i p e
11.1 Milky r i p e
11.2 Mealy r i p e , c o n t e n t s of k e r n e l
s o f t b u t dry
11.3 Kernel hard ( d i f f i c u l t t o
d i v i d e by thumb-nail)
11.4 Ripe f o r c u t t i n g . Straw dead

( A f t e r E.C. Large. 1954. P l a n t P a t h o l . 3:128-129)

--- --."--
I

VOL.51, N 0 . 2 , CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 43

B. Forage crops (alfalfa, clover) Stages of development of legumes

Growth s t a g e s . Use t h e growth s t a g e key to Major s tages Substages
i n d i c a t e t h e s t a g e of crop growth.
Samplin . S e l e c t a random sample of p l a n t
units f z r d i s e a s e assessment. The units may
1 Vegetative 1 Early
2 Medium
-
-
4-6 inches high
over 6 inches high
c o n s i s t of i n d i v i d u a l leaves , p l a n t s , groups (before any buds a r e
of p l a n t s , o r a l l p l a n t s i n a p a r t i c u l a r detectable)
q u a d r a t o r a r e a , e.g. ft2 .
yd2
C a l c u l a t e t h e average i n f e c t i o n f o r
. or m 2 .
the
3 Late - pre-bud (a few stems may
be i n e a r l y bud s t a g e )
sample u n i t s employed.
$s"fesing Disease. Some d i s e a s e s may cause 2 Bud 1 Early - buds minute, may be f e l t
a s an enlargement i n apex
e o i a t i o n when only a small percentage of of stem
the leaf area i s affected. For t h e s e p l a n t s
estimate the area of leaves lost by 2 Medium - buds well formed and
d e f o l i a t i o n and add t h i s t o t h e percentage visible
i n f e c t i o n on t h e remaining leaves t o o b t a i n
t h e r e q u i r e d e s t i m a t e of percentage l e a f a r e a 3 Late - buds v i s i b l e , swollen;
e a r l i e s t buds showing
a f f e c t e d by disease.
some color a t t i p s

Growth stage key for legumes 3 Flower 10%bloom

25% bloom
The growth and development of legumes
have been divided i n f i v e major s t a g e s , which 50% bloom
have been numbered consecutively. Each major
s t a g e has been divided i n t o two o r more 75% bloom
substages. I f f u r t h e r refinement i s r e q u i r e d
4 F u l l flower 100%bloom
more substages can be added i f they are
adequately described. Flowers dying

The recording of a s t a g e r e q u i r e s t h e use 5 Seed Early - green seed pods

o f a two d i g i t number; f o r ekample, e a r l y bud
i n legumes = 21; 2 = bud, 1 = e a r l y . Medium - seed i n dough s t a g e
Mature - seed mature
This system of c l a s s i f i c a t i o n r e q u i r e s
t h a t h a l f t h e stems i n each p l o t must be i n (After a system developed by D r . J. E. Winch,
t h e s t a g e so described. University of Guelph)

C . Field crops (potatoes, beans)

Samplinq.
assessment.
S e l e c t a random sample f o r d i s e a s e (a) Primary s t a g e s of epidemic
infection is present i n limited f o c i
- When

Assessing Disease. Choose a u n i t l e n g t h of Average number of f o c i / a c r e 5

row f o r r o w crops, or a small quadrat o r area Average a r e a of f o c i 3 yd2
f o r o t h e r crops and assess t h e percentage Average percentage l e a f a r e a
l e a f area affected. I f appropriate, single infected within f o c i 1%
l e a v e s o r p l a n t s may be assessed. Calculate
average i n f e c t i o n s f o r t h e sample units Percentage acreage a f f e c t e d = 15/4840
employed. =I 0.31

I f t h e primary s t a g e s of d i s e a s e develop Therefore 0.3% of acreage i s a f f e c t e d ,

as f o c i , determine t h e average area of t h e with an average i n f e c t i o n of 1% within t h e
f o c i and t h e number/acre o r h e c t a r e and foci.
e x p r e s s a s percentage acreage affected.
Calculate percentage leaf area affected
w i t h i n t h e i n f e c t e d a r e a , a s i n t h e following
(b) L a t e r s t a g e s of epidemic -
S e l e c t 10
sample a r e a s a t random i n t h e f i e l d and
example. assess percentage leaf area affected.
EXAMPLE -
Assessment of l a t e b l i g h t of p o t a t o e s
d i s e a s e assessments .
C a l c u l a t e average i n f e c t i o n s as f o r c e r e a l
44 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

RHYNCHOSPORIUM LEAF BLOTCH OR SCALD OF BARLEY

Key No. 1.1

Use for:
Leaf blotch or scald (Rhynchosporium
EACH DIVISION REPRESENTS
secalis (Oud.) Davis) of barley
10% OF THE AREA OF EACH LEAF
10% Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess the percentage area affected by
THE BLACK AREAS REPRESENT
rhynchosporium on the upper side of the
1, 2, & 5% OF EACH LEAF laminae of the flag and second leaves, at
growth stage 1 1 . 1 . The key can also be
used for recording the disease at earlier
growth stages, but the growth stage and
leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisions
can be made between crops.
1% Assessing severity:
Match the leaf to one of the diagrams and
use the black areas (representing 1%, 2%.
and 5% of each leaf) as a guide in
assessing the percentage leaf (lamina) area
2% covered by small isolated lesions, and the
10% sections for the larger lesions that
have coalesced. For the purpose of this
key, affected area includes the lesions and
5% any yellowing that appears to be associated
with a lesion. Differences in disease
incidence will be reflected in comparisons
of either flag leaf or second leaf values,
depending on the level of the infection.

References:
8, 9, 10
 VOL.51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 45

LEAF RUST OF CEREALS

Key No. 1.2

Use for:
Crown rust of oats (Puccinia coronata
(Corda) Erikss. & Henn.)
Leaf rust of wheat (Puccinia triticina
Erikss.)
Leaf rust of barley (Puccinia recondita Rob.
ex Desm.)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
1 1.1 or 1 1.2 or both. The key can also be
used for recording the disease at earlier
growth stages, but the growth stage and
leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (lamina) area
affected by disease on individual top
leaves.

Reference:
6

PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

46 VOL. 51, N 0 . 2 , CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

STEM RUST OF CEREALS

Key No. 1.3

Use for:
Stem rust of wheat (Puccinia graminis
Pers. f. sp. tritici Erikss. & Henn.)
Stem rust of oats (Puccinia graminis Pers.
f. sp. avenae Erikss. & Henn.)
Stem rust of barley (Puccinia graminis
Pers. f. sp. secalis Erikss. & Henn.)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 1 1.1 or 1 1.2. The
key can also be used for recording the
disease at earlier growth stages, but the
growth stage and leaf position (top leaf =
leaf 1) should be carefully noted, so that
valid comparisions can be made between
crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (sheath) area
affected by disease on individual top
leaves.

References:
6 , 27

50
PERCENTAGE STEM AREA COVERED
 VOL. 51, NO.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 47

POWDERY MILDEW OF CEREALS

Key No, 1.4

Use for:
Powdery mildew of wheat (Erysiphe
graminis DC. ex Marat f. sp. tritici
Marchal)
Powdery mildew of barley (Erysiphe
graminis f. sp. hordei Marchal)
Powdery mildew of oats (Erysiphe graminis
DC. ex W a t )

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth Stages:
Assess at growth stage 10.5. The key can
also be used for recording the disease at
earlier growth stages, but the growth stage
and leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should
be caretully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (lamina) area
affected by disease on individual top
leaves.

References:
19. 20

1 50
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED
40 VOL. 51, NO.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

SEPTORIA GLUME BLOTCH OF WHEAT

Key No.- 1.5

Use for:
Glume blotch of wheat (Septoria nodorum
Berk.)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of spikes.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
11.1 or 11.2 or both.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage spike area affected by
disease.

Reference:
15

Lo 25 50
PERCENTAGE SPIKE AREA COVERED
 VOL.51, N0.2. CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 49

SEPTORIA LEAF BLOTCH OF CEREALS (Leaf symptoms)

Key No. 1.6.1

Use for:
Glume blotch of wheat (Septoria nodorum
Berk.)
Speckled leaf blotch of wheat (Septoria
tritici Rob. ex Desm.)
Leaf blotch of wheat (Septoria avenae
Frank f. sp. friticea T. Johnson)
Leaf blotch and black stem of oats
(Septoria avenae Frank f. sp. avenae)
Speckled leaf blotch of barley (Septoria
passerinii Sacc.)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
1 1.1 or 1 1.2 or both. The key can also be
used for recording disease at earlier growth
stages, but the growth stage and leaf
position ( top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (lamina) area
affected by disease on individual top leaves.

Reference.
15

PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

50 VOL.57, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 7977

SEPTORIA LEAF BLOTCH OF CEREALS (Stem symptoms)

Key No. 1.6.2

I
Use for:
Glume blotch of wheat (Septoria nodorum
Berk.)
Speckled leaf blotch of wheat (Septoria
tritici Rob. ex Desm.)
Leaf blotch of wheat (septoria avenae
Frank f. sp. triticea T. Johnson)
Leaf blotch and black stem of oats
(Septoria avenae Frank f. sp. avenae)
Speckled leaf blotch of barley (Sepforia
passerinii Sacc.)

I
Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
1 1.1 or 1 1.2 or both. The key can also be
used for recording the disease at earlier
growth stages, but the growth stage and
leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (sheath) area
affected by disease on individual top
leaves.

1
Reference:
15

- -
1 5 15 50
PERCENTAGE STEM AREA COVERED
 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 7977 51

DRECHSLERA LEAF BLOTCH OR STRIPE OF CEREALS

Key No. 1.7

Use for:
Leaf blotch or stripe of oats (Drechslera
avenacea (Curt. ex Cke.) Shoem.
(Helminthosporium avenae Eidam; stat.
perf. Pyrenophora chaetomioides
Speg., P. avenae Ito & Kurib.))
Leaf blotch of wheat (Drechslera
tritici-repentis (Died.) Shoem.
(Helminthosporium t. -r. Died.))

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
11.1 or 11.2 or both. The key can also be
used for recording the disease at earlier
growth stages, but the growth stage and
leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (lamina) area
affected on individual top leaves.

References:
5, 28

25 50
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED
52 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

SPINDLE STREAK MOSAIC OF WHEAT

Key No. 1.8

Use for:
Spindle streak mosaic of wheat (wheat
spindle streak mosaic virus)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of individual fertile
tillers or unit lengths of row.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 8, 9, and 10. The
key can also be used for recording the
disease at earlier growth stages, but the
growth stage and leaf position (top leaf =
leaf 1) should be carefully noted, so that
valid comparisons can be made between
I crops.

Ii I
Assessing severity:
Estimate proportion of fertile tillers infected

'I
I'
I1
and express as percentage. Assess the
percentage leaf (lamina) area affected by
disease of individual top leaves.
I ' References:
! 5, 28

I
I
1 1

I 1
I
I
I

-
1- 50
 VOL.57, NO..?, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 7971 53

BACTERIAL BLACK CHAFF OF WHEAT

Key No. 1.9

Use for:
Bacterial black chaff of wheat
(Xanthomones translucens (Jones,
Johnson & Reddy) Dowson)

Procedure:
Select a random sample of fertile tillers.

Growth stages:
Assess at growth stages 10.5 and either
1 1 .I or 11.2 or both. The key can also be
used for recordinq the disease at earlier

I growth stages, out the growth stage and

leaf position (top leaf = leaf 1) should be
carefully noted, so that valid comparisons
can be made between crops.

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf (lamina) area
affected on individual top leaves.

1 1 -
5
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED
54 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

BLACK STEM OF ALFALFA (Stem symptoms)

Key No. 2.1.1

Use for:
Black stem of alfalfa (on stems) (Phorna
rnedicaginis Malbr. & Roum.)

Procedure:
Assess individual stems or plants, or plants
in small sample areas (ff, yd2, m2).

Growth stages:
Before first and second cuts and at any
other appropriate stages (see growth stage
key).

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage stem area affected.

References:
7, 29

PERCENTAGE STEM AREA COVERED

 VOL.51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 55

BLACK STEM OF ALFALFA (Leaf symptoms)

Key No. 2.1.2

Use fof:
Black stem of alfalfa (on leaves) (Phoma
medicaginis Malbr. & Roum.)

Procedure:
Assess individual leaves or plants, or plants
in small sample areas (ff, yd2, m2).
5 1
Growth stages:
Before first and second cuts and at any
other appropriate stages (see growth stage
key).

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf area affected
(including defoliation due to disease, if
any).

References:
7, 29

2O I 50 1

70 I *O 1
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED
56 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

COMMON LEAF SPOT OF ALFALFA

Key No. 2.2

Use for:
Common leaf spot of alfalfa (Pseudopeziza
trifolii (Biv.-Bern. ex Fr.) Fckl. f. sp.
medicaginis- lupulinae Schm ied.)

Procedure:
Assess individual leaves or plants, or plants
in small sample areas (ff, yd2, m*).

Growth stages:
Before first and second cuts and at any
other appropriate stages (see growth stage
key).

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf area affected
(including defoliation due to disease, if
any).

Reference:
7

2o 1 I

PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

 I I I

VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 57

YELL0,kV LEAF BLOTCH OF ALFALFA

Key No. 2.3

Use for:
Yellow leaf blotch of alfalfa (Leptotrochila
medicaginis (Fckl.) Schuepp)

Procedure:
Assess individual leaves or plants, or plants

5 l in small sample areas (fP, y 6 , mz).

Growth stages:
Before first and second cuts and at any
other appropriate stages (see growth stage
key).

Assessing severity:
Assess percentage leaf area affected
(including defoliation due to disease, if
any).

Reference.
7

*O I

76 I *O I
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED
58 VOL.51, NO.2. CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

STEMPHYLIUM LEAF SPOT OF RED CLOVER

Key No. 2.4

25

PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

Use for: Growth stages:

Leaf spot of red clover (Stemphylium Before first and second cuts and at any
botryosum Walk.) other appropriate stages (see growth stage
Target spot of red clover (Stemphylium key).
sarcinaeforme (Cav) W iI tsh ire).
Assessing severity:
Procedure: Assess percentage leaf area affected
Assess individual leaves or plants or plants (including defoliation due to disease, if
in small sample areas (fP, ydz, mz). any).
--- -c___ L L I

VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT D1S. SURV. JUNE, 1971 59

LATE BLIGHT OF POTATOES

Key No. 3.1.1

PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

Use for:
Late blight of potatoes (Phytophthora
infestans (Mont.) de Bary)
Procedure:
Use Key No. 3.1.1 when infection is
limited to foci in the primary stages ,of the
epidemic. Survey the crop for foci of
infection. A special effort should be made
to record the date of initial infection and
the early part of the disease progress
curve. Use Key No. 3.1.2 for the later
stages of the epidemic when infection is
widespread.
Assessing severity:
1 Survey the crop and estimate the
average number of foci per acre or
hectare.
2 Determine the average area of the foci.
3 Express (1) and (2) as percentage
acreage affected (see example for late
blight of potatoes).
4 Use Key No. 3.1.1 to assess percentage
leaf area affected within the foci.
References:
1, 12, 13, 14, 16, 25

Growth stages:
Assess at regular intervals (such as one
week) after the epidemic has started.
60 VOL.51, NO.2. CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

LATE BLIGHT OF POTATOES

Key No. 3.1.2

Blight (%) Nature of infection

0.0 No disease observed
0.1 A few scattered plants blighted;
no more than 1 or 2 spots in
12 -yard radius
1.o Up to 10 spots per plant; or
general light infection
5.0 About 50 spots per plant; up to
1 in 10 leaflets infected
25 Nearly every leaflet infected, but
plants retain normal form;
plants may smell of blight;
field looks green although
every plant is affected.
50 Every plant affected and about
5 0 % of leaf area destroyed;
field appears green, flecked
with brown
75 About 7 5 % of leaf area
destroyed; field appears
neither predominantly brown
nor green
95 Only a few leaves on plants, but
stems green
100 All leaves dead, stems dead or
dying

(After British Mycological Society, 1947)

Use for: Growth stages:

Late blight of potatoes (Phytophthora Assess at regular intervals (such as one
infestans (Mont.) de Bary) week) after the epidemic has started.

Procedure: Assessing severity:

Use the key when the disease is Assess percentage leaf area affected by
widespread in the plot or crop. Select blight.
random sample areas along a diagonal or
in accordance with other sampling References:
schemes. 1, 12, 13, 14, 16, 2 5
 VOL.51, NO.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 61

COMMON SCAB OF POTATOES

Key No. 3.2

Use for:
Common scab of potatoes (Streptomyces
scabies (Thaxt.) Waksm. & Henrici)

Procedure:

u
Assess percentage surface area covered by
scab on samples of tubers.

References:
18, 22

1 10

25 50
PERCENTAGE TUBER AREA COVERED
62 VOL.51, NO.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

COMMON BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS (Leaf symptoms)

Key No. 3.3.1

Use for:
Common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas
phaseoli (E.F.Sm.) Dowson) of beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Procedure:
Primary stages (infection in foci)
1 Survey the crop for foci.
2 Estimate average number of foci per
acre or hectare.
3 Determine average area of foci.
4 Express (2) and (3) as percentage
acreage affected (see instructions).
1 10 5 Use the key to estimate the
percentage leaf area affected.
Later stages (infection widespread)
1 Select 1 0 random samples along a
diagonal, each sample constituting two
adjacent rows with 25 plants in each
row (total of 50).
2 Use the key to assess percentage leaf
area affected and calculate average for
the 10 samples.

Growth stages:
Make the assessment when plants are fully
mature but still green. In southern Ontario
this stage generally occurs between August
1 5 and 20.

25 50
PERCENTAGE LEAF AREA COVERED

I
I
 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 63

COMMON BACTERIAL BLIGHT OF BEANS (Pod symptoms)

Key No. 3.3.2

Use for:
Common bacterial blight (Xanthomonas
phaseoli (E.F.Sm.) Dowson) of beans
(Phaseolus vulgaris L.)

Procedure:
Primary stages (infection in foci)
1 Survey the crop for foci.
2 Estimate average number of foci per

I acre or hectare.
3 Determine average area of foci.
4 Express (2) and (3) as percentage
acreage affected (see instructions for
late blight of potatoes).
5 Use the key to estimate the average

1 percentage pod area affected.

Later stages (infdction widespread)
1 Select 1 0 random samples along a
9 diagonal, each sample constituting two ad-
jacent rows with 2 5 plants in each row
0
(total of 50)
2 Use the key to assess percentage pod
area affected and calculate average for the
10 samples

Growth stages:
Make the assessment when plants are fully
mature but still green. In southern Ontario
this stage generally occurs between August
J 1 5 and 20.

PERCENTAGE POD AREA COVERED

64 VOL. 51, N0.2, CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971

Acknowledgments 1969 and 1970. Can. P l a n t Dis. Surv.

51 :24-31.
Drawings by N.J.E. Brown and Mary Klyne;
s c a n n i n g by c o u r t e s y of Geo- Information 12. James, W.C., L.C. C a l l b e c k , W. A. Hodgson,
System, Canada Land I n v e n t o r y , Department o f and C.S. Shih. E v a l u a t i o n o f a method
Regional Economic Expansion, and Cartography used t o estimate loss i n y i e l d o f
Section, S o i l Research I n s t i t u t e . I am potatoes caused by late blight.
g r a t e f u l t o D r s . C.S. S h i h , W.L. Seaman, and Phytopathology ( I n p r e s s )
S.J. Hughes f o r c h e c k i n g t h e manuscript.
13. James, W.C., C.S. S h i h , W.A. Hodgson, and
L.C. Callbeck. The quantitative
Literature cited r e l a t i o n s h i p between l a t e b l i g h t o f
p o t a t o and loss in tuber yield.
1. Anonymous. 1947. The measurement o f Phytopathology ( I n P r e s s )
potato b l i g h t . Trans. Brit. Mycol.
SOC. 31: 140-1 41. 14. James, W.C., C.S. S h i h , L.C. Callbeck,
and W.A. Hodgson. A p r e d i c t i o n method
2. Church, B.M. 1 9 7 0 . The p l a c e of sample f o r e s t i m a t i n g t h e p e r c e n t a g e loss i n
s u r v e y i n c r o p loss e s t i m a t i o n . In t u b e r y i e l d caused by l a t e b l i g h t o f
Crop l o s s assessment methods, Section p o t a t o . (Submitted fox p u b l i c a t i o n )
2.2, p. 1- 12. Food and A g r i c u l t u r e
Organization of t h e United Nations 15. J e n k i n s , J.E.E., and W. Morgan. 1969.
Publ. AGP: CP/22. The e f f e c t o f S e p t o r i a d i s e a s e s on
y i e l d o f w i n t e r wheat. P l a n t Pathol.
3. Cobb, N.A. 1892. C o n t r i b u t i o n t o an 18:152-156.
economic knowledge o f t h e A u s t r a l i a r r
rusts ( U r e d i n e a e ) . Agr. Gaz. New South 16. Large, E.C. 1 9 5 2 . The i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f
Males 3:60-68. p r o g r e s s c u r v e s f o r p o t a t o b l i g h t and
other plant diseases, Plant Pathol.
4. Food and A g r i c u l t u r a l O r g a n i z a t i o n o f t h e 1:109-117.
U n i t e d Nations. 1970. Crop loss
a s s e s s m e n t methods; FA0 manual on t h e 1 7 . Large, E.C. 1954. Growth stages in
e v a l u a t i o n and p r e v e n t i o n o f losses by cereals: i l l u s t r a t i o n o f t h e Feekes
p e s t s , d i s e a s e s and weeds. Publ. AGP: scale. P l a n t P a t h o l . 3:128-29.
CP/22. Rome. L o o s e l e a f .
18. Large, E.C., and J.K. Honey. 1955.
5. Gates, L.F. 1969. I n c i d e n c e and e f f e c t s Survey o f common scab o f p o t a t o e s i n
o f wheat s p i n d l e s t r e a k mosaic i n Essex Great B r i t a i n , i n 1952 and 1 9 5 3 . P l a n t
and Kent counties, O n t a r i o , 1967- 68. P a t h o l . 4: 1- 8.
Can. P l a n t D i s . Surv. 49:58-59.
19. Large, E.C., and D.A. Doling. 1962. The
6. Grqaney, F.J. 1933. Method o f e s t i m a t i n g measurement' o f cereal mildew and i t s
1.osses o f cereal r u s t s . Proc. World's e f f e c t on y i e l d . P l a n t P a t h o l . 11:47-
G r a i n Exhib. and Conf., Canada 3:224- 57.
36.
2 0 . Large, E.C., and D.A. Doling. 1963.
7. Harding, Howard. 1970. F o l i a g e d i s e a s e s E f f e c t o f mildew on y i e l d o f w i n t e r
o f a l f a l f a i n N o r t h e r n Saskatchewan i n wheat. P l a n t P a t h o l . 12: 12 8-1 3 0 .
1970. Can. P l a n t D i s . Surv. 50:126-
129. 21. Large, E.C. 1966. Measuring plant
disease. Annu. Rev. P h y t o p a t h o l . 4:9-
8. James, W.C. 1967. Assessment o f b a r l e y 28.
l e a f b l o t c h and i t s e f f e c t on s p r i n g
barley yield. Proc. 4th Br. 2 2 . Lowings, P., and W . Ridgman. 1959. A
I n s e c t i c i d e and F u n g i c i d e Conf. 1 : 1 1 1 - spot, sampling method f o r the e s t i m a t i o n
114. o f common s c a b on potato t u b e r s . Plant
P a t h o l . 8: 125- 126.
9. James, N.C., J.E.E. Jenkins, and J.L.
Jemmett. 1968. The relationship 2 3 . Manners, J . G . 1950. S t u d i e s on the
between leaf blotch caused by physiological s p e c i a l i z a t i o n of yellow
lih nchos orium s e c a l i s and losses i n rust ( P u c c i n i a glumaryn (Schm) E r i k s s .
c p i i n y i g l d of barley. Ann. E Henn.) i n Great B r i t a i n . Ann. Appl.
Appl. B i o l . 62:273-288. B i o l . 37: 187-21 4.

10. James, W.C. 1969. A survey of foliar 2 4 . Melchers, L.E., and J.H. Parker. 1922.
d i s e a s e s o f s p r i n g b a r l e y i n England Rust resistance in winter wheat
and Wales i n 1967. Ann. Appl. Biol. varieties. U.S. Dep. Agr. B u l l . 1046.
6 3 :253-263.
25. O l o f s s o n , B. 1968. Determination of t h e
1 1 . James, W.C. 1971. Importance of f o l i a r critical injury threshold f o r potato
diseases on w i n t e r wheat i n O n t a r i o i n b l i g h t ( P h y t o p h t h o r a i n f e s t a n s ) . Medd.
 VOL.51, N 0 . 2 , CAN. PLANT DIS. SURV. JUNE, 1971 65

Waxtskyddsanst, Stockholm. 14 :81-93. 28. S l y k h u i s , J.T. 1969. Factors

d e t e r m i n i n g t h e development o f wheat
26. P e t e r s o n , R.F., A.B. Campbell, and A.E. s p i n d l e s t r e a k mosaic c a u s e d by a s o i l -
Hannah. 1948. A diagrammatic scale borne v i r u s i n Ontario. Phytopathology
f o r e s t i m a t i n q r u s t i n t e n s i t y on stems 60:319-331.
and l e a v e s a f - c e r e a l s . Can.-J. Res. C.
26:496-500. 29. W i l l i s , W.G., D.L. S t u t e v i l l e , and E.L.
Sorenson. 1969. E f f e c t s o f l e a f and
27. Romig, H . W . , and L. Calpouzos. 1970. stem d i s e a s e s on y i e l d and q u a l i t y o f
The r e l a t i a n s h i p between stem r u s t and a l f a l f a forage. Crop S c i . 9:637-640.
loss i n yield of spring wheat.
Phytopathology 60:1801-1805.