Research Handouts 2

Characteristics of research

1. Research is empirical. Research is based on direct experience or observation by the researcher.

2. Research is logical. It is based on valid procedures and principles.
3. Research is cyclical. It starts with a problem and ends with a problem.
4. Research is analytical. It proves analytical procedures in gathering data. Research will analyze whether historical,
descriptive or case study.
5. Research is methodical. It is conducted in a methodical manner without systematic bias using systematic method
and procedures.
6. Research is replicable. Its design and procedures are replicated or repeated to enable the researcher to arrive at
valid and conclusive results.
7. Research is critical. It exhibits carefully studied judgement.

Note: To pursue quality research scientific method is a prerequisite. Scientific method refers to a systematic, organized
series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in investigating a phenomenon, acquiring knowledge or
correcting and integrating previous knowledge. For research to be termed scientific, an inquiry method must be based on
gathering observable, empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.

16 Principles in Research

In doing research, these are ethical norms to be followed:

1. Norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge; truths, and avoidance of error. For example,
prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying or misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.
2. Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People more likely to fund research
project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.

Honesty Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honesty in reports, data’s,
results, methods and procedures. Honesty with your respondents/ subjects. Do
not fabricate, falsify or misrepresent data. Do not deceive anybody.
Objectivity Strive to avoid bias in experimental design. Objective will give you a certain
guide into which, what and how your research would go.
Integrity Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.
Carefulness Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your own
work and the work of your peers. Carefulness is also related on how you do a
certain research from interviews down to data analysis.
Openness Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new ideas.
Respect for Honor patents, copyrights and other forms of intellectual property. Do not use
intellectual Property unpublished data, methods or results without permission. Give credit for all
contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
Confidentiality Protect confidential communication such as names, personnel records, trade
or military secrets and patients records
Responsible Publish in order to advance research and scholarship not to advance just your
Publication own career. Publish work for research is meant to innovate and to avoid
wasteful and duplicative publication.
Responsible Help to educate, mentor and advice students. Promote their welfare and allow
Mentoring them to make their own decisions.
Respect for Colleagues Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
Social Responsibility Strive to promote social good and prevent any social harm through research,
public education and advocacy.
Non-discrimination Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of sex, race,
ethnicity or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence
and integrity.
Competence Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
though lifelong education and learning. As a researcher you should know every
aspects of your study.
Legality Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and government policies.
Animal Care Show respect and care for animals when using them in research.
Human Subject When conducting research to human subjects don’t put them to any harm and
protection risk.
Research Handouts 3

A scientific inquiry follows a process which indicates specific steps and key question/s as guide to pursue a social research
interest:

Stages of Research Process Key Questions

Identifying and Delimiting the Problem
Review of Related Literature
Developing the Theoretical Framework
Formulating Hypothesis
Selecting The Research Design
Sampling
Specify Methods to collect the Research Data
Finalizing ad Reviewing the Research Plan
Collecting the Data
Preparing the data for analysis
Analyze the Data
Interpreting the Results
Drawing Conclusion/s
Communicating and Publishing the Findings
Utilizing the Findings
What is the problem and why should it be studied?
What information is already available?
What are the variables and what relationship exist?
How are we going to obtain the answers to questions being studied?
Where will the study be conducted and with what population?
How to identify or select your respondents?
What method to use to measure variables?
Are there any pitfalls and shortcomings? Are there any ethical
violations?
Are we ready to collect the data? Where to collect the data?
Which of the data are relevant/important? Which data are related?
How do the data answer the research question?
What are the implications of the findings?
How are the findings in relation to the hypothesis?
How do I impart the result of my research?
How can the study be used/utilized? How can the findings be applied?

Chapter 2

Qualitative Research and It’s Importance in Daily Life.

“it’s not how long life is but the quality of your life that is important.”- Roger Dawson

1. Qualitative research is a type of scientific research that investigates to seek answers to a question that relies
on the collection of qualitative data.
2. Qualitative designs emphasize understanding of social phenomena through direct observation,
communication with participants, or analysis of texts, and may stress contextual subjective accuracy over
generality. Additionally, is seeks to understand a given research problem or topic from the perspective of a
local population in involves.
3. Qualitative research is especially effective in obtaining culturally specific information about the values,
opinions, behaviors and social contexts of particular populations.

Benefits of Qualitative Research

Since qualitative research do not generally present tables with percentages or bar graphs or handy pie charts,
people often have difficulty understanding the values of these types of research, Qualitative research provides in-depth
appreciation of the context and meaning. It has the ability to provide complex textual descriptions of how people
experience a given research issue.

Topics appropriate for qualitative research may be one, but not limited to the following, of the areas ( social
settings) indicated below:

Broader Topic Specifics Area/Concern

Opinions, perceptions or feelings May deal with opinions of an issue or a feeling about
something or what happened
Behavioral pattern or practices Various kinds of behavior, such as talking or eating or
studying or reading a book
Encounters Two or more people meeting and interacting or conditions
of conflicts and competition.
Subcultures and lifestyles Describes a subculture or lifestyle characteristics of a
particular group or how people adjust or cope a particular
 way of doing in groups.
Episodes Behaviors appropriate to pairs or set of roles like husband-
wife, father-son, brother-brother, employee-employer,
teacher-students and the like.
Similarities or Differences between social groups Comparing practices or ways of doing things, perceptions,
etc of two or more groups.

Qualitative research provides information about the “human” side of an issue – that is, the ethnicity, gender roles ,
normative practices , opinions and behaviors, emotions and relationships of individuals. When used along with
quantitative methods, qualitative research helps to interpret and better understand the complex reality of a given
situation and implications of quantitative data.

Below are the key characteristics of qualitative research.

Research Aspects Qualitative Research

The purpose of the research Specific: find out what can be said to be unique and special
to understand and interpret social interactions
Samples Small samples—often in natural setting and not randomly
selected
Criteria to identify respondents or key informants Relevance: informants are relevant in relation to problems
and meaning
Design of methods Flexible: Interview with no clear answer, dialogue,
interaction
Data approach collection Unstructured, free form
Types of data collected Words, image or objects
Key concepts of methodology Understanding: why, who thinks, what about…meanings
and attitudes
Forms of data collected Qualitative data such as open-minded responses,
interviews, participant observations, field notes
Levels of structuralism Low: open answers and a variety of interpretations. High
flexible.
Examples of investigations Case study with interview, focus group discussion
General approach Empathy: the best understanding of the qualitative
variations.
General perspective Depth: seek as much information as possible on a few
qualitative units
Types of analysis Identify patterns, features and themes
Role of researcher Researcher and his/her biases may be known to
participants in the study, and participants characteristics
may be known to the researcher.
Researcher independence Research is intimately involved. Results are subjective.
Results Particular or specialized findings that are less generalizable.

Regardless of venue or medium, qualitative research is always base on open ended queries; it uses in-depth probing to
uncover the thoughts and feelings behind initial responses and it applies insights and learning to the research process in
real time.

Data collection approaches for qualitative research usually involves.

- Direct interaction with individuals on a one to one basis.

- Or direct interaction with individuals in a group setting.

Qualitative research data collection techniques are time consuming but in qualitative research the information is richer
and has deeper insight into the phenomenon under study.

Typical qualitative data collection techniques for data collection includes.

1. Interviews- main purpose is to get the in-depth and understanding of what the interviewee say. Interviews may
vary based on who or how many will be involved in the process:

In-depth interview (IDI, one-on-one) Interview of a single individual, typically lasting from 30
 to 90 minutes , depending on the subject matter and
context. IDIs may be conducted in person at a research
facility, the respondent’s home or workplace or a public
location, or by telephone.
Dyads, triads In-depth interviews with two or three people who often
represent members of the same family or business
team, who use a product or service and or make
purchase decisions together
Paired Interviews Consecutive or interlocking interviews with two people
who use and/or decide to purchase a product or service
together, e.g husband and wife, parent and child
Structured The interviewed asks the respondents the same
questions in the same way.
Semi structured This method gives the researcher a freedom to probe
the interviewee to elaborate or to follow a new line of
inquiry Semi structured interviews are sometimes also
called focused interviews.
Present a series of open ended questions based on the
topic or areas the researcher wants to cover.
Unstructured Allows a discussion to cover areas in great detail.
The interviewer may frame the interview question
based on the interviewees last responses.

2. Focus group discussion (FGD)- A moderator or a facilitator-led discussion among group of individuals who share a
need, habit or life circumstance relevant to research issue at hand. Typically one to two hours in length, a focus
group discussion often includes from 6 to 12 participants. The use of focus groups is sometimes used when it is
better to obtain information from a group rather than individuals.
This is usually used when:
1. Limited resources
2. The phenomena being researched requires a collective discussion in order to understand the circumstances,
behaviors or opinions.
3. Greater insights may be developed of the group dynamic—or cause and consequences.
3. Observations. This data collection technique takes place in natural settings and involves the researcher taking
lengthy and descriptive notes of what is happening. The use of the observations can offer a flavor for what is
happening and can give an insight into the bigger picture.

The use of observation method may be approached in different ways:

1. Non- participant Observation
a. Covert observational research- the researchers do not identify themselves. Either they mix in with the subjects
undetected, or they observe from a distance.
b. Overt observation research- the researcher identify themselves
2. Participant Observation- the researcher participates in what they are observing so as to get a finer appreciation of
the phenomena.

Techniques for collecting data through observation

1. Written description
2. Video recording
3. Photographs and artifacts
4. Documentation

Strengths of Qualitative Research

- Provides understanding and description of people’s personal experiences of phenomena

- Can describe in rich detail phenomena as they are situated and embedded in local context
- The researcher almost always identifies contextual and setting factors as they related to the phenomenon of
interest.
- Can conduct cross-case comparison and analysis.
- Determine cause of a particular event
 - Can determine how participants interpret construct
- Responsive to local situations, conditions and needs
- Responsive to change
- Useful in describing complex phenomena
- Data based on participants own meaning
- Useful for studying a limited number of cases in depth or individual case information.
- The researcher study dynamic processes (i.e documenting sequential patterns and change)
- The researcher can use the primarily qualitative method of grounded theory to inductively generate a tentative
but explanatory theory about a phenomenon.

Weaknesses of Qualitative Research

- It is difficult to make quantitative predictions

- It is more difficult to test hypotheses and theories with large participant pools.
- It might have lower credibility with some administration and commissioners of programs.
- Knowledge produced might not be generalize to other people or other settings.
- It generally takes more time to collect the data when compared to quantitative research
- The results are more easily influenced by the researcher’s personal biases and idiosyncrasies
- Data analysis is often time consuming

Qualitative research across fields

1. Phenomenology
2. Ethnography
3. Content analysis
4. Case study
5. Grounded theory
6. Historical research