Membranes
Department Editor: Kate Torzewski
S
eparation by a membrane is achieved by
creating a boundary between different
bulk gas or liquid mixtures. As different
solvents and solutes flow through a membrane
at different rates, separation is achieved.
Here, we will focus on three filtration
techniques: microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration
(UF) and nanofiltration (NF). These processes
are characterized by the size of the particle
that can be separated by the membrane, as
illustrated in the figure. Each membrane type
is best suited for unique applications and is
designed with the module and material that
will allow the best separation.
Flow through a membrane is characterized
as either tangential flow filtration (TFF), where
the feed stream flows at a velocity vector nor-
mal to the membrane surface, or normal flow
filtration (NFF), where the stream flows tangent
to the membrane surface. The flow pattern is
dependent on the type of module utilized. NFF
modules include: cartridges, stacked disks
and flat sheets. TFF modules include: plate-
and-frame (cassettes), hollow fibers, tubes,
monoliths, spirals and vortex flow.
MICROFILTRATION
MF separates particles from true solutions. This
technique is able to separate particles from
about 0.1 to as high as 10 μm. As can be
seen from the figure, large, soluble macromol-
ecules, bacteria and other microorganisms can
be retained by MF membranes.
Membrane materials
MF membranes have the largest pore open-
ings of any other membrane. Typically, they
can be classified as having tortuous or capil-
lary pores.
From solids. When membranes are made
by sintering or agglomeration of micropar-
ticles, pores are formed by the interstices
between solid particles. Common materi-
als include: metal, metal oxide, graphite,
ceramic and polymer.
Ceramic. These membranes are typically
created by the sol-gel process, which is the
successive deposition of smaller ceramic
precursor spheres, followed by firing to form
multitube monoliths.
Track etched. A polymer film is exposed to
a collimated beam of radiation that breaks
chemical bonds in the polymer chains. The
film is then etched in a bath that selectively at-
tacks the damaged polymer, a technique that
produces a film with photogenic pores.
Chemical phase inversion. A solution of a
concentrated polymer in solvent is spread into a
thin film, then precipitated through the slow ad-
dition of a nonsolvent to produce tortuous pores.
Thermal phase inversion. A solution of
polymer in a poor solvent is prepared at an
elevated temperature. After being formed into
its final shaped, the temperature is dropped
and the polymer precipitates, and the solvent
is washed out.
Streched polymers. Semicrystalline polymers,
which are stretched perpendicular to the axis
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Micrometers, 0.001 0.01
log scale
Scanning electron microscope
Particle size
range Molecular Macromolecular
Albumin protein
Aqueous salts Carbon black
Typical
particles Sugar Virus
Synthetic Tobacco smoke
dye
Pesticide Colloidal silica
Gelatin
Process for Ultrafiltration
filtration
Nanofiltration
of crystallite orientation, fracture in such a way
that reproducible microchannels are made.
Membrane modules
Many conventional designs are used in MF,
including cartridge-filter housing, plate-and-
frame-type devices, capillary bundles, tubular
membranes, spiral-wound modules and belt
filters. Ceramic MF membranes are available
as flat sheet, single tubes, disc, and other forms,
primarily for lab use. Finally, cassettes are two
different cross-flow membrane devices.
ULTRAFILTRATION
UF membranes, with pore sizes ranging from
about 1 to 100 nm in diameter, employ pres-
sure driving forces of 0.2–1.0 MPa. This tech-
nique drives liquid solvents and small solutes
through the membrane, while retaining larger
particles, like large dissolved molecules, col-
loids and suspended solids.
Membrane materials
UF membranes are typically made of polymeric
structures, such as polyethersulfone, regener-
ated cellulose, polysulfone, polyamide, poly-
acrylonitrile or various fluropolymers. They are
formed by immersion casting on a web or as a
composite on an MF membrane. Membrane se-
lection is based on molecular-weight rating for
high yields, chemical and mechanical robust-
ness during product processing and Clean In
Place, and process flux for sizing and costing.
Membrane modules
Modules include cassettes, spirals, hollow
fibers, tubes, flat sheets, and inorganic mono-
liths. These primarily operate in TFF to increase
flux by reducing plugging. For virus removal
and water treatment, however, NFF operation
is run with cartridge and hollow fiber modules.
References
1.“Perry’s Chemical Engineers’ Handbook,” 8th ed. McGraw Hill, New York, 2008.
2.Seidel, A., ed. in chief, “Separation Technology,” second edition, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New
Jersey, 2008.
0.1 1.0 10
Optical microscope
Microparticle
Yeast cells
Paint pigment
Bacteria
A.C. fine test dust
Milled flour
Latex emulsion
Blue indigo dye Red
blood
Asbestos fibers cells
Coal dust
Microfiltration
NANOFILTRATION
NF, sometimes referred to as “loose RO
(reverse osmosis),” utilizes a driving force
of 0.3 to 10.5 MPa to drive liquid solvents
through the membrane while retaining small
solutes of about 10 to 100 nm in diameter.
NF membranes are different from the mem-
branes previously discussed, because they are
usually charged, utilizing ion repulsion as a
major method of charged-species rejection.
They have 20–80% NaCl retention and retain
> 200–1,000 Daltons of neutral organics,
with a low retention of dissolved gases.
Neutral or undissociated solutes have a lower
retention than charged or dissociated solutes.
Membrane materials
Cellulose polymers. These are formed by
immersion casting of 30–40% polymer lac-
quers, which can include cellulose acetate,
triacetate and acetate-butyrate, on a web
immersed in water.
Thin film composites. Formed by interfacial
polymerization, TFCs involve coating a
microporous membrane substrate with an
aqueous prepolymer solution, then immers-
ing it in a water-immiscible solvent contain-
ing a reactant.
Crosslinked polyetherurea. Some of these
membranes feature NaCl retention and
water permeability.
Membrane modules
NF membrane modules are available in
spiral, hollow fiber, tubular, and plate-and-
frame formats. Spirals are most common,
as they have low feed-side pressure props,
are less prone to clogging, are easily
cleaned, are mechanically robust, and are
most economical.