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• Biology is the scientific study of life
• Life defies a simple, one-sentence definition
• Life is recognized by what living things do
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Theme: The Cell Is an Organism’s Basic
Unit of Structure and Function
• The cell is the lowest level of organization that
can perform all activities required for life
• All cells
– Are enclosed by a membrane
– Use DNA as their genetic information
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• A eukaryotic cell has membrane-enclosed
organelles, the largest of which is usually the
nucleus
• By comparison, a prokaryotic cell is simpler and
usually smaller, and does not contain a nucleus or
other membrane-enclosed organelles
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Theme: The Continuity of Life Is Based on
Heritable Information in the Form of DNA
• Chromosomes contain most of a cell’s genetic
material in the form of DNA
• DNA is the substance of genes
• Genes are the units of inheritance that transmit
information from parents to offspring
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DNA Structure and Function
• Each chromosome has one long DNA molecule
with hundreds or thousands of genes
• Genes encode information for building proteins
• DNA is inherited by offspring from their parents
• DNA controls the development and maintenance
of organisms
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• Each DNA molecule is made up of two long
chains arranged in a double helix
• Each link of a chain is one of four kinds of
chemical building blocks called nucleotides and
nicknamed A, G, C, and T
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Evolution, the Overarching Theme of
Biology
• Evolution makes sense of everything we
know about biology
• Organisms are modified descendants of
common ancestors
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• Evolution explains patterns of unity and
diversity in living organisms
• Similar traits among organisms are explained
by descent from common ancestors
• Differences among organisms are explained
by the accumulation of heritable changes
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Grouping Species: The Basic Idea
• Taxonomy is the branch of biology that names
and classifies species into groups of increasing
breadth
• Domains, followed by kingdoms, are the
broadest units of classification
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The Three Domains of Life
• Organisms are divided into three domains
• Domain Bacteria and domain Archaea compose
the prokaryotes
• Most prokaryotes are single-celled and
microscopic
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• Domain Eukarya includes all eukaryotic
organisms
• Domain Eukarya includes three multicellular
kingdoms
– Plants, which produce their own food by
photosynthesis
– Fungi, which absorb nutrients
– Animals, which ingest their food
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Other eukaryotic organisms were formerly
grouped into the Protist kingdom, though these
are now often grouped into many separate
groups
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• In unicellular organisms, division of one cell
reproduces the entire organism
• Multicellular organisms depend on cell
division for
– Development from a fertilized cell
– Growth
– Repair
• Cell division is an integral part of the cell
cycle, the life of a cell from formation to its
own division
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Cellular Organization of the Genetic
Material
• All the DNA in a cell constitutes the cell’s
genome
• A genome can consist of a single DNA
molecule (common in prokaryotic cells) or a
number of DNA molecules (common in
eukaryotic cells)
• DNA molecules in a cell are packaged into
chromosomes
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• Eukaryotic chromosomes consist of
chromatin, a complex of DNA and protein
that condenses during cell division
• Every eukaryotic species has a
characteristic number of chromosomes in
each cell nucleus
• Somatic cells (nonreproductive cells) have
two sets of chromosomes
• Gametes (reproductive cells: sperm and
eggs) have half as many chromosomes as
somatic cells
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Distribution of Chromosomes During
Eukaryotic Cell Division
• In preparation for cell division, DNA is
replicated and the chromosomes condense
• Each duplicated chromosome has two
sister chromatids (joined copies of the
original chromosome), which separate
during cell division
• The centromere is the narrow “waist” of the
duplicated chromosome, where the two
chromatids are most closely attached
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• Eukaryotic cell division consists of • Interphase (about 90% of the cell cycle) can
– Mitosis, the division of the genetic material in be divided into subphases
the nucleus – G1 phase (“first gap”)
– Cytokinesis, the division of the cytoplasm – S phase (“synthesis”)
• Gametes are produced by a variation of cell – G2 phase (“second gap”)
division called meiosis • The cell grows during all three phases, but
• Meiosis yields nonidentical daughter cells chromosomes are duplicated only during the
that have only one set of chromosomes, half S phase
as many as the parent cell

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Phases of the Cell Cycle

• The cell cycle consists of • Mitosis is conventionally divided into five
– Mitotic (M) phase (mitosis and cytokinesis) phases
– Interphase (cell growth and copying of – Prophase
chromosomes in preparation for cell division) – Prometaphase
– Metaphase
– Anaphase
– Telophase
• Cytokinesis overlaps the latter stages of
mitosis

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• In anaphase, sister chromatids separate and
move along the kinetochore microtubules
toward opposite ends of the cell
• The microtubules shorten by
depolymerizing at their kinetochore ends
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Cytokinesis: A Closer Look
• In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by a
process known as cleavage, forming a
cleavage furrow
• In plant cells, a cell plate forms during
cytokinesis
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Binary Fission in Bacteria
• Prokaryotes (bacteria and archaea)
reproduce by a type of cell division called
binary fission
• In binary fission, the chromosome replicates
(beginning at the origin of replication), and
the two daughter chromosomes actively
move apart
• The plasma membrane pinches inward,
dividing the cell into two
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Plants have a hierarchical organization
consisting of organs, tissues, and cells
• A tissue is a group of cells consisting of one or
more cell types that together perform a specialized
function
• An organ consists of several types of tissues that
together carry out particular functions
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The Three Basic Plant Organs: Roots,
Stems, and Leaves
• Plants take up water and minerals from below
ground
• Plants take up CO2 and light from above ground
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Three basic organs evolved: roots, stems, and
leaves
• They are organized into a root system and a
shoot system
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Dermal, Vascular, and Ground Tissues
• Each plant organ has dermal, vascular, and
ground tissues
• Each of these three categories forms a tissue
system
• Each tissue system is continuous throughout the
plant
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• In nonwoody plants, the dermal tissue system
consists of the epidermis
• A waxy coating called the cuticle helps prevent
water loss from the epidermis
• In woody plants, protective tissues called
periderm replace the epidermis in older regions of
stems and roots
• Trichomes are outgrowths of the shoot epidermis
and can help with insect defense
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• The vascular tissue system carries out long-
distance transport of materials between roots and
shoots
• The two vascular tissues are xylem and phloem
• Xylem conveys water and dissolved minerals
upward from roots into the shoots
• Phloem transports organic nutrients from where
they are made to where they are needed
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• The vascular tissue of a stem or root is collectively
called the stele
• In angiosperms the stele of the root is a solid
central vascular cylinder
• The stele of stems and leaves is divided into
vascular bundles, strands of xylem and phloem
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• Tissues that are neither dermal nor vascular are
the ground tissue system
• Ground tissue internal to the vascular tissue is
pith; ground tissue external to the vascular tissue
is cortex
• Ground tissue includes cells specialized for
storage, photosynthesis, and support
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Common Types of Plant Cells
• Like any multicellular organism, a plant is
characterized by cellular differentiation, the
specialization of cells in structure and function
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• The major types of plant cells are:
– Parenchyma
– Collenchyma
– Sclerenchyma
– Water-conducting cells of the xylem
– Sugar-conducting cells of the phloem
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Parenchyma Cells
• Mature parenchyma cells
– Have thin and flexible primary walls
– Lack secondary walls
– Are the least specialized
– Perform the most metabolic functions
– Retain the ability to divide and differentiate
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Collenchyma Cells
• Collenchyma cells are grouped in strands and
help support young parts of the plant shoot
• They have thicker and uneven cell walls
• They lack secondary walls
• These cells provide flexible support without
restraining growth
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Sclerenchyma Cells
• Sclerenchyma cells are rigid because of thick
secondary walls strengthened with lignin
• They are dead at functional maturity
• There are two types:
– Sclereids are short and irregular in shape and
have thick lignified secondary walls
– Fibers are long and slender and arranged in
threads
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Water-Conducting Cells of the Xylem
• The two types of water-conducting cells,
tracheids and vessel elements, are dead at
maturity
• Tracheids are found in the xylem of all vascular
plants
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• Vessel elements are common to most
angiosperms and a few gymnosperms
• Vessel elements align end to end to form long
micropipes called vessels
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Sugar-Conducting Cells of the Phloem
• Sieve-tube elements are alive at functional
maturity, though they lack organelles
• Sieve plates are the porous end walls that allow
fluid to flow between cells along the sieve tube
• Each sieve-tube element has a companion cell
whose nucleus and ribosomes serve both cells
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Meristems generate cells for primary and
secondary growth
• A plant can grow throughout its life; this is called
indeterminate growth
• Some plant organs cease to grow at a certain size;
this is called determinate growth
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• Meristems are perpetually embryonic tissue and
allow for indeterminate growth
• Apical meristems are located at the tips of roots
and shoots and at the axillary buds of shoots
• Apical meristems elongate shoots and roots, a
process called primary growth
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Primary growth lengthens roots and
shoots
• Primary growth produces the parts of the root and
shoot systems produced by apical meristems
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• Lateral meristems add thickness to woody plants,
a process called secondary growth
• There are two lateral meristems: the vascular
cambium and the cork cambium
• The vascular cambium adds layers of vascular
tissue called secondary xylem (wood) and
secondary phloem
• The cork cambium replaces the epidermis with
periderm, which is thicker and tougher
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Roots
• A root is an organ with important functions:
– Anchoring the plant
– Absorbing minerals and water
– Storing carbohydrates
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• Roots rely on sugar produced by • In most plants, absorption of water and minerals
photosynthesis in the shoot system, and shoots occurs near the root hairs, where vast numbers of
rely on water and minerals absorbed by the root tiny root hairs increase the surface area
system
• Monocots and eudicots are the two major
groups of angiosperms

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• Most eudicots and gymnosperms have a taproot • Many plants have root adaptations with
system, which consists of: specialized functions
• A taproot, the main vertical root
• Lateral roots, or branch roots, that arise from the
taproot
• Most monocots have a fibrous root system, which
consists of:
• Adventitious roots that arise from stems or
leaves
• Lateral roots that arise from the adventitious roots

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Primary Growth of Roots
• The root tip is covered by a root cap, which
protects the apical meristem as the root pushes
through soil
• Growth occurs just behind the root tip, in three
zones of cells:
– Zone of cell division
– Zone of elongation
– Zone of differentiation, or maturation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The primary growth of roots produces the
epidermis, ground tissue, and vascular tissue
• In angiosperm roots, the stele is a vascular
cylinder
• In most eudicots, the xylem is starlike in
appearance with phloem between the “arms”
• In many monocots, a core of parenchyma cells is
surrounded by rings of xylem then phloem
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• The ground tissue, mostly parenchyma cells, fills
the cortex, the region between the vascular
cylinder and epidermis
• The innermost layer of the cortex is called the
endodermis
• The endodermis regulates passage of
substances from the soil into the vascular
cylinder
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• Lateral roots arise from within the pericycle, the
outermost cell layer in the vascular cylinder
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Stems
• A stem is an organ consisting of • Many plants have modified stems (e.g., rhizomes,
– An alternating system of nodes, the points at bulbs, stolons, tubers)
which leaves are attached
– Internodes, the stem segments between nodes

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Primary Growth of Shoots

• An axillary bud is a structure that has the
potential to form a lateral shoot, or branch
• An apical bud, or terminal bud, is located near the
shoot tip and causes elongation of a young shoot
• A shoot apical meristem is a dome-shaped
mass of dividing cells at the shoot tip
• Leaves develop from leaf primordia along the
sides of the apical meristem
• Axillary buds develop from meristematic cells left
at the bases of leaf primordia

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Tissue Organization of Stems
• Lateral shoots develop from axillary buds on the
stem’s surface
• In most eudicots, the vascular tissue consists of
vascular bundles arranged in a ring
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• In most monocot stems, the vascular bundles are
scattered throughout the ground tissue, rather
than forming a ring
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Secondary growth increases the diameter
of stems and roots in woody plants
• Secondary growth occurs in stems and roots of
woody plants but rarely in leaves
• The secondary plant body consists of the tissues
produced by the vascular cambium and cork
cambium
• Secondary growth is characteristic of
gymnosperms and many eudicots, but not
monocots
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Vascular Cambium and Secondary
Vascular Tissue
• The vascular cambium is a cylinder of
meristematic cells one cell layer thick
• It develops from undifferentiated parenchyma
cells
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• In cross section, the vascular cambium appears as
a ring of initials (stem cells)
• The initials increase the vascular cambium’s
circumference and add secondary xylem to the
inside and secondary phloem to the outside
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• Secondary xylem accumulates as wood and
consists of tracheids, vessel elements (only in
angiosperms), and fibers
• Early wood, formed in the spring, has thin cell
walls to maximize water delivery
• Late wood, formed in late summer, has thick-
walled cells and contributes more to stem support
• In temperate regions, the vascular cambium of
perennials is inactive through the winter
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• Tree rings are visible where late and early wood
meet, and can be used to estimate a tree’s age
• Dendrochronology is the analysis of tree ring
growth patterns and can be used to study past
climate change
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• As a tree or woody shrub ages, the older layers of
secondary xylem, the heartwood, no longer
transport water and minerals
• The outer layers, known as sapwood, still
transport materials through the xylem
• Older secondary phloem sloughs off and does
not accumulate
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The Cork Cambium and the Production of
Periderm
• Cork cambium gives rise to two tissues:
 Phelloderm is a thin layer of parenchyma cells
that forms to the interior of the cork cambium
 Cork cells accumulate to the exterior of the cork
cambium
• Cork cells deposit waxy suberin in their walls,
then die
• Periderm consists of the cork cambium,
phelloderm, and cork cells it produces
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• Lenticels in the periderm allow for gas exchange
between living stem or root cells and the outside
air
• Bark consists of all the tissues external to the
vascular cambium, including secondary
phloem and periderm
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Leaves
• The leaf is the main photosynthetic organ of most
vascular plants
• Leaves generally consist of a flattened blade and
a stalk called the petiole, which joins the leaf to a
node of the stem
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• Monocots and eudicots differ in the arrangement
of veins, the vascular tissue of leaves
– Most monocots have parallel veins
– Most eudicots have branching veins
• In classifying angiosperms, taxonomists may use
leaf morphology as a criterion
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• Some plant species have evolved modified
leaves that serve various functions
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Tissue Organization of Leaves
• The epidermis in leaves is interrupted by
stomata, which allow CO2 and O2 exchange
between the air and the photosynthetic cells in a
leaf
• Each stomatal pore is flanked by two guard
cells, which regulate its opening and closing
• The ground tissue in a leaf, called mesophyll, is
sandwiched between the upper and lower
epidermis
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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• The mesophyll of eudicots has two layers:
 The palisade mesophyll in the upper part of the
leaf
 The spongy mesophyll in the lower part of the
leaf; the loose arrangement allows for gas
exchange
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The vascular tissue of each leaf is continuous
with the vascular tissue of the stem
• Veins are the leaf’s vascular bundles and function
as the leaf’s skeleton
• Each vein in a leaf is enclosed by a protective
bundle sheath
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Plants require essential elements to Soil Bacteria and Plant Nutrition

complete their life cycle
• The layer of soil bound to the plant’s roots is the
• Soil, water, and air all contribute to plant growth rhizosphere
– 80–90% of a plant’s fresh mass is water • The rhizosphere contains bacteria that act as
– 4% of a plant’s dry mass is inorganic substances decomposers and nitrogen-fixers
from soil
– 96% of plant’s dry mass is from CO2 assimilated
during photosynthesis

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Plant nutrition often involves relationships Rhizobacteria

with other organisms
• Plants and soil microbes have a mutualistic
relationship
– Dead plants provide energy needed by soil-
dwelling microorganisms
– Secretions from living roots support a wide
variety of microbes in the near-root environment
• Free-living rhizobacteria thrive in the rhizosphere,
and some can enter roots
• The rhizosphere has high microbial activity
because of sugars, amino acids, and organic
acids secreted by roots

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• Rhizobacteria can play several roles
– Produce hormones that stimulate plant growth
– Produce antibiotics that protect roots from
disease
– Absorb toxic metals or make nutrients more
available to roots
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle
• Nitrogen can be an important limiting nutrient for
plant growth
• The nitrogen cycle transforms nitrogen and
nitrogen-containing compounds
• Plants can absorb nitrogen as either NO3– or NH4
• Most soil nitrogen comes from actions of soil
bacteria
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Fungi and Plant Nutrition
• Mycorrhizae are mutualistic associations of fungi
and roots
• The fungus benefits from a steady supply of
sugar from the host plant
• The host plant benefits because the fungus
increases the surface area for water uptake and
mineral absorption
• Mycorrhizal fungi also secrete growth factors
that stimulate root growth and branching
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Agricultural and Ecological Importance of
Mycorrhizae
• Farmers and foresters often inoculate seeds
with fungal spores to promote formation of
mycorrhizae
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The Apoplast and Symplast: Transport

Continuums
• The evolution of xylem and phloem in land plants
made possible the long-distance transport of • The apoplast consists of everything external to
water, minerals, and products of photosynthesis the plasma membrane
• Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to • It includes cell walls, extracellular spaces, and
shoots the interior of vessel elements and tracheids
• Phloem transports photosynthetic products from • The symplast consists of the cytosol of the living
sources to sinks cells in a plant, as well as the plasmodesmata

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Different mechanisms transport substances

over short or long distances • Three transport routes for water and solutes are
– The apoplastic route, through cell walls and
extracellular spaces
• There are two major pathways through plants
– The symplastic route, through the cytosol
– The apoplast
– The transmembrane route, across cell walls
– The symplast

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Transpiration drives the transport of
water and minerals from roots to shoots
via the xylem
• Plants can move a large volume of water from
their roots to shoots
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Transport of Water and Minerals into the
Xylem
• The endodermis is the innermost layer of cells in
the root cortex
• It surrounds the vascular cylinder and is the last
checkpoint for selective passage of minerals
from the cortex into the vascular tissue
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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• Water can cross the cortex via the symplast or
apoplast
• The waxy Casparian strip of the endodermal wall
blocks apoplastic transfer of minerals from the
cortex to the vascular cylinder
• Water and minerals in the apoplast must cross
the plasma membrane of an endodermal cell to
enter the vascular cylinder
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Pushing Xylem Sap: Root Pressure
• At night root cells continue pumping mineral
ions into the xylem of the vascular cylinder,
lowering the water potential
• Water flows in from the root cortex, generating
root pressure
• Root pressure sometimes results in guttation, the
exudation of water droplets on tips or edges of
leaves
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Pulling Xylem Sap: The Cohesion-Tension
Hypothesis
• According to the cohesion-tension hypothesis,
transpiration and water cohesion pull water from
shoots to roots
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The rate of transpiration is regulated by
stomata
• Leaves generally have broad surface areas and
high surface-to-volume ratios
• These characteristics increase photosynthesis
and increase water loss through stomata
• Guard cells help balance water conservation with
gas exchange for photosynthesis
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Sugars are transported from sources to sinks
via the phloem
• The products of photosynthesis are transported
through phloem by the process of translocation
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Movement from Sugar Sources to Sugar
Sinks
• In angiosperms, sieve-tube elements are the
conduits for translocation
• Phloem sap is an aqueous solution that is high in
sucrose
• It travels from a sugar source to a sugar sink
• A sugar source is an organ that is a net producer
of sugar, such as mature leaves
• A sugar sink is an organ that is a net consumer or
storer of sugar, such as a tuber or bulb
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
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Overview: The Process That Feeds the
Biosphere
• Photosynthesis is the process that converts
solar energy into chemical energy
• Directly or indirectly, photosynthesis nourishes
almost the entire living world
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
Chloroplasts: The Sites of Photosynthesis
in Plants
• Leaves are the major locations of
photosynthesis
• Their green color is from chlorophyll, the
green pigment within chloroplasts
• Chloroplasts are found mainly in cells of the
mesophyll, the interior tissue of the leaf
• Each mesophyll cell contains 30–40
chloroplasts
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Photosynthesis converts light energy to the
chemical energy of food
• Chloroplasts are structurally similar to and
likely evolved from photosynthetic bacteria
• The structural organization of these cells
allows for the chemical reactions of
photosynthesis
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• CO2 enters and O2 exits the leaf through
microscopic pores called stomata
• The chlorophyll is in the membranes of
thylakoids (connected sacs in the chloroplast);
thylakoids may be stacked in columns called
grana
• Chloroplasts also contain stroma, a dense
interior fluid
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Tracking Atoms Through Photosynthesis: The Splitting of Water

Scientific Inquiry
• Chloroplasts split H2O into hydrogen and
• Photosynthesis is a complex series of reactions oxygen, incorporating the electrons of
that can be summarized as the following hydrogen into sugar molecules and releasing
equation: oxygen as a by-product
6 CO2 + 12 H2O + Light energy  C6H12O6 + 6 O2 + 6 H2O

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Photosynthesis as a Redox Process Redox Reactions: Oxidation and Reduction

• Photosynthesis reverses the direction of
electron flow compared to respiration
• Photosynthesis is a redox process in which
H2O is oxidized and CO2 is reduced
• Photosynthesis is an endergonic process; the
energy boost is provided by light
• The transfer of electrons during chemical
reactions releases energy stored in organic
molecules
• This released energy is ultimately used to
synthesize ATP

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The Principle of Redox
• Chemical reactions that transfer electrons
between reactants are called oxidation-reduction
reactions, or redox reactions
• In oxidation, a substance loses electrons, or is
oxidized
• In reduction, a substance gains electrons, or is
reduced (the amount of positive charge is
reduced)
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
• The Calvin cycle (in the stroma) forms sugar
from CO2, using ATP and NADPH
• The Calvin cycle begins with carbon fixation,
incorporating CO2 into organic molecules
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The Two Stages of Photosynthesis:
A Preview
• Photosynthesis consists of the light
reactions (the photo part) and Calvin cycle
(the synthesis part)
• The light reactions (in the thylakoids)
– Split H2O
– Release O2
– Reduce NADP+ to NADPH
– Generate ATP from ADP by
photophosphorylation
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The light reactions convert solar energy to
the chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
• Chloroplasts are solar-powered chemical
factories
• Their thylakoids transform light energy into the
chemical energy of ATP and NADPH
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A Photosystem: A Reaction-Center Complex

Associated with Light-Harvesting
• A primary electron acceptor in the reaction
Complexes center accepts excited electrons and is
reduced as a result
• A photosystem consists of a reaction-center
complex (a type of protein complex) surrounded • Solar-powered transfer of an electron from a
by light-harvesting complexes chlorophyll a molecule to the primary electron
acceptor is the first step of the light reactions
• The light-harvesting complexes (pigment
molecules bound to proteins) transfer the energy
of photons to the reaction center

© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

• There are two types of photosystems in the • Photosystem I (PS I) is best at absorbing a
thylakoid membrane wavelength of 700 nm
• Photosystem II (PS II) functions first (the • The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS I is
numbers reflect order of discovery) and is best at called P700
absorbing a wavelength of 680 nm
• The reaction-center chlorophyll a of PS II is
called P680

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The Calvin cycle uses the chemical energy
of ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar
• The Calvin cycle, like the citric acid cycle,
regenerates its starting material after molecules
enter and leave the cycle
• The cycle builds sugar from smaller molecules
by using ATP and the reducing power of
electrons carried by NADPH
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.
The Importance of Photosynthesis: A Review
• The energy entering chloroplasts as sunlight
gets stored as chemical energy in organic
compounds
• Sugar made in the chloroplasts supplies
chemical energy and carbon skeletons to
synthesize the organic molecules of cells
• Plants store excess sugar as starch in structures
such as roots, tubers, seeds, and fruits
• In addition to food production, photosynthesis
produces the O2 in our atmosphere
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• Carbon enters the cycle as CO2 and leaves as
a sugar named glyceraldehyde 3-phospate
(G3P)
• For net synthesis of 1 G3P, the cycle must take
place three times, fixing 3 molecules of CO2
• The Calvin cycle has three phases
– Carbon fixation (catalyzed by rubisco)
– Reduction
– Regeneration of the CO2 acceptor (RuBP)
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• Cellular respiration includes both aerobic and
anaerobic respiration but is often used to refer to
aerobic respiration
• Although carbohydrates, fats, and proteins are
all consumed as fuel, it is helpful to trace cellular
respiration with the sugar glucose
C6H12O6 + 6 O2  6 CO2 + 6 H2O + Energy (ATP + heat)
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Oxidation of Organic Fuel Molecules During
Cellular Respiration
• During cellular respiration, the fuel (such as
glucose) is oxidized, and O2 is reduced
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• NADH passes the electrons to the electron
transport chain
• Unlike an uncontrolled reaction, the electron
transport chain passes electrons in a series of
steps instead of one explosive reaction
• O2 pulls electrons down the chain in an energy-
yielding tumble
• The energy yielded is used to regenerate ATP
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Stepwise Energy Harvest via NAD+ and the
Electron Transport Chain
• In cellular respiration, glucose and other organic
molecules are broken down in a series of
steps
• Electrons from organic compounds are usually
first transferred to NAD+, a coenzyme
• As an electron acceptor, NAD+ functions as an
oxidizing agent during cellular respiration
• Each NADH (the reduced form of NAD+)
represents stored energy that is tapped to
synthesize ATP
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The Stages of Cellular Respiration:
A Preview
• Harvesting of energy from glucose has three
stages
– Glycolysis (breaks down glucose into two
molecules of pyruvate)
– The citric acid cycle (completes the
breakdown of glucose)
– Oxidative phosphorylation (accounts for
most of the ATP synthesis)
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• The process that generates most of the ATP is
called oxidative phosphorylation because it is
powered by redox reactions
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Glycolysis harvests chemical energy by
oxidizing glucose to pyruvate
• Glycolysis (“splitting of sugar”) breaks down
glucose into two molecules of pyruvate
• Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm and has two
major phases
– Energy investment phase
– Energy payoff phase
• Glycolysis occurs whether or not O2 is present
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• Oxidative phosphorylation accounts for
almost 90% of the ATP generated by cellular
respiration
• A smaller amount of ATP is formed in glycolysis
and the citric acid cycle by substrate-level
phosphorylation
• For each molecule of glucose degraded to CO2
and water by respiration, the cell makes up to
32 molecules of ATP
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After pyruvate is oxidized, the citric acid
cycle completes the energy-yielding
oxidation of organic molecules
• In the presence of O2, pyruvate enters the
mitochondrion (in eukaryotic cells) where the
oxidation of glucose is completed
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Oxidation of Pyruvate to Acetyl CoA
• Before the citric acid cycle can begin, pyruvate
must be converted to acetyl Coenzyme A
(acetyl CoA), which links glycolysis to the citric
acid cycle
• This step is carried out by a multienzyme
complex that catalyses three reactions
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• The citric acid cycle has eight steps, each
catalyzed by a specific enzyme
• The acetyl group of acetyl CoA joins the cycle
by combining with oxaloacetate, forming citrate
• The next seven steps decompose the citrate
back to oxaloacetate, making the process a
cycle
• The NADH and FADH2 produced by the cycle
relay electrons extracted from food to the
electron transport chain
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The Citric Acid Cycle
• The citric acid cycle, also called the Krebs
cycle, completes the break down of pyruvate
to CO2
• The cycle oxidizes organic fuel derived from
pyruvate, generating 1 ATP, 3 NADH, and 1
FADH2 per turn
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Flower
reproductive organ of flowering plants
(angiosperms)
= a modified, determinate shoot bearing
sporophylls (stamens and/or carpels),
with or without outer modified leaves (the
perianth)
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Inflorescence development:
Inflorescence:
Determinate - terminal flower develops
A collection or aggregation of flowers
first
Boundaries defined by vegetative leaves
below
Indeterminate - basal flower develops first

Cyme:

General term for a determinate

inflorescence

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Meiosis reduces the number of chromosome
sets from diploid to haploid
• Meiosis takes place in two sets of cell
divisions, called meiosis I and meiosis II
• The two cell divisions result in four daughter
cells, rather than the two daughter cells in
mitosis
• Each daughter cell has only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell
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• Division in meiosis I occurs in four phases
– Prophase I
– Metaphase I
– Anaphase I
– Telophase I and cytokinesis
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The Stages of Meiosis
• After chromosomes duplicate, two divisions
follow
– Meiosis I (reductional division): homologs
pair up and separate, resulting in two haploid
daughter cells with replicated chromosomes
– Meiosis II (equational division) sister
chromatids separate
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• Division in meiosis II also occurs in four phases
– Prophase II
– Metaphase II
– Anaphase II
– Telophase II and cytokinesis
• Meiosis II is very similar to mitosis
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Origins of Genetic Variation Among Independent Assortment of Chromosomes

Offspring
• Homologous pairs of chromosomes orient
• Three mechanisms contribute to genetic randomly at metaphase I of meiosis
variation • In independent assortment, each pair of
– Independent assortment of chromosomes chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal
– Crossing over homologues into daughter cells independently
– Random fertilization
of the other pairs

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Crossing Over
• The number of combinations possible when • Crossing over produces recombinant
chromosomes assort independently into chromosomes, which combine DNA inherited
gametes is 2n, where n is the haploid number from each parent
• For humans (n = 23), there are more than 8 • Crossing over begins very early in prophase I,
million (223) possible combinations of as homologous chromosomes pair up gene by
chromosomes gene

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• In crossing over, homologous portions of two
nonsister chromatids trade places
• Crossing over contributes to genetic variation
by combining DNA from two parents into a
single chromosome
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Flowers, double fertilization, and fruits are
unique features of the angiosperm life cycle
• Plant lifecycles are characterized by the alternation
between a multicellular haploid (n) generation
and a multicellular diploid (2n) generation
• Gametophytes produce haploid gametes (n) by
mitosis; fertilization of gametes produces a
sporophyte
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Random Fertilization
• Random fertilization adds to genetic variation
because any sperm can fuse with any ovum
(unfertilized egg)
• The fusion of two gametes (each with 8.4
million possible chromosome combinations
from independent assortment) produces a
zygote with any of about 70 trillion diploid
combinations
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• In angiosperms, the sporophyte is the dominant
generation, the large plant that we see
• The gametophytes are reduced in size and
depend on the sporophyte for nutrients
• The angiosperm life cycle is characterized by
“three Fs”: flowers, double fertilization, and
fruits
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Pollination Double Fertilization

• In angiosperms, pollination is the transfer of
pollen from an anther to a stigma
• Pollination can be by wind, water, or animals
• Wind-pollinated species (e.g., grasses and many
trees) release large amounts of pollen
• One sperm fertilizes the egg, and the other
combines with the polar nuclei, giving rise to the
triploid food-storing Plant Fertilization endosperm
(3n)

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Pericarp
Fruit = fruit wall (mature ovary wall)
= mature ovary/ovaries plus accessory
parts (if any) Pericarp layers
Endocarp = inner
Accessory parts Mesocarp = middle
= structures other than ovary attached to Exocarp = outer
fruit at maturity
(Pericarp layers may not be present or may be only
two)

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Fruit Classification
Fruit Classification based on:
based on: 2) Dry versus fleshy

1) Simple, aggregate, or multiple 3) If dry, dehiscent versus indehiscent

Simple = from 1 ovary of 1 flower 4) Other features:

ovary position,
Aggregate = from many ovaries of 1 flower pericarp layers,
carpel number,
Multiple = from many ovaries of many fls. locule number,
seed number,
placentation

Seed Development, Form, and Function

• Fruit dispersal mechanisms include • After double fertilization, each ovule develops
– Water into a seed
– Wind • The ovary develops into a fruit enclosing the
– Animals seed(s)

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Endosperm Development
• In most monocots and some eudicots,
endosperm stores nutrients that can be used
by the seedling
• In other eudicots, the food reserves of the
endosperm are exported to the cotyledons
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• A monocot embryo has one cotyledon
• Grasses, such as maize and wheat, have a
special cotyledon called a scutellum
• Two sheathes enclose the embryo of a grass
seed: a coleoptile covering the young shoot and
a coleorhiza covering the young root
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Embryo Development
• The first mitotic division of the zygote splits the
fertilized egg into a basal cell and a terminal cell
• The basal cell produces a multicellular suspensor,
which anchors the embryo to the parent plant
• The terminal cell gives rise to most of the embryo
• The cotyledons form and the embryo elongates
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Flowering plants reproduce sexually,
asexually, or both
• Many angiosperm species reproduce both
asexually and sexually
• Sexual reproduction results in offspring that are
genetically different from their parents
• Asexual reproduction results in a clone of
genetically identical organisms
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Advantages and Disadvantages of Asexual Mechanisms That Prevent Self-Fertilization

Versus Sexual Reproduction
• Many angiosperms have mechanisms that make it
• Asexual reproduction is also called vegetative difficult or impossible for a flower to self-fertilize
reproduction • Dioecious species have staminate and carpellate
• Asexual reproduction can be beneficial to a flowers on separate plants
successful plant in a stable environment
• However, a clone of plants is vulnerable to local
extinction if there is an environmental change

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What is Systematics? Taxonomy: D.I.N.C.

Taxonomy Description
Using evolutionary history (phylogeny) to
classify
Identification
Using all types of evidence Nomenclature
Classification

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Phylogenetic classification
 Based on known (inferred) evolutionary
history.
 Advantage:
 Classification reflects pattern of evolution
 Classification not ambiguous
Conditions on early Earth made the
origin of life possible
• Chemical and physical processes on early Earth
may have produced very simple cells through a
sequence of stages:
1. Abiotic synthesis of small organic molecules
2. Joining of these small molecules into
macromolecules
3. Packaging of molecules into protocells
4. Origin of self-replicating molecules
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From Two Kingdoms to Three Domains
• Early taxonomists classified all species as either
plants or animals
• Later, five kingdoms were recognized: Monera
(prokaryotes), Protista, Plantae, Fungi, and
Animalia
• More recently, the three-domain system has
been adopted: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya
• The three-domain system is supported by data
from many sequenced genomes
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Synthesis of Organic Compounds on Early
Earth
• Earth formed about 4.6 billion years ago, along
with the rest of the solar system
• Earth’s early atmosphere likely contained water
vapor and chemicals released by volcanic
eruptions (nitrogen, nitrogen oxides, carbon
dioxide, methane, ammonia, hydrogen,
hydrogen sulfide)
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• In the 1920s, A. I. Oparin and J. B. S. Haldane • Instead of forming in the atmosphere, the first
hypothesized that the early atmosphere was a organic compounds may have been synthesized
reducing environment near volcanoes or deep-sea vents
• In 1953, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey • Amino acids have also been found in meteorites
conducted lab experiments that showed that the
abiotic synthesis of organic molecules in a
reducing atmosphere is possible

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Abiotic Synthesis of Macromolecules Self-Replicating RNA and the Dawn of

Natural Selection
• RNA monomers have been produced
spontaneously from simple molecules • The first genetic material was probably RNA, not
• Small organic molecules polymerize when they DNA
are concentrated on hot sand, clay, or rock • RNA molecules called ribozymes have been
found to catalyze many different reactions
– For example, ribozymes can make
complementary copies of short stretches of RNA

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• Natural selection has produced self-replicating
RNA molecules
• RNA molecules that were more stable or
replicated more quickly would have left the most
descendent RNA molecules
• The early genetic material might have formed an
“RNA world”
• RNA could have provided the template for DNA,
a more stable genetic material
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• Adding clay can increase the rate of vesicle
formation
• Vesicles exhibit simple reproduction and
metabolism and maintain an internal chemical
environment
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Protocells
• Replication and metabolism are key properties
of life and may have appeared together
• Protocells may have been fluid-filled vesicles with
a membrane-like structure
• In water, lipids and other organic molecules can
spontaneously form vesicles with a lipid bilayer
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The First Single-Celled Organisms
• The oldest known fossils are stromatolites, rocks
formed by the accumulation of sedimentary layers
on bacterial mats
• Stromatolites date back 3.5 billion years ago
• Prokaryotes were Earth’s sole inhabitants from 3.5
to about 2.1 billion years ago
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Photosynthesis and the Oxygen Revolution

• Most atmospheric oxygen (O2) is of biological
origin
• O2 produced by oxygenic photosynthesis reacted
with dissolved iron and precipitated out to form
banded iron formations
• The early rise in O2 was likely caused by ancient
cyanobacteria
• A later increase in the rise of O2 might have been
caused by the evolution of eukaryotic cells
containing chloroplasts

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The Origin of Multicellularity

• Key evidence supporting an endosymbiotic origin • The evolution of eukaryotic cells allowed for a
of mitochondria and plastids: greater range of unicellular forms
– Inner membranes are similar to plasma • A second wave of diversification occurred when
membranes of prokaryotes multicellularity evolved and gave rise to algae,
– Division is similar in these organelles and some plants, fungi, and animals
prokaryotes
– These organelles transcribe and translate their
own DNA
– Their ribosomes are more similar to prokaryotic
than eukaryotic ribosomes

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The Colonization of Land
• Fungi, plants, and animals began to colonize
land about 500 million years ago
• Vascular tissue in plants transports materials
internally and appeared by about 420 million
years ago
• Plants and fungi today form mutually beneficial
associations and likely colonized land together
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• Darwin noted that current species are
descendants of ancestral species
• Evolution can be defined by Darwin’s
phrase descent with modification
• Evolution can be viewed as both a
pattern and a process
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Overview: Endless Forms Most Beautiful
• A new era of biology began in 1859
when Charles Darwin published The
Origin of Species
• The Origin of Species focused
biologists’ attention on the great
diversity of organisms
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The Origin of Species
• Darwin explained three broad observations:
– The unity of life
– The diversity of life
– The match between organisms and their
environment
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• In the Darwinian view, the history of
life is like a tree with branches
representing life’s diversity
• Darwin’s theory meshed well with the
hierarchy of Linnaeus
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• Inference #1: Individuals whose inherited
traits give them a higher probability of
surviving and reproducing in a given
environment tend to leave more
offspring than other individuals
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Artificial Selection, Natural Selection, and
Adaptation
• Darwin noted that humans have
modified other species by selecting
and breeding individuals with desired
traits, a process called artificial
selection
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• Inference #2: This unequal ability of
individuals to survive and reproduce will
lead to the accumulation of favorable
traits in the population over
generations
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Natural Selection: A Summary

• Individuals with certain heritable
characteristics survive and reproduce at
a higher rate than other individuals
• Natural selection increases the
adaptation of organisms to their
environment over time
• If an environment changes over time,
natural selection may result in adaptation
to these new conditions and may give rise
to new species
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