Environmental Ethics – the Indian Contribution

Key Words: 1. Sanatana Dharma – another name for Hinduism, a way of life. 2.
Sanatana – Eternal 3. Dharma – Righteousness/ Virtue. 4. Puranas – interpretation
of the Vedic Philosophy through parables and epics 5. Atman – Spirit 6. Jivatman-
Individual self. 7. Paramatman - Supreme Self. 8. Brahman – Cosmic Spirit or
Consciousness. 9. Nirguna – Attributeless. 10. Saguna – With attributes.

I HEARD a thousand blended notes,

While in a grove I sat reclined,
In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts
Bring sad thoughts to the mind.

To her fair works did Nature link

The human soul that through me ran;
And much it grieved my heart to think
What man has made of Man.

When William Wordsworth lamented on the state of man in his poem “Lines written
in early spring”, he was echoing the throngs of many hearts. Not all can express it so
poetically and aesthetically, but the sentiments seem to be of the same nature and
extent as many of us who are worried about man’s future. When man delinked
himself from man and nature, he displayed total lack of foresight and wisdom.

An individual with a philosophical perspective can co-relate clearly the relation

between environmental ethics and the literary expressions in every tradition and
thought regarding the bounties of nature. Walt Whitman in his poem, “A Nation
Announces itself”, writes the following stanza, displaying his admiration for Asia,
and admitting his hope in the Asians, regarding ecology and environmental
protection.

Asia, steppes, the grass

The winter appearance,

The Tartar life, the nomadic pasturage, the herds

The tabounshic or horse-herd,

The taboon, a herd of horses,

The oxen – cows – women preparing milk

The Russ, an arctic sailor, traversing the sea of Kara

A Kamskatkan slight-built sledge, drawn by dogs

The ancient Hindostanee, with his deities

The great old empires of India, That of Persia and its expeditions and conquests

The Sanskrit, the ancient poems and laws,

The idea of Gods incarnated by their avatars in men and women,

 The falling of the waters of the Ganges on the high rims of the Sankara,

The poems descended safely to this day from the poems of three thousand years
ago.

Similarly, Rand’s concept of man as a heroic being – her vision of human beings as
able to achieve great things, and of the universe as open to their efforts -- is a
hallmark of her thought, and certainly a significant part of her widespread appeal.
Happiness she holds to be the emotional state that results from the achievement of
objective values. Such values and the means to them can only be identified by
reason, and Rand holds that they cannot be achieved without such virtues as
independence, integrity, honesty, justice, productiveness, and pride.

In Tagore’s philosophy environment ethics emerges from the aesthetics of

environment. As an expression of his commitment to aesthetic education, Tagore
established Shantiniketan, a college of fine arts and crafts. Tagore’s philosophy of
the relationship of man to man, and man and nature, became the essence of the
course curriculum.

In his numerous writings, Tagore repeatedly states that the true quality of life
emerges from a sympathetic, respectful and co-operative attitude towards nature.
He believed that if it is introduced through education at an early age, the experience
of the richness of vast nature would be enough to limit the desire of unnecessary
possession of material things. His emotional and religious attachment to nature and
hope for own future is expressed in a very moving poem which he composed during
a tour of Europe in 1926:
When I am no longer in this earth, my tree, let the ever renewed leaves of the
spring

Murmur to the way – faces, The poet did love, while he lived. 2

Come, said the Muse,

Sing me a song no poet yet has chanted,
Sing me the Universal.
In this broad Earth of ours,
Amid the measureless grossness & the slag,
Enclosed & safe within its central heart,
Nestles the seed Perfection.
By every life a share, or more or less,
None born but it is born—conceal'd or
unconceal'd the seed is waiting.1

Indian philosophy and thought has been handed over to our civilization through the
Shrutis and the Smritis. Shrutis are the Vedas and the Upanishads and the Smritis
are the Puranas, the epics and the parables that convey the same philosophical tenets
in simple language. Both, Shrutis and Smritis, constitute the fountain head of our
culture and literature. They are the best exponents of Dharma or Virtue.

Morality or Ethics is the science of conduct, i.e. the study of what is Right and Wrong
or Good and Bad. It shows the way in which human beings should behave towards
each other as well as towards other creatures. It contains systematized principles and
codes of behaviour on the basis of which a man should act. In short, ‘Ethics’ provides
the framework of how man “ought” to live life rightly.

The term ‘Environment’ is a basic and simple term, normally understood as a

reference to the physical surrounding around us. But here it is taken in a very broad
sense to refer to the physical and social environment. The reference does not stop
with the admiration of the thick foliage, the flowing waters and the cool moist breeze
around us, but with a deeper insight into the complexities of inter-personal
relationships and the various institutions that man builds to nurture himself. Man
needs to live in peace, harmony and abundance not only with nature around him but
also with his fellow-beings. Environmental Ethics is thus an acceptance and
realization of man’s inter-dependence and inter-relation with man and nature. The
adherence to ethical principles in life thus, becomes of paramount importance.

Ethics, in Indian thought, is Sadachaara or Right Conduct. Indian Philosophy is

largely influenced by Indian religion. The intermingling of Indian philosophy and
the religious perspectives of the Indians makes it necessary for us to understand the
common man’s culture. The terms “Indian philosophy” and “Hinduism” are almost
used synonymously at many times. The usage should not be mistaken, as it is not
used in a restrictive sense.

Hinduism is popularly known as “Sanatana Dharma”, meaning Eternal

Virtuousness or Righteousness. Virtue and Value are the foundations of Yoga and
the cornerstones of Vedänta. This moral teaching is the strong pillar on which the
edifice of Bhakti Yoga rests. It is, hence, considered to be the gateway to God-
realization and self-realization. In Indian philosophy, Yama-Niyama of Patanjali
constitutes ethics. Manusmriti, Yagnavalkya-smriti and Parasara-smriti,
Dharmashastra and the Bhagvad Gita, all contain the code of conduct for man. The
various kinds of austerities in the Gita are nothing but prescribed codes of ethics.
Religion as a social institution is nothing but an exposition and propaganda of
ethical values and principles. They all discuss the ultimate good of man.

The Vedas are the earliest available records of Indian literature. All subsequent
Indian thought, especially philosophical speculation is greatly influenced by the
Vedas, either positively or negatively. The Vedic tradition had two sides, ritualistic
and speculative – karma and jnana. The testimony of the Vedas was quite in
harmony with the rationally established theories. Indian philosophy, like all other
branches of knowledge, proceeds from the known to the unknown. The foundation
of this philosophy is experience and the chief tool used is Reason. Whatever be the
diversity in thought, all Indian schools of philosophy display their unity in their
moral and spiritual outlook.

According to M. Hariharan, in his book ‘Hinduism and its Rationalism’, he writes

that Hinduism can almost be equated to one word “Dharma”. Dharma can again be
put in a nutshell in eight words: Truth, Duty, Self-sacrifice, Self-control, Self-
dependence, Freedom, Non-violence and Tolerance.Ethical questions cannot be
separated from questions as to the nature of man, the nature of the universe in which
he lives and his place in the order of the universe. A man’s convictions about the
nature and meaning of the world tend to affect his spirit and his outlook. Morality
and religion are almost inseparable. Morality is cold and lacks drive without religion
and religion becomes superficial and ritualistic without morality for its essence.
There are reasons for inclusion of ethical considerations in religion or vice-versa.
Firstly, man becomes conscious of God as a commanding presence within him.
World religions give examples of man’s appeal to God in the attainment of life’s
ideals and goals. Secondly, philosophical theories of ethics are followed by a
comparatively small proportion of the human race. But the world religions have a
large following. Lastly, there is an increasing emphasis on the need for building a
world-community, and a world government. The concept of Vasudhaiva
Kutumbakam is very much relevant and prevalent in this context. In order to
develop global thought and collaborative living, it is necessary to know the ideas and
basic tenets of various cultural and religious systems.

The foundation of Hinduism or Sanätana Dharma is the great and sacred literature,
the Vedas. The Vedas constitute eternal knowledge. Hinduism is normally studied
under two headings: Real Hinduism and popular Hinduism. Real Hinduism is based
on the Vedas and the essence of the religion is well understood by the real followers
of Hinduism. Popular Hinduism is based on the Vedic tenets that are translated
through the Puränas for easier comprehension, with a conversion to rituals and
traditions. The Puränas occupy a unique position in the sacred and secular literature
of the Hindus, influencing Indian culture to a large extent. They are regarded as next
in importance to the Vedas. They are in the from of epics, parables, stories and
legends, based on Vedänta or Upanishads. They are primarily designed to suit the
sensibility and understanding of the common man, with the purpose of teaching the
philosophical tenets and ethical values in a simplified manner. The Vedas appeal to
man’s faculty to reason and rational thought and the Puränas appeal to man’s
sensibility and his capability to realize and appreciate aesthetically.

The term Veda comes from the root word ‘Vid2’ meaning ‘to know’. Hence, the
Veda refers to Knowledge. The Vedas are Apauruçeya and have been revelations
of the sages and the seers when they experienced the Ultimate Reality. The Puränas,
on the other hand, are man’s interpretations of the Vedic philosophy in simpler,
relevant parable form. Etymologically, the term ‘Puräna’ means ‘that which lives
through ages and comes from the ancient times. Puränas exist and are transmitted
in the form of legendary lore.

The Vedas believe that what is invisible is alone, real and eternal; while, what is
visible is by its very nature unreal and or phenomenal. What is visible is thus,
changeable, perishable and non-eternal. Things which are seen are temporal, but the
things which are not seen, eternal. The Vedic philosophy believed that all primary
and secondary qualities are and can be, subjective only. The phenomenal world was
to them like a mirage of the desert, visible but unreal, exciting thirst but never
quenching it. The terror of the world was like a fright experienced by one who
mistakes a rope for a snake in the dark. Reality has to be perceived and experienced
in its true light, which is possible only with enlightenment of the soul.

The essential truths of the Vedas can be summarized in four major Mahäväkya :
Ahaà Brahmäsmi, Tat tvaà Asi, Idaà Atmä Brahman and Prajïänam Brahman.
The Vedas deal with the fundamental aspects and questions of life such as: what is
the nature of man? What is the nature of the universe? What is man made of? What
is the cosmos made of? What is evolution and how is creation different from it? Who
created the world? What is the relationship of man and man and man and nature?
The Vedas deal with matters and aspects that lie deep in the mystery of existence.
The Vedänta philosophy is thus a way of life.

There is only one Reality, Nirguëa Brahman that is accepted by the Vedas. The
understanding of this reality comes as a revelation when the individual lives a life of
virtue and transcends all distractions and temptations of the phenomenal world. A
question that is normally asked is – if there is only One Infinite and Ultimate Reality,
how is it that it appears as many in this world? The Veda replied thus: Look at the
waves and the ripples in the sea, rivers and the lakes. In every one there is the Sun
reflected a thousand-fold. Yet we know there is only one Sun. The reflected image
of the Sun expands and contracts, when the surface of the water expands and
contracts. It 3trembles when the water surface ripples. It participates in all the
attributes and conditions of the water, while the Sun remains the same. Similarly,
Brahman or Ultimate Reality, although in reality uniform and never changing,
participates in the attributes and states of the body and the other limiting conditions
within which it abides. It grows with the various bodies as it were and decreases with
them as it were.

The Vedas propound the doctrine that Brahman is both the material and the
efficient cause of the world. The world is made not only by Brahman, but also of
Brahman. The concept of Brahman is not a reference to the Brahma of the Trinity.
It is a reference to the Ultimate Reality which is Spirit, Consciousness or in common
language, the Cosmic soul. The well-known simile given here to explain this doctrine
is of the Spider. The spider, with the utmost intelligence, draws the threads of its
wonderful web out of its own body. In short, Vedänta propounds the theory of
evolution of the world out of Brahman himself. In the Vedänta, man is looked upon
as an integrated personality having physical, intellectual, emotional and spiritual
needs. The Vedänta provides a psychological approach to man, work and society.

For analyzing the nature of man and his relation to nature, the Vedänta gives a
logical and rational approach for his behavior. The Hindu religion is closely
intertwined with tradition about the land of Hindu, social systems, its history and
ecology. The whole of nature is seen as vibrant with life – trees, rocks, water-falls,
flora and fauna – all provide a focus for the sacred, becoming shrines at which
worshippers in life. The mountains and forests often speak to the Indians of the
powers that confront human endeavour. They are personified to the extent of being
pointers to the struggle between divine and demonic power. The rivers are primarily
seen as the source of support and spiritual life. In Hinduism, the sacred river Ganges
is seen as the symbol of life without and end. Hinduism finds the manifestation of
divinity in practically everything, especially in those aspects of nature that uphold,
sustain and nourish life. Pantheism was a way of teaching man to respect and nurture
life and the various aspects of the cosmos. The Sun, moon and the planets were all
accorded with divinity and power. Rivers, mountains, trees and rocks were
worshipped. All means and measures were adopted to take care of the physical
environment, with the introduction of customs and traditions.

The Vedänta believes that Brahman alone being Real, the world is an illusion, Maya.
The Puränas saw Indra as the personal agent in Creation, bringing existence out of
non-existence. In the Vedic hymns, God is not seen merely personified in human
form, but is seen as a manifestation of nature or cosmic forces too. The concept of
Nirguëa Brahman, Cosmic consciousness, was too abstract and difficult to
comprehend. In order to simplify and make it comprehensible, there were attributes
ascribed to Brahman. Brahman was Omnipotent, Omnipresent, Omniscient,
Eternal, Infinite, Benevolent, Holy, Pure, All-pervading and many more. The
human mind being finite personified these attributes, giving them form and name.
It was easier to relate to a Person, a Figure, a Name. Thus was derived the theistic
concept of God. God or Iñvara as we know him is one to whom man prays, asks,
communicates, negotiates, and identifies. The Personal God thus reached the homes
and hears of people. Hinduism then accepted theism expressed in all form of life.

The Hindus primarily believe in respect for life and the dignity of every individual
is valued. Hinduism advocates vegetarianism as a mark of reverence for all animals.
As God is manifested in all living and non-living things, it is essential for the Hindu
to respect all forms of existence. A Hindu, according to Vedänta, needs to preserve,
protect and conserve the environment, as in doing so alone is he respecting God. In
destroying any part of the environment, man is disrespecting the Supreme, thus
bringing destruction to himself. The teaching of the Hindu scripture makes no
difference between man and man, and between man and beings of the lower order.
This unity and harmony of life, universal love and brotherhood of man and man,
and of man with all forms of life is one of the greatest contributions Hinduism has
made to the world. Thus we find that the fundamental teaching of Vedänta is that
God, Soul and the World are One.
In philosophies and religions of Indian origin, the term ‘Spirituality’ is used in a specific
sense, distinct from its many meanings in western dictionaries. In Indian tradition, the
word ‘Spirit” is used to refer to Ätman . Now the word ‘ätman’ is used to refer to
‘jivätman’ and ‘paramätma’, i.e. Individual and Supreme Self. Divinity is thus,
perceived in both Cosmic Reality and the individual self. Moreover, the Paramätma or
Supreme Self is conceived as both transcendent and immanent in the phenomenal
world. Hence, all creation is perceived as a manifestation of the Spirit.

Spirituality has been defined in numerous ways –

: A belief in a power operating in the universe that is greater than oneself.
: A sense of interconnectedness with all living creatures.
: An awareness of the purpose and meaning of life and the development of personal,
absolute values.
Spirituality is the recognition and realization of the Being, the reality in oneself and
every other. The integration of the body, mind and spirit in a human being, which
results in facilitating the realization of a goal in life, makes him a spiritual being. In
order to realize oneself, it becomes necessary to be aware of oneself. This awareness
comes to us in various ways and forms and through various means, the significant ones
being the scriptures and religious texts of India and the world. As an innate capacity
that exists in every human being, psychologically healthy spirituality is not limited to
any one set of doctrines or practices. From a psychological perspective, spirituality is a
universal experience, not a universal theology.

Spirituality is the recognition and realization of the Being, the reality in oneself and all
others. The integration of the body, mind and spirit in a human being, which results in
facilitating the realization of a goal in life, makes him a spiritual being. In order to
realize oneself, it becomes necessary to be aware of oneself. This awareness comes to
us in various ways and forms and through various means, the significant ones being the
scriptures and religious texts of India and the world. Spirituality is understood by many
as the act of involvement or state of awareness or devotion to a higher being or life
philosophy. It is not always related to conventional religious beliefs.

In keeping with the name, Hinduism as Sanätana Dharma is an exposition of Dharma

and Dharma alone. The word Dharma comes from the root word ‘dhå’ which means
‘to uphold’, ‘to support’ or ‘to nourish’. Thus, it is comprehended as the essential
foundation of something or of things in general. It signifies ‘truth, duty and
righteousness’. Dharma, as many feel, is said to stand for something that is established,
customary, and proper. In this sense, it means that which is ‘traditional’ or ‘ceremonial’.
In some cases, it is also used to refer to ‘religious ordinances or religious rites’. In the
Atharvaveda, the word ‘dharmah’ is used in the sense of ‘merit acquired by the
performance of religious rites’. In the Aitareya Brahmana, the word dharma is used to
mean the whole gamut of religious duties. In the Chandogya Upanishad, the word
‘dharma’ includes three types of duties – that of a householder, a hermit and the
brahmacharin. The first includes sacrifice, study and charity, the second had the duties
of observance of austerities and the brahmacharin had the duty of living with the
teacher and learning texts and skills that included life-skills. Here the word Dharma
stands for the specific duties that are assigned to the individuals in the particular
Açramas.
In the Bhagavad Gita, the word Dharma is used to mean the duties and obligations of
a man in all his roles in life, in an all–inclusive sense in the oft–quoted verse ‘svadharma
nidhäëaà sreyah’. If understood in the right sense, the term means man’s duties and
obligations towards himself, towards his caste, towards his profession or occupation
and as an individual at a particular stage or Açrama. Dharma implies the laws or
principles on which society is based. According to the Vaiçeñika philosophy, dharma is
that which leads to improvement in this world and to mokña for the next–‘Yato
Abhyudaya Niçreyasa Siddhih sa Dharmah’. It shows that Dharma talks about the
attainment of both outer prosperity and inner enfoldment. There is a definite
injunction of attaining growth and advancement without compromising with our
values.

Dhäranät dharmamityähuh,
dharmeëä vidåuta prajäh:
Yasyädùäraëasaàyuktäh
sa dharma iti nischayah – Mahabharata 12.110.11
‘One that holds together, sustains and protects society is Dharma’. It has the quality of
containing, keeping together and structuring society. In a wider sense, Dharma is used
to mean ‘that which upholds mankind, society or the world itself - ‘Dhäryate Anena iti
dharmah’. Dharma in this sense, supports, sustains, nourishes, harmonises and
integrates all. It unites the inert and the sentient, the individual and the society, nation
and the world.

The reference to Dharma is vital here as it is necessary to explain the two major
components of Dharma – ‘Åta’ and ‘Rëa’. Dharma is right action. In the Ågveda, Åta
is the right order of the universe or ‘cosmic order’. It stands for ‘satya’ and ‘dharma’,
i.e. Truth and the law of evolution. Dharma thus talks of conformity with the truth of
things. Åta represents the Vedic notion of an impersonal and powerful force upon
which the ethical and physical worlds are based, through which they are inextricably
united and by which they are maintained. Åta is the universal truth that effectively
strengthens Vedic rituals and practices. These rituals, traditions and practices are
supposed to be serving as the foundations for social organization. In many ways, åta
stands as the Vedic antecedent for the notion of ‘dharma’, implying the established
order of things, proper conduct and the fitting truth. It is a concept of central
importance not only to the various forms of religions, but also to our inherited culture
and modern civilisation.

The term ‘åta’ is based on the Sanskrit verbal root ‘å’ which means ‘to go’ or ‘to move’.
Thus, åta signifies the cosmic law or the eternal order and law. It implies the natural
and moral order that helps in the social order. The concept of åta signifies the cosmic
law that allows the universe to run smoothly. It highlights the dynamic structure in
which every object and all actions have their proper place. Åta also refers to a system
in which all parts support and strengthen the whole in a flowing symbiosis. It signifies
order and harmony in individual and social life, in the cosmos and in the aesthetic
aspect of nature.

Furthermore, the Vedic tradition held that the very structures of åta allow the human
community access to the powers that drive the Universe itself. If the Universe is the
manifestation of Reality, then Dharma or the Cosmic Order is its Will/Design, and
Satya and Åta are its very nature. The most important ethical concept, that of Åta, is
brought out with an elaborate exposition in the Vedäs. The concept of Åta is seen as
inseparable from the individual, social and natural aspects of the universe. It adds to
the Truth, Beauty and Goodness of the created world – Satyaà, Shivaà, Sundaraà.

Another concept that is closely associated with the concept of Dharma is that of Åëa/
Debt. The concept of åna is linked to the concepts of puruñärthas and the añåamäs, thus
helping in shaping up further the ethical foundations in Indian thought. There are
various types of Åna that are enumerated in the Shatpata Brahmana –

1) To Gods – Deva-åëa

2) To seers and sages – Guru åëa

3) To ancestors – Pitå rëa

4) To fellow beings – Manushya åëa

5) To the environment (including all plants, animals and elements in nature) - Bhüta
åëa

Ordinarily, the first three are accepted more widely in our culture. This idea of feeling
indebted, to the Divine, our ancestors, our teachers and seers, the nature around us,
makes us realise that we are interdependent. We need to live with an attitude of
gratitude and humility. The duties of children towards their ancestors and parents help
in bringing in a healthy familial environment. It leads to behaviour that comes as a
mark of respect, love and affection between members in a family. As for the obligations
towards sages, seers and gurus, Indian culture has always been in the forefront.
Moreover, teaching-learning process is effective only if the student attempts sincerely
with the right attitude. Nature needs to be nurtured so that it provides for man in all
seasons.

All our customs, traditions, rites and rituals were opportunities for man to repay all
those he owed to in society. The debt to the divine is paid back in the form of yagnas,
poojas and worship. The other way of paying back to the Divine is by being good to
fellow-beings. The individual owns these ånas the moment he is born, as every
individual carries with his spirit, the debts of the earlier birth. The idea of åna teaches
us to be unselfish, dutiful and responsible. It also makes it easier for us to give and
share material wealth and prosperity, as we justify saying that we have probably
borrowed in the earlier birth. The idea of åna also helps us to learn the lessons of duties
and obligations. Whatever we do in life will not seem to us as doing favours on others.
On the other hand, man will start seeking opportunities to do good deeds and help
others, as it will be what he ‘ought’ to do.

This ideological connection between two powerful concepts in Indian thought grew
firmer and firmer through the generations. Manu, the lawgiver in Indian thought,
asserted that only those who supported dharma as it was presented in the sacred
tradition and in revelation gained fame in this world and incomparable happiness after
death. The term Dharma, thus, evolves with a normative dimension in which it comes
to mean the sum total of one’s obligations by which one fits in with the natural and
particularly the social world.
Ecologists and environmentalists thus, find a lot of support from the Vedic- Puranic
view of God and Nature in relation to man.