18.

2 Rotated and reflected coordinate systems 495

Thus the transformation matrix A, defined by (18.5), is an orthogonal matrix. For this
reason, the transformation formula (18.4) is called an orthogonal transformation.

Example 18.1 Prove a matrix is orthogonal

Prove that the matrix

⎛ ⎞
4 7 −4
1
B = ⎝1 4 8⎠
9
8 −4 1

is orthogonal.

Solution
⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
4 1 8 4 7 −4 81 0 0
1 ⎝ 1 ⎝
BT · B = 7 4 −4 ⎠ ⎝ 1 4 8 ⎠ = 0 81 0 ⎠ = 1.
81 81
−4 8 1 8 −4 1 0 0 81

There is no need to check that B · BT = 1 as this now follows automatically.

18.2 ROTATED AND REFLECTED COORDINATE SYSTEMS

In this section we work out the transformation matrices that correspond to specific
rotations and/or reflections of the coordinate system C . Important though this is, it is not
needed for the general understanding of tensors.
Suppose now that the coordinate system C  is defined by a specified rotation of C
about an axis through O. This notion needs a little thought. It should be remembered that
the coordinate system C does not actually move; the ‘rotation’ of C is hypothetical and
is merely a way of describing the orientation of C  relative to C . What we are saying is
that the orientation of C  is the same as C would have if it were rotated in the prescribed
manner.
Consider first the special case in which C  is obtained by rotating C through an angle
ψ about the axis O x3 , as shown in Figure 18.2 (Left). In this case,

e1 · e1 = cos ψ e1 · e2 = sin ψ e1 · e3 = 0

e2 · e1 = − sin ψ e2 · e2 = cos ψ e2 · e3 = 0
e3 · e1 = 0 e3 · e2 = 0 e3 · e3 = 1

and the transformation matrix between C and C  is therefore

⎛ ⎞
cos ψ sin ψ 0
A = ⎝ − sin ψ cos ψ 0 ⎠ . (18.8)
0 0 1

Since this example is a special case of the preceding theory, the matrix A in (18.8) must
be orthogonal. [You should check this directly.] A rotation of C about the O x1 or O x2
axis is treated in the same way.
496 Chapter 18 Tensor algebra and the inertia tensor

x3 x 3 n

x 2
x2
M E
ψ

O ψ x1 e
E
x1 O e

FIGURE 18.2 Left: The coordinate system C  ≡ O x 1 x 2 x 3 is obtained by rotating the

coordinate system C ≡ O x1 x2 x3 through an angle ψ about the axis O x 3 . Right: The
unit vector e is obtained by rotating the unit vector e through an angle ψ about the
general axis {O, n}.

Example 18.2 Rotation of C about a coordinate axis

The coordinate system C  is obtained by rotating the coordinate system C through an

angle of 30◦ about the axis O x1 . Find the transformation matrix A between C and C  .
A vector v has components {3, −1, 2} in C . What are its components in C  ?

Solution
The formula corresponding to (18.8) when C is rotated through an angle ψ about the
axis O x1 is
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
A = ⎝ 0 cos ψ sin ψ ⎠ .
0 − sin ψ cos ψ

Hence, when ψ = 30◦ , the transformation matrix is

⎛ ⎞
1 √ 0 0
A = ⎝ 0 3/2 √1/2 ⎠ .
0 −1/2 3/2

The components of the vector v in C  are then given by the elements of the column
vector v , where
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 1 √ 0 0 3 3√
v = A · ⎝ −4 ⎠ = ⎝ 0 3/2 √1/2 ⎠ ⎝ −4 ⎠ = ⎝ 1 − 2√ 3 ⎠ .
2 0 −1/2 3/2 2 2+ 3
√ √
The components of the vector v in C  are therefore {3, 1 − 2 3, 2 + 3 }.
In the general case, the rotation of C can take place about an axis {O, n}, where n is
any unit vector. The argument is messier but we can still find an explicit formula for A.
18.2 Rotated and reflected coordinate systems 497

Figure 18.2 (Right) shows how a typical unit vector e of the coordinate system C  is obtained from the
corresponding vector e belonging to C. Let e be resolved into parts parallel and perpendicular to the axis
{O, n} in the form

e = e + e⊥ ,

where
−→ −→
e = O M= (e · n) n, e⊥ = M E= e − (e · n) n.

Then, if e is similarly resolved as

e = e  + e ⊥ ,

it follows that e  = e and

 
e ⊥ = cos ψ e⊥ + sin ψ n×e⊥ = cos ψ (e − (e · n) n) + sin ψ (n×e) .

Hence e is related to e by the formula

e = cos ψ e + (1 − cos ψ) (e · n) n + sin ψ (n×e) . (18.9)

If we now take e = e1 , e = e1 and take the scalar product of equation (18.9) successively with e1 , e2 and
e3 , we obtain

e1 · e1 = cos ψ(e1 · e1 ) + (1 − cos ψ)(n · e1 )(n · e1 ) + sin ψ(n×e1 ) · e1

= cos ψ + (1 − cos ψ)n 21 + 0,
e1 · e2 = cos ψ(e1 · e2 ) + (1 − cos ψ)(n · e1 )(n · e2 ) + sin ψ(n×e1 ) · e2
= 0 + (1 − cos ψ)n 1 n 2 + n 3 sin ψ,

e1 · e3 = cos ψ(e1 · e3 ) + (1 − cos ψ)(n · e1 )(n · e3 ) + sin ψ(n×e1 ) · e3
= 0 + (1 − cos ψ)n 1 n 3 − n 2 sin ψ,

where n 1 , n 2 , n 3 are the components of the vector n in the coordinate system C. This gives the elements of
the first row of the transformation matrix A, and the elements of the second and third rows can be found in
a similar manner. The full transformation matrix A is given by
⎛ ⎞
cos ψ + (1 − cos ψ)n 21 (1 − cos ψ)n 1 n 2 + n 3 sin ψ (1 − cos ψ)n 1 n 3 − n 2 sin ψ
⎜ ⎟
⎝ (1 − cos ψ)n 2 n 1 − n 3 sin ψ cos ψ + (1 − cos ψ)n 22 (1 − cos ψ)n 2 n 3 + n 1 sin ψ ⎠ (18.10)
(1 − cos ψ)n 3 n 1 + n 2 sin ψ (1 − cos ψ)n 3 n 2 − n 1 sin ψ cos ψ + (1 − cos ψ)n 23

This is the transformation matrix A when C  is obtained by rotating C through an angle

ψ about the axis {O, n}; n 1 , n 2 , n 3 are components of the unit vector n in the coordinate
system C .

Example 18.3 Rotation of C about a general axis

The coordinate system C  is obtained by rotating the coordinate system C through an

−→
angle of 60◦ about the axis O P, where P is the point with coordinates (1, 1, −1) in
C . Find the transformation matrix A between C and C  .
A vector v has components {3, −6, 9} in C  . What are its components in C ?

Solution
−→ √ √ √
The unit vector n in the direction O P has components {1/ 3, 1/ 3, −1/ 3} in C ,
and ψ = 60◦ . It follows from the formula (18.10) that the tranformation matrix from
498 Chapter 18 Tensor algebra and the inertia tensor

C to C  is
⎛ ⎞
2 −1 −2
1⎝
A= 2 2 1⎠.
3
1 −2 2

The components of the vector v in C are then given by the elements of the column
vector v , where
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
3 2 2 1 3 1
T ⎝ ⎠ 1⎝

v = A · −6 = −1 2 −2 ⎠ ⎝ −6 ⎠ = ⎝ −11 ⎠ .
3
9 −2 1 2 9 2

The components of the vector v in C are therefore {1, −11, 2}.

Reflections
The coordinate system C  may also be defined by reflecting C in a plane through O. For
example, if C is reflected in the coordinate plane O x1 x2 , the transformation matrix is
easily found to be
⎛ ⎞
1 0 0
A = ⎝0 1 0⎠.
0 0 −1
In the general case, if C is reflected in the plane through O with unit normal vector n, then
the transformation matrix is
⎛ ⎞
1 − 2n 21 −2n 1 n 2 −2n 1 n 3
A = ⎝ −2n 2 n 1 1 − 2n 22 −2n 2 n 3 ⎠ , (18.11)
−2n 3 n 1 −2n 3 n 2 1 − 2n 32

where n 1 , n 2 , n 3 are the components of the vector n in C . [The method of proof is similar
to that for the general rotation.]

Example 18.4 Reflection of axes

The coordinate system C  is obtained by reflecting the coordinate system C in the

plane x3 = 2x1 + 2x2 . Find the transformation matrix A between C and C  .
Find also the transformation matrix when C  is obtained from C by performing
the above reflection followed by a rotation of 90◦ about the new x3 -axis.

Solution
The equation x3 = 2x1 + 2x2 can be written in the form

(x1 e1 + x2 e2 + x3 e3 ) · (2e1 + 2e2 − e3 )

and, by comparison with the standard vector equation r · n = p of a plane, we see

that the unit vector
2 2 1
n= e1 + e2 − e3
3 3 3
18.3 Scalars, vectors and tensors 499

is normal to the reflection plane. Hence n 1 = 2/3, n 2 = 2/3 and n 3 = −1/3. It

follows from the formula (18.11) that the transformation matrix between C and C  is
⎛ ⎞
1 −8 4
1
A = ⎝ −8 1 4 ⎠ .
9
4 4 7

If this transformation is followed by a rotation whose transformation matrix is

⎛ ⎞
0 1 0
⎝ −1 0 0 ⎠
0 0 1

then the overall transformation has matrix

⎛ ⎞⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
0 1 0 1 −8 4 −8 1 4
1⎝ 1
−1 0 0 ⎠ ⎝ −8 1 4 ⎠ = ⎝ −1 8 −4 ⎠ .
9 9
0 0 1 4 4 7 4 4 7

It can be proved that the most general orthogonal transformation corresponds either
to (i) a rotation of coordinates, or (ii) a reflection followed by a rotation. Which of these
classes a particular orthogonal transformation belongs to can be decided by examining the
sign of the determinant det A.
If we take determinants of equation (18.7) we obtain
 
det 1 = det AT · A = det AT × det A = det A × det A = (det A)2 ,

from which it follows that det A can only take the values ±1. Surprisingly, we can work
out the determinant of the general A defined by equation (18.5) quite easily. The first row
of A contains the three components of the vector e1 in the coordinate system C . Likewise,
the second and third rows contain the components of the vectors e2 and e3 . It follows from
the vector formula (1.7) that, provided C is a right-handed coordinate system,


det A = e1 ×e2 · e3 .

We can now see how the different signs for det A

can occur.  If C  is also a right-handed
coordinate system, then the
 triple  scalar product e1 ×e2 · e3 = +1, whereas if C  is a
 
left-handed system then e1 ×e2 · e3 = −1. If two coordinate systems have the same
handedness, then one can be made coincident with the other by a suitable rotation about
an axis through O. If they have opposite handedness then a reflection in a plane through
O is also needed. For this reason, orthogonal matrices with determinant +1 are sometimes
called rotation matrices.

18.3 SCALARS, VECTORS AND TENSORS

Our view of a vector as a quantity that has magnitude and direction has served
us well. By picturing a vector as a line segment with an arrow on it, we have been able