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ENGINEERING SURVEYING 2.

Lecture Notes for the BSc course BMEEOAFASI1

Szabolcs Rózsa

Budapest, 2009
1. The importance of geodetic control in the construction process
The purpose of construction guidance observations

Geodetic observations are quite often required during the construction of the
engineering structures. The purpose of these observations is either the geometric
guidance of the construction or the control of the geometrical quality of the built
structures. In both cases surveyors are required to compare the ’as built’ status of the
structure with the geometric position and dimensions of the structures on the plans.

Construction guidance observations are a part of the construction activities. These


observations are carried out continuously during the construction process. The purpose
of these observations is to quantify the discrepancies between the built structures and
the planned positions and dimensions, thus these discrepancies can be corrected for by
applying ’construction/assembly corrections’.

Continuous guidance observations are required for example in the case of the
construction of reinforced concrete structures using sliding formworks. Let’s imagine
that the chimney is being constructed, that has a circular cross‐section. The purpose of
the construction guidance observations is to determine the radius and the center of the
cross‐section of the built part. The discrepancies between the ’constructed’ cross‐
sections and the planned cross‐sections provide the geometrical correction for the
placement of the sliding formwork. These corrections show not only the correction of
the center line, but also the correction of the radius of the structure. Thus both the
position of the sliding formwork and the dimension of the formwork can be corrected
based on the construction guidance observations.

In many cases the purpose of construction guidance observations is to adjust the


position and the orientation of structural elements (for example: pillars). These
adjustments are done with an iterative procedure. Firstly the structural element is
placed approximately to the correct place and it is oriented approximately in the correct
direction. Afterwards surveyors measure the exact position and orientation of the
element and compute the required corrections to meet the planned position and
orientation values. Based on these corrections, construction workers can adjust the
placement and the orientation of the structural element. Unfortunately – mainly due to
the large size and weight of these structures, this adjustment can not be done in a single
step. Thus the new discrepancies in position and orientation must be quantified by the
surveyor again, and new correction values are computed. Usually the correction values
have a decreasing trend, thus the position and the orientation of the structure should
converge to its planned position and orientation. This iterative process is done until the
computed correction values are below the given tolerance.

Construction control observations are done after the construction process is finished. In
this case the purpose of the observations is the determination of the geometric error of
the construction.
The final approval of the construction usually depends on the results of these
construction control observations. In some cases, when the construction process is
separated into different individual steps, the results of the construction control
observations are taken into consideration during the planning of the next construction
step. Such an example can be the construction of the nuclear power plant in Paks, when
the small geometric error of the construction of the buildings was taken into
consideration in the planning of the technological facilities.

In some cases the documentation of geometric construction error helps to determine the
cause of malfunctioning structures.

It is also important to mention that the positioning observations of the entire structures
are usually distinguished from the positioning and dimensional observations of the
structural elements. This is because of the fact that – in most cases – a lower accuracy is
required for the positioning and the orientation of the entire structure compared to the
positioning and the orientation of the structural elements. Imagine that a large hall can
be misplaced by several centimeters without any serious consequences, but the
misplacement of pillars inside the building by the same amount would lead to the failure
of the structure.

The accuracy requirements of the construction guidance and control observations

The accuracy requirements of the construction guidance and control observations are
usually defined separately for the structural and positional guidance and controls.
Structural requirements define the guidance and control accuracies for the positioning
and orientation of structural elements, while positioning requirements define the
accuracies applied for the positioning and orientation of the entire structure/building.

The requirements of the structural guidance and control observations are usually
defined by the chosen construction method and the type of the structure. The numerical
definition of the accuracies of the geodetic observations is usually based on the largest
acceptable discrepancy, which can be defined as a function of the construction tolerance.
In exceptional cases the construction tolerance or the mean error can be used as
accuracy requirements.

During the definition of the accuracy requirements one must bear in mind that these
observations are carried out on built structures. Thus the first task is the definition of
the observed (sample) points on the structure. On some of the structural elements it is
easy to localize points, which can be undoubtedly observed by geodetic methods. For
example the head of the screws on steel structures can be used as precise marking for
the points.

In other cases the marking of the observational points is not so unambiguous, thus the
marking of the points might increase the error of the observations. Such an example can
be the control of the horizontality of reinforced concrete walls. The accuracy
requirements of the construction guidance and control observations are usually
computed using the acceptable construction discrepancy:

t = z ⋅ tc ,

where t is the accuracy requirement, tc is the largest acceptable construction


discrepancy and z is the scale factor between the two aforementioned quantities.
According to the Hungarian regulations z=0.15‐0.30, when the observed points are
marked precisely. A usual values of z=0.25. In case of non‐precise marking z=0.25‐0.60,
with a usual value of 0.40.

The Hungarian Guide for Engineering Surveying defines the accuracy of construction
control and guidance observations are a function of the structural discrepancy and the
distance between the control points and the observed structure (Table 1.)

Acceptable structural Distance [m]


observation discrepancy 10 20 40 80 100
5 mm 2 3 6 12 15
5‐10 mm 4 6 11 18 22
10‐20 mm 5 8 14 24 30
20 mm 8 12 19 30 40

Table 1-1. The accuracy of construction control as a function of acceptable structural


observation discrepancy and distance to the control points
2. The preparation of Construction guidance and control observations

The reconnaissance

The purpose of reconnaissance is to get acquainted with the construction site, to


understand the requirements related to surveys and to discuss the schedule of
construction activities with the client(s).

Office preparations

The office preparations can be classified into three steps, which affect each other:

a) scheduling the observations;


b) localization of observational points;
c) planning the observational technology.

Scheduling the observation

The scheduling of the observations highly depends on the scheduling of the construction
activities. This can be checked in the project plan. However a continuous negotiation and
contact is necessary with the client. Based on the applied construction technology
guidance observations are needed for some activities (for example when pillars are
erected and set to a vertical position) or continuously during the whole construction
(application of sliding formworks). The scheduling of as‐built surveys depends on the
scheduling of the forthcoming construction activities as well as the further application of
the surveying data. When the results of the as‐built surveys are used is input data for the
forthcoming planning phases then the as‐built surveys must be created as soon as the
previous phase of construction has been finished.

The as‐built surveys – when possible – should be carried out before the next
construction phase begins, since continuing construction activities cause worse
observation conditions due to the vibration and the obstructing objects, vehicles, etc.

The localization of observational points

The localization and the number of observational points are determined by taking
geometrical, observational, economical aspects as well as the duration of the
observations into account.

The number of observational points should enable us to determine the structure


geometrically. Since only points can be measured, some simplification must also be
made. These simplifications rely on the geometrical properties of some structural
elements. For instance when the verticality of high rise buildings is controlled then the
number of the observational points depends on the assumed geometrical properties of
the walls:

Assumption Minimal number of points


The wall is a vertical plane 2 (not on the same vertical)
Arbitrary plane 3 (not on the same line)
Arbitrary parabolic surface 10

In order to provide redundant observations, the number of points always exceeds the
minimal values.

The characteristics of the applied observation technology must also be taken into
account. It means that the location of the points should provide an optimal configuration
for the observations.

The duration of the observations might also have an impact on the determination of the
number of points (mainly in construction guidance observations). The number of points
should be chosen so, that the duration should not cause significant delays in the
construction processes.

Economical considerations mean that the more observational point should be measured,
the more expensive the observations are. Due to this, the number of points should be
increased until the level, where the geometrical assumptions and accuracy requirements
are fulfilled.

It is extremely important to have a good cooperation between the Surveyor, the


Residential Engineer and the Constructor to determine the appropriate number of the
observational points and their locations. This continuous discussion can be avoided,
when the observations are done routinely.

Planning the observational technology

The planning of the observational technology includes the selection of the

• selection of the control points used;


• selection of the the applied observation technology;
• selection of the the instruments;
• and the accuracy optimization (planning).

Building guidance and control observations usually rely on the horizontal set‐out
network and the vertical control network. In case of unique, large buildings it might be
necessary to create a unique control network assisting the construction. The accuracy
requirements of the control networks must be determined so, that the foreseen damages
of control points are also taken into account. Thus the guidance and control
observations must provide the required accuracy when some of the control points are
missing.

Accuracy optimization (planning) of the observations should prove that the chosen
technology and observational points could provide suitable accuracy for the control or
guidance. The planning is usually done be comparing the acceptable mean error of the
control measurements (µ) with the “a priori” mean error of the observational
technology and instrumentation (m). The chosen technology and instrumentation
should fulfill the following requirement:

The m acceptable mean error can be computed from the structural or positioning
tolerance (t) with the following equation:

The m ‘a priori’ mean error consists of three parts. The first is the mean error describing
the observational technology (m1). The m1 value can be determined using the formulae
derived for the different setting out technologies.

The deformations of the examined structures induced by the external conditions have an
impact on the overall mean error, too. In case of tall and thin structures one has to take
into account the effect of wind load and the temperature change. The uncertainty
stemming from these effects can be described by the m2 mean error. The level of m2 can
be determined with the help of the structural engineers.

The processing of construction guidance and control observations are usually done by
applying some simplifications. Due to these simplifications and assumptions we have to
take into account another uncertainty, which is quantified with the m3 mean error. Let’s
suppose that our task is to check whether the observed points are on the same line, or
not. In this case the equation of the line is determined by the xi, yi coordinates of the
points. The equation of lines can be determined using different criteria, like:

or

| | .
In both cases the determined parameters (a0, a1) have uncertainties, which are
described by the m3 mean error. The m3 can be determined with the application of error
theory and error propagation.

The overall mean error can be computed using the m1, m2 and m3 mean error values
with the following equation:

Preparations on site

The preparation on the construction site consists of three parts. The first one is to
establish the control network. In case of an existing control network one should locate
the control points, temporarily mark them (erect tripods, etc.) and check their relative
positions. When no control network exists, then either the densification of the network
should be made, or a totally new control network should be established.

The second step of the preparations is to choose the final location of the observational
points. The final locations should be chosen based on the requirements determined
during the office preparations. The observational points are usually marked. A
permanent marking is especially important when the points are used for guidance and
control observations many times.

The third part of the preparations is the establishment of structures, which are
necessary for the observations or for working safety (pillars, barriers, etc.).
3. Observational technologies for construction guidance and control

Construction guidance and control observations of building with vertical or near‐vertical


walls can be done with the technology of plumbing. The plumbing can be done with
theodolites, zenitlots (plummets), or plumb bobs. The application of building guidance
and control observations are explained in some case studies.

Case 1. The exercise is a building guidance observation for the vertical alignment of
pillars. The observations are done with two theodolites, which are placed orthogonally
from the pillar. Now the observations of the first theodolite are explained only, but the
second one follows the same procedure, too. The steps of the alignment are the
following:

1. Before the erection of the pillar, the centerline of the pillar should be marked on
the bottom as well as on the top of the pillar. Afterwards the pillar is lifted and set
to an approximately vertical position.
2. Sight the mark on the bottom of the pillar with the theodolite. (The vertical plane
of the line of sight should be approximately perpendicular to the surface of the
pillar.)
3. Tilt the telescope around the trunnion axis until the mark on the top of the pillar
becomes visible. Due to the tilting of the pillar, the mark is not sighted correctly
(not aligned with the vertical crosshair).
4. Instruct the constructor to adjust the pillar till the mark is aligned with the
vertical crosshair.
5. As a check, the lower mark should be sighted again. When it is necessary to rotate
the alidade of the instrument to do this, then step 3 and 4 should be repeated.

Case 2. Let’s suppose that a construction of a cooling tower with a hyperboloid surface
should be guided continuously, since it is made with the sliding formwork technology.
The task can be solved with the instrumentation seen on Figure 3‐1. The most important
parts of the instrumentation are the laser‐theodolite – set up in the geometrical center of
the tower – providing a horizontal laser beam, and an adjustable prism, which reflects
the laser beam to the appropriate position. The prism ensures that the reflected laser
beam has the inclination of α. The distance between the laser theodolite and the prism is
denoted with s.

When the geometry of the structure should be controlled at the level of Hi above the
ground, then the horizontal distance between the wall of the structure and the laser
beam should be measured with a rod. Thus the radius of the tower at the level of Hi can
be computed using the formula below:

Finally the observed radius should be compared to the values given in the plans. The
discrepancy between the two values would provide us the error, or the correction in
case of guidance observations.
Ri
ai

staff

Centerline

α
Prism lasertheodolite

Figure 3-1. Guidance of a hyperboloid shape cooling tower constructed with sliding
formworks

Due to practical reasons, usually not the radii are compared, but the ai is computed for a
certain α angle:

With this approach, the geometry of the cooling tower can be checked in various cross‐
sections.

Case 3. The task is to control the verticality of the wall edges of a high rise building. The
measurements are done using a theodolite. During the control observations, the yi
distances of the points are determined from a vertical plane, which is approximately
parallel with the wall. The vertical plane is created by the standing plane of the
theodolite. The principle of the observation can be seen on Figure 3‐2.

The yi values are computed from the observed αi angles and the distance d, which is
measured by a tape:

The deviations from the vertical position can be determined from the changes of the yi
values.

When the surface of the examined structure is not parallel with the standing plane of the
theodolite, then the observations should be made from two orthogonal directions.
Frontal view Top view

yi yi
Pi Pi
Standing plane

Standing plane
d

Hi

α
4. Construction guidance and control observations of straight‐axis structures

Very often some structural elements of the large structures can be characterized with a
straight axis. In most cases the guidance of such constructions are mandatory.

Such a structures are: roads, railways, tunnels, crane rails, axis of large industrial
machinery.

Straight axis or center lines can be set out by two points. After marking these two points,
a wire can be stretched between the points. This method is used for example to guide
pavers in road construction. The appropriate setting out of the points enables the
horizontal as well as the vertical guidance of the pavers. Such a configuration can be
seen on Figure 4‐1.

wire

re
wi
alignment
sensor
elevation
paver
sensor elevation
sensor

road
View of the stakes

stakes

Figure 4‐1. Guidance of a road paver with wires

Laser theodolites (Fig 4‐2.) are also very useful to set out straight lines. After an
orientation, the laser theodolites can set out the WCB of the straight axis, or a line with
an offset from the centerline. In many cases the road pavers are equipped with a sensor,
which detects the laser beam, thus the paver can move automatically along the straight
line.
road

paver

laser beam
o rien
tatio n
δ

laser theodolite

Figure 4-2. Guidance of road paver with the laser theodolite

Another solution is the application of inductive guidance devices. In this case the
straight lines are set out with two points. Afterwards a cable is stretched between the
points. The paver senses the electric field around the cables. Thus by ensuring that the
detected signal has a maximum the paver follows the right direction.

These solutions can be modified to be appropriate for the guidance along curves, too.

Alignment observations

Structures with straight axis can be geometrically controlled with the alignment
observations. In this case a line approximately parallel with the straight axis of the
structure is set out with two points. The positions of the monitoring points are observed
as chainage (xi) and offset (yi) values relative to the reference line. The principle of the
observation can be seen on Figure 4‐3.
examined structure

y1 yi yn
x1 xi‐ xn‐
A B

control point
observation point

Figure 4-3. The principle of alignment observations

During alignment observations the xi coordinates are usually set out according to the
requirements of the observations. In case of the examination of crane rails the xi
coordinates are 0,1,2,… meters (thus we have one point in every meter). During the
location of the monitoring points, it must be ensured that a point is placed to each break
in the straight axis. The chainage values are usually measured with tapes.

In order to measure the yi offsets, many approaches and technologies can be used. One of
them is to use a theodolite set up on point A and a target mark set up at point B. After
sighting the mark at point B, the yi offsets are measured with a tape (or yardstick) with
the precision of 1mm.

examined structure

yi
B
A
theodolite yardstick mark

Figure 4-4. Alignment observations with theodolite and yardstick


When the monitoring points are not accessible, then instead of measuring the yi values,
the angle αi is measured (Fig. 4‐5.). The yi offset is computed from the equation:

or

examined structure
Pi
si
yi
αi
xi Oi B
A
theodolite mark

Figure 4-5. Alignment observations based on angular observations

In case of the guidance or control observations of industrial machinery, the


aforementioned approaches cannot provide the sufficient accuracy. In such cases special
devices are used, which utilize the phenomena of optical interference, or apply a
collimator telescope. These instruments are called ‘microgeodetic’ instruments.

Alignment with interferometric observations

The structure of such a device can be seen on Figure 4‐6. The instrument contains the
following elements:

• a transmitter, which contains a light emitter and a slit in front of it (0,2‐0,5mm);


• a whiteboard with two slits (0,2‐0,5mm) on the monitoring points;
• the receiver, which is a telescope with crosshairs.
The principle of the observation is that a symmetric interference can be achieved only,
when the three elements of the instrument are aligned. The whiteboard (A2) can be
adjusted very finely. According to references, up to 50 meters the accuracy of 0.010‐
0.015mm can be achieved.
A3
A2

A1
a2

β
a1
a’2

View of the receiver

Light emitter Whiteboard Whiteboard


with a single slit with double slits with telescope
(receiver)

Figure 4‐6. Alignment observation based on the interference of light

Collimator telescopes

In practice the application of collimator telescopes are more popular. A possible set up
can be seen on Figure 4‐7. The figure shows the telescope (2) with the micrometer
screw (1) and the collimator (3) with the light emitter. The diaphragm (4) is located in
the focal distance of the objective of the collimator. The collimator can be mounted to
the structure with the help of two mount points (5 and 5’) in the distance of b.

Telescope Collimator
Light emitter
1 3 4
2

8
5’
5 q
θ

Figure 4-7. Allignment observation with collimator

During the observation, the collimator is mounted to the structure and the telescope is
tilted with a micrometer screw, until both of the lines of sight becomes parallel. In this
case the two crosshairs (in the collimator and in the telescope) are aligned. The angular
rotation of the micrometer screw can be read on the screw. Let’s denote this angular
rotation with n. Since the amount of tilting is a linear function of the rotation, it can be
computed by:

=n∙υ'',

where u’’ is a constant given by the operation manuals.

Since q’’ is usually small, therefore the offset difference of the two mountpoints of the
collimator (q) can be computed using the following equation:
θ ·
.

Since b and u’’ are constant for a specific instrument, therefore q can be written in the
following form:
·
· .

The mean error of one q observation can be computed by applying the law of error
propagation:

Since q is relatively small and the value of s and b can be accurately determined in
calibration laboratories, the second part of the sum can be neglected. Thus:

It must be noted that the mean error of q does not depend on the distance between the
collimator and the telescope (see the above equation).

During the control observations of a structure, the reference line is created by the
telescope and a mark. The collimator is moved along the structure so, that the chainage
values of the close mountpoint should be b, 2b,…. kb consecutively. The offset of point k
is:

∑ .
Telescope Collimator Mark

Figure 4-8. Setting the reference line with a telescope and a mark for alignment
observations with collimator

The mean error of yk can be computed from the mean error of the quantities q:

∑ .

Experience shows that up to 200 meters the mean error of the tilting angles can
supposed to be constant:

thus:

√ √ .
5. Observing deformations

General information on deformation observations

Engineers measure the displacement or the changes in the shape (deformation) of


various structures using geodetic, photogrammetric or other techniques.

The purpose of the deformation observations can be different depending on the specific
task, such as:

• The prediction of the expected displacement of the structure. This task is usually
important for structures, which have high loads, such as dams, bridges,
embankments of large rivers. The prediction of displacements is important to
avoid the failure of the structure, which could lead to a catastrophic situation. In
many cases the studies of a new category of structures starts after a real failure
experiences in an already built structure. For example the systematic
deformation observation of dams started in the 1920s after a dam was torn down
in Italy, or the deformation analysis of the bridges in Vienna started after the
damage of the Reichsbrücke.
• The deformation observations can help to understand the cause of an
experienced displacement. These types of observations are carried out after the
visible occurrence of structural damages. An example could be the deformation
analysis of the river walls in Dunaújváros, where the observations were started
after a landslide.
• Deformation observations may help to improve the design and planning of
building and other structures, when the observations are made on existing
buildings or on laboratory models. In this case the observed displacements and
deformations are used for further planning processes. For example the Conder
storage structures were studied in laboratories, before the first ones were built in
Hungary. On the other hand deformation observations of existing high‐rise
buildings helped to predict the displacements of the further buildings.
• In many cases the aim of the deformation observation is to provide information
for the technical approval of the structure. For example bridges are approved
when they pass a load test, during which the deformation of the bridge is
measured.
• Deformation analysis may serve the scientific research as well. Deformation
observations are used in the field of technical sciences, physics, biology and
medical sciences.
• Finally the purpose of the deformation analysis can be to help legal processes,
too. In case of damages or accidents, deformation observations are helpful to
judge the responsibility for the damage.
Application fields of deformation observations

Geodetic and photogrammetic deformation observations are used a wide variety of


branches of the economy. In the following list we have given some branches of
applications:

• The most important field of application is the construction industry. Deformation


observations are made in case of thin and tall structures (chimneys, TV towers),
large structures (multi‐storey buildings, skyscrapers), or during the application
of some industrial construction technologies (like the application of sliding
formworks). In the construction industry the primary cause of the deformations
is usually the weak soil.
• Transportation: many structures used by the transportation are studied by the
method of deformation observations, such as: bridges, railway embankments,
underground railways.
• Water management and water resources: deformation analysis of dams and river
embankments.
• Industry: deformation analysis is carried out in mining (quantifying the
depression caused by mining), during the establishment and maintenance of
nuclear power stations, or in some structures of the mechanical industry (ships,
airplanes, etc.)
• Non‐profit branches and research: deformation analysis of natural structures (for
example tectonic plates) or historical structures.

The principle of deformation analysis

The displacement and the deformation of object are very complicated processes. In
order to be able to measure these processes and to mathematically model them, some
assumptions (simplifications) should be made.

The first simplification is that the structure is substituted by some points only. The
positions of the points are measured and the displacement of the structure is modeled
with the quantified displacement of these points.

The second – general – assumption is that we have some fixed control points, which are
not subject to any displacements. By using these control points, the observed coordinate
changes of the points on the structure shows the displacement of the structure itself.

The third assumption is that the observed structure is stable during the observation.
Due to this the observations are identified by an observation epoch (time of
observation) instead of an observation interval.

Let’s see the simplest example: a beam with two supports. According to the first
assumption, some points must be chosen on the beam. The number and the location of
the points depend on the fact whether the beam is a rigid or a deformable body. A
possible solution for the observational points could be found on Fig. 5‐1.

Figure 5-1. Deformation observation of a beam with two supports

According to the second assumption, fixed control points should be established in the
vicinity of the structure. These points are points A and B on Fig. 5‐2. (Of course the
stability of the control points must be checked regularly using some additional
observations to other points.)

Finally observations are made from the fixed control points to the observational points
on the structure. According to the third assumption the observations (and the
coordinate solutions) refer to a certain time epoch. On Figure 5‐2 the observations at
epoch t1 and t2 are displayed (the figure is not to scale).

+Z
κ

t2
P’

P t1

Zp2

ZP1 B
A ϑ
+X
Xp2 Yp2
Yp1
Xp1

+Y

Figure 5-2. The position of the beam at epochs t1 and t2


The coordinates referring to the aforementioned epochs can be computed from the
respective observations.

Using the coordinates of the observational points in the various epochs the parameters
of the displacements or deformations can be computed. When the beam is rigid the
elements of the translation and rotation vectors must be computed. In this case the
elements of the translation vector between the epoch t1 and t2 are the following:

∆ ,

∆ ,

∆ ,

where XP1, YP1, ZP1 are the coordinates of point P at the epoch t1, and XP2, YP2 and ZP2 are
the coordinates at the epoch t2.

The rotational angles can also be computed from the same coordinates. Let’s suppose
that the rotation of the beam along the Y axis should be determined (ω). In this case the
X and Z coordinates of the points S and U (Figure 5‐3.) at the epoch t1 and t2 should be
used for the computations:

In some cases the deformation parameters (angular deformation and linear


deformation) must also be computed among the displacements of the bodies. In this case
the same coordinates should be used as before. Let’s suppose that the linear
deformation (extension) of the beam should be computed. In this case the change of the
distance between points U and S should be computed from the coordinates.
+Z
κ

U’
t2
S’

S U
t1

Zu2
Zs2

Zu1
Zs1
X s1 Xs2 Xu1 Xu2 ϑ
+X
Ys2 Yu2
Ys1 Yu1


+Y

Figure 5-3. Observing the expansion of a beam


The distance between point U and S at the epoch t1 is:

at the epoch t2 it is:

The change of the length of the beam is:

∆ .

Summarizing this chapter, it can be stated that geodetic deformation observations are
carried out from stable fixed control points, to a suitable number of observational points
which substitute the studied body. The coordinates of the observational points are
computed, and finally the parameters of displacements and deformations are computed
using these coordinates.
6. Planning deformation observations

The planning of deformation observations is a process of the following steps:

1. The exact definition of the task.


2. Acquiring information related to the displacements and/or deformations.
3. The determination of accuracy requirements.
4. The determination of observation epochs.
5. The determination of the duration of the observations.
6. The determination of the location and marking of the observational points.
7. The selection of the applied observation technology and instrumentation.

The listed steps are not independent from each other. Usually the steps must be
revisited and renegotiated before the final decisions are made.

The planning process is concluded, when all of the aforementioned steps were done and
an appropriate solution has been found for each of them.

1. The exact definition of the task

The exact definition of the task helps us to define the purpose of the observations. The
definition must contain the exact definition of the structure, the description of the
characteristics of the expected displacements and the required time interval between
the epochs.

2. Acquiring information related to the displacements and/or deformations

The information on the displacements and/or deformation has a big impact on the
required accuracy and duration of observations as well as on the appropriate selection
of observation epochs.

The most important information is the following: the amount and location of the highest
and lowest displacement, the amount of the critical displacement, the displacement
rates (speed) and the characteristics of the additional displacements must also be
known, which are not subject to the observations, but must be taken into account. For
example: In case of the deformation observation of chimneys due to the wind loads, the
deformation of the chimney due to the solar radiation must also be taken into account,
because only the sum of the two effects can be observed, but during the processing the
two parts must be separated.

The main characteristics of displacements can be obtained from the client or the
designer of the structure. When this fails, related literature should be checked for
reference values.
3. The determination of accuracy requirements

In case of deformation observations the accuracy requirements highly depend on the


purpose and requirements of the observations. The accuracy requirements are usually
defined as a function of the highest expected displacement (Dmax) or the critical
displacement (Dcrit). During the determination of the accuracy requirements either
homogeneous requirements can be defined for the whole structure or stringent
requirements can also be defined for the critical parts of the structure.

Until now there is not a general rule for the definition of accuracy requirements. When
the highest expected displacement (Dmax) is given, then the mean error of the parameter
stemming from a single observation must fulfill the following criteria:

0,03 0,1 .

When the critical displacement is given, then the following formula can be used:

0,1 0,2 .

During the determination of the accuracy of the deformation observations the opinion of
the experts of the client or the designer of the structure must also be obtained.

4. The determination of observation epochs

During the planning phase, the observation epoch must also be chosen. In case of
continuously acting forces (e.g. quantification of subsidence of buildings) the problem is
solved so, that a certain number of observation epochs (depending on technical and
economical considerations) should be distributed during the expected lifetime of
displacements. When no prior information exists on the evolution of displacements then
the observations should be distributed homogeneously over the lifetime of the
displacements. However when some prior information exist (e.g. soil consolidation in
the case of the subsidence of buildings) then it is wiser to have more frequent
observations when the displacement rates are higher compared to the time when the
displacement rates become smaller and smaller.

An example can be seen on Figure 6‐1. When the evolution of the displacements is
known, then it is also possible to define the observation epochs by solving an
optimization problem.
Z
Observation epochs

Expected displacement
function

Time

Figure 6-1. The determination of observation epochs

It is extremely important to have a repeated reference observation (also known as null


observation). It is necessary because of the fact that all of the further observations
would be referred to the first null observation, therefore it must have a higher accuracy
and reliability.

During the planning phase only the expected evolution of the displacement might be
known. In the real situation, the displacements and deformations may occur in a
different way. Therefore it is important to compare the observed displacements with the
expected ones. In case of significant discrepancies the planning of the observation
epochs should be revised.

In most cases additional requirements of the clients should also be taken into
consideration in the determination of the observation epochs. When the deformation
observations are carried out as a part of a complex investigation (such as bridge load
testing), the observation epochs should be aligned with the epochs of other
observations.

5. The determination of the duration of observations

The acceptable duration of the observations depend on the amount of the displacement
rates as well as on some external conditions.

One of the principal assumptions of the deformation observations was that the observed
structure is supposed to be stable during the observation. Under real conditions,
structures suffer some displacements or deformations continuously, thus they have
some displacements or deformations during the duration of the deformation
observations, too. The duration of the observations should be chosen so, that the amount
of displacement or deformation of the structure during the observations should not
decrease the accuracy of the observations significantly. When the displacement rate is v
and the accepted mean error of the observations (µi) are known, then is can be
prescribed that the total amount of displacement should not exceed a certain level of the
mean error. Thus:

· · ,

where v is the displacement rate, t is the duration of the observations, k is the coefficient
of acceptable displacement and µ is the accepted mean error of the coordinates. K has
the usual value of 0.2‐0.5.

The maximal duration of the observations can be computed by reformatting the


previous equation:

This duration is the duration of the observations only, and excludes the duration of the
preparations for the observation (transportation, set up, etc.) and the processing of the
observations.

In case of high displacement rates, or large structures it might occur that the it is not
possible to carry out the observations within the maximal accepted duration (t)
computed with the aforementioned formula. One solution of the problem could be to
find an appropriate time for the observations, when the displacement rates are lower.
For example steel structures can be measured during the night, when the large
deformations due to the solar radiation can be eliminated from the observations. In case
of large structures sometimes we can not assume that the structures are stable during
the observations. In this case a more complicated mathematical model should be applied
for the analysis of the observations, which handles the observations as a function of
time, too. Such a model can be used for the studies of recent tectonic displacements.

External conditions have an impact on the duration of the observations, when the
geodetic observations are made in combination with other observations, or other
operations. In this case the duration of the geodetic observations should have similar to
the duration of other observations. However it must be taken into account that the
duration of the observations can be shortened till it does not affect the accuracy of
observations significantly.

6. The determination of location and marking of the observational points

The number and the location of observational points on the examined structure depend
on many factors.

A general rule is that the number of points and their location should enable us to
quantify all of the parameters of the displacements (translation, rotation) and
deformations.
In order to find the appropriate location of the observational points, a few
simplifications should be made. The simplifications rely on the physical properties of the
structure (rigid or non‐rigid) and on the characteristics of the displacements (direction,
maximal displacement, etc.).

During the determination of the number of the required points one should take into
account the fact that some of the points might be destroyed during the observations
(usually deformation observations last for a long time, sometimes for decades as well).
Therefore some spare points should also be used for the observations.

Moreover the economical and time observational time limitations should also be taken
into account. The more observational points should be measured, the longer the
observations are, and more expensive the whole deformation analysis becomes.

When the number of points is determined, then the appropriate locations should be
chosen. The locations should reveal the displacements and deformations. For example a
point should be placed on the place of the highest and lowest displacement. When the
number of points is fixes then the locations could also be found by mathematical
optimization.

After defining the number and the location of the points, the appropriate way of marking
must also be determined. The marking depends on the material of the surface of the
structure, on the accuracy requirements, on the applied measurement technology and
the total lifetime of the deformation observations.

An appropriate marking must fulfill two criteria: the points must show the displacement
of the structure and they must not damage due to natural phenomena (wind, rain, snow,
ice, etc.) during the observations.
7. Methods of continuous deformation observations

In many cases the structures can not supposed to be stable during a normal geodetic or
photogrammetric deformation observation. In such a case the deformations or the
displacements of the structure must be observed continuously. This is usually done with
some built‐in sensors, but some of the geodetic observations can also be automated and
thus a continuous monitoring of the structures can also be solved by geodetic tools, like
robotic total stations or GNSS instruments.

Continuous observations are usually used in the following cases:

a.) The displacement or deformation rate of the observed structure is high,


thus it is not possible to sight the points manually. An example for this
could be the loading test of bridges.
b.) A large number of observational points should be measured, and the
structure can not supposed to be stable during the long duration of
observations. An example for this is the deformation observations of steel
structures, which are exposed to solar radiation.
c.) In many cases the observations should be repeated in a very short time,
like in the case of thin and tall structures, which deform due to the
temperature change and wind loads.

In these cases it is useful to build some sensors into the structure. Of course before the
final decision of the installation of such sensors a technical and economical analysis
should also be made.

The principles of continuous deformation observations

In case of continuous deformation observations some observational points are


established in or on the structure, where the changes of some physical parameters
(length, angle, bearing, inclination, etc) can be measured. These changes are directly
related to the displacements or deformations of the structure.

The sensors sometimes have a display directly showing the observable, but in most
cases the observations are transformed to an electronic signal, which is transmitted to a
centralized data processing facility, where the signals are transformed to real
observations.

Due to the fact that many sensors are present on or in the structure, therefore a switch is
also installed between the sensor and the data processing facility, in order to be able to
process the sensors individually. The switch can be a manual switch when only a few
sensors are used, or can be a fully automatic one, which can handle a large number of
sensors. An automatic switch is capable to switch between all of the sensors, and reads
the data of the sensors consecutively. Programmable switches are also capable to read
only a certain set of the applied sensors in one step. With these switches it is easy to
monitor the whole structure in one step as well as to have a detailed view of a certain
part of structure by reading the appropriate sensors more frequently.

Since the distance between the sensors and the data processing facility is usually large,
therefore a signal amplifier is also needed in the system. The results can be displayed in
a digital display or the data can be sent to a data logger or to a computer directly. The
most efficient way to visualize and analyze the observations is to feed the sensors to a
central computer, which can process and analyze the data in real time.

In some cases, when the accuracy requirements are lower, an analogue graphical
visualization is done.

In most cases the observations are stored digitally either on a hard drive or on some
other data storage material.

Various types of sensors

The sensors used for the continuous deformation observations are the following based
on the observed quantity:

Observed physical quantity Sensor


Length inductive position detector
position sensitive diode
Extension sensor based on oscillating chords
strain gage
pendulum
Tilting electronic level
tiltmeter

Continuous observation of lengths

Lengths are measured continuously with the application of inductive position detectors
and position sensitive diodes.

There are many versions of inductive position detectors. These detectors convert the
observed length to inductivity.

The inductivity of a cylindrical coil (L) depends – among others ‐ on the number of turns
(N) and the magnetic permeability (µ0):

where µ0 is the magnetic permeability, µr is the relative permeability, while A is the area
of the cross‐section of the coil. When the inductivity is expressed as a function of the
number of turns (N), the permeability (µ=µ0µr) and a variable, which describes the
geometry of the coil (G), then the inductivity can be written as:

According to this, the inductivity of a coil may change due to the:

a) change of the number of turns;


b) change in the geometry;
c) change in the permeability.

The principle of inductive position detectors is that these devices convert the observable
– usually displacement – to a change of any of the aforementioned 3 variables.

The most widely used equipments are the linear variable differential transformator
(LVDT) and the inductive position transducers.

Inductive position transducers

The inductive position transducers have a very simple structure. It contains a coil and a
movable permeable core within the coil.

The principle of the operation is that the inductivity depends on the position of the core
within the coil. This function is shown on Fig. 7‐1. It can be seen that the maximal
inductivity occurs, when the core is totally inside the coil. When the core is moved from
the coil outward, then the inductivity reduces. The inductivity is a non‐linear function of
the position of the core and decreases its value until the core is driven out of the coil. In
this case the inductivity reaches the level of the inductivity of a coil with air core (L0).

The function of inductivity can be approximated by:

where x is the distance between the center of the coil and the center of the core; l is the
length of the coil (which is similar to the total length of the core) and k is a sensor
specific constant (a usual value is 4).
c
x

core

coil

L0

Figure 7-1. The inductivity of the coil as a function of core’s position

This simple transducer is linear in a very small interval around the inflection point of the
inductivity curve. In order to extend this interval either more coils are used, or the shape
of the inductivity curve (characteristic curve) is determined, and the displacements are
computed using the characteristic curve of the sensor. The characteristic curve can be
approximated by polynomials or Fourier‐series or any other appropriate mathematical
methods.

The inductive transducers have an operational interval of 0.5mm‐200mm. The accuracy


of the observations is usually in the order of 0,1% of the observed displacement.

Position sensitive diodes

The basis of the position sensitive diode is a semi‐conductor block (made of silicon), on
which a thin layer of gold (approx. 15 nm) is placed. The silicon is artificially polluted,
thus the atoms of the polluting material create some free electrons in the silicon block.
When the silicon block is voltage free, then the free electrons enter to the golden layer,
thus in the semiconductor block an electron‐poor zone is created. When a the block is
put under voltage, then the size of this zone increases, which disables any current to
flow through the semiconductor block.
Light

Golden layer

Electron‐poor zone
U

Silicon semiconductor
X

l/2 l/2

Figure 7-2. The semiconductor block of position sensitive diods

When some light is emitted by the golden layer, then additional electrons free up in the
electron‐poor zone, thus an electric current flows through the semiconductor block. The
current I1 and I2 observed at both ends of the semiconductor blocks must fulfill the
following equation according to the 2nd law of Kirchoff:

where R1 and R2 are the respective resistances and U is the voltage.

Let x denote the distance of light from the center of the diode. In this case x can be
expressed as a function of the two currents with the following equation:

Thus the location of the ray of light (x) can be determined.

The observation of x can be carried out by the application of the Wheatstone‐bridge (Fig.
7‐3.) When the Wheatstone bridge is balanced (UD=0) then the following equation is
fulfilled:

thus the value of x can be expressed:

In case of real observations the amplification of the signals must also be solved
regardless of the way of the determination of x (current measurement or the application
of the Wheatstone bridge).
position
sensitive
x diode

U V

R3 R4

I1 I2

Figure 7-3. Measurement of displacement with PSD and the Wheatstone bridge

Position sensitive diodes usually have an observational interval of less than 10 cm. The
resolution of these devices is usually better than 1% of the measurement interval.
Lowest limit of the resolution is 2.5×10‐3 mm.
8. Strain and tilting (deflection) measurements

One of the most important purposes of deformation observations is the determination of


the stress accumulated in the investigated structures. Since the stress cannot be
measured, therefore the strain should be measured and the stress can be computed by
the Hooke law – considering its limitations. Thus strain observations are unavoidable for
the determination of stress. In the next sections the electrical resistance strain gages and
the vibrating‐wire strain gages are introduced. It must be noted that strain observations
can be done using the inductive position transducers, too.

Electrical resistance strain gages

The physical background of the electrical resistance strain gages is the fact that the
resistance of a wire depends on its length (l), area of cross‐section (A) and the electrical
resistivity (ρ):

When the length of the wire changes with ∆l, then the electrical resistance changes as
well (∆R). The ratiod between the relative change in the length (strain) and the relative
change in the resistance can be described by the following equations:
∆ ∆
,

where k is the so called gage factor. The gage factor is a function of the gage material and
can be looked up in the manuals. A usual value is around 2.

In the application of the electrical resistance strain gages, the changes of electrical
resistance are measured, and the strain is computed from the observations. Since the k is
not constant for the whole operational interval, therefore the strain is not a totally linear
function of the relative change of the electrical resistance.

Two types of electrical resistance strain gages can be distinguished:

• Wire strain gage


• Foil strain gage
• Strain gages with special carrier materials (like asbestos for high temperature
observations)

Electrical resistance strain gages have the observational interval of 0.3mm to 100mm.
The accuracy is usually 0.5% of the observed displacement.
Figure 8-1. Electrical resistance strain gauge
Vibrating‐wire strain gages

The body of the strain gauge is a steel tube with flanges at either end. Inside the body, a
steel wire held in tension between the two flanges. Strain in the concrete causes the
flanges to move relative to one another, increasing or decreasing the tension in the wire.

The tension in the wire is measured by plucking the wire with electromagnetic coils and
measuring the frequency of the resulting vibration. The resonant frequency of the wire
can be described with the following formula:

where f is the resonant frequency, l is the length of the wire, ρ is the density of the wire,
σ is the stress in the wire due to the tension, n is the order of the harmonics.
Usually the higher order harmonics are fast damped, therefore usually the 1st order
harmonic is measured. This damping can be accelerated when wire is plucked in the
middle.

The frequency equation of the vibrating wire shows that the observed frequency
changes due to the change in the length of the wire and the stress occurring due to the
tension of the wire.

The strain observations are done by the observation of the resonant frequency. Strain in
the wire is calculated by squaring the frequency reading and multiplying a gauge factor
and a batch calibration factor.

Figure 8-2. The structure of the vibrating wire strain gauge

The material of the vibrating wire is usually steel. The accuracy and the resolution of the
observations is 1 microstrain. When the vibrating‐wire is used for measuring strain in
non‐steel materials, then the effect of the temperature change must also be taken into
account. Since the different materials have different thermal expansion coefficients, it
causes an extra stress in the vibrating‐wire. This must be corrected in order to
determine the strain caused by the deformation of the structure only.
A major advantage of the vibrating‐wire is its long lifetime. Therefore it is very
advantageous to use this type of gages in places, which are not accessible after finishing
the construction (interior of reinforced concrete dams, etc.)

Tiltmeters

The geodetic tiltmeters are instruments, which were originally capable to measure
tilting angles and were improved to be able to provide the observations continuously.
Tilting angles in surveying are measured with tools, which are capable to detect the
direction of the gravity vector. Such instruments are: levels, pendulums and the free
surface of liquids. All of the instruments can be equipped with an electronic reader, thus
the changes in the tilting angles can be recorded continuously.

There are many types of electronic levels in practice. One solution is shown on Figure 8‐
3. Electronic levels have a high sensitivity, it can reach the level of 0.1”. They consist of a
bubble tube filled with an electrolytic solution and three electrodes. As the sensor tilts,
the excitation electrodes ont he top of the tube move across the meniscus of the bubble,
linearly changing the electronical resistance between the pick‐up electrode on the
bottom of the tube and each excitation electrode. By measuring the resistance change,
the tiltmeter electronics determine angular movement with great precision. The total
angular range of a sensor is a function of the length of its excitation electrodes and the
sensor's radius of curvature.

Figure 8-3. Electronic tiltmeters

The tiltmeters based on pendulums usually contain some inductive transducers. Such an
instrument is the Talyvel made by the Rank‐Taylor‐Hobson company (Figure …). The
pendulum is a high permeability iron core (K), which can swing between two coils (L1
and L2). The oscillator generated the alternating circuit, while the resistors (R1 and R2)
and the coils form a Wheatstone bridge, on which the amplified (A) voltage is measured
with a galvanometer.

Placing the instrument on a tilted surface, the pendulum K is moved toward one of the
coils, thus a current is flowing on the Wheatstone bridge. With the adjustment of the R1
resistor the bridge can be balanced. Thus the amount of tilting can be determined by the
measurement of the resistance of the R1 resistor.

The Thalyvel 5 tiltmeter has the measurement range of ±10’ and the accuracy of 0.2” or
±3% of the reading.

pendulum unit

K
L1 L2

R1 R2

O E G instrument base

measuring unit

Figure 8-4. The structure of the Thalyvel tiltmeter


9‐10. Vertical Deformation observations
Practical

Observe the leveling polygons shown on Fig. 9‐1 using precise levels! Inside the building
the Wild N3 precise tilting level is used, while outside the building electronic precise
levels are used. Follow the rules of precise leveling during the observations.

After the observations compute the height of the observed points by adjusting the
observations using the least squares method.

The computational adjustment of the Deformation Analysis Observations of the


Central Building of BME

Altogether 7 leveling lines have been observed in and around the Central building of
BME. Out of these lines, six sections can be formed (4 inside the building and 2 outside
the building). The seventh line is the link to the stable benchmark located in the rock of
the Gellert‐hill (2915).

In order to compute the vertical coordinates of the observational points, the observed
elevation differences in the network (Fig. 9‐1.) must be adjusted. Since the elevation
differences were observed, one should realize that the sum of the elevations differences
in the various loops should be zero.

Let’s denote the observed elevation differences with L and the respective corrections v.
Please also note that the direction of leveling is denoted with red arrows on Fig. 9‐1.
Thus:

0 for the loop of L1, L4 and L3,

0 for the loop of L5, L6 and L2,

0 for the loop of L3 and L5,

0 for the loop of L4 and L6.


Figure 9-1. The levelling polygons of the network

The vi corrections should be determined so, that the above equations are fulfilled for all
of the loops.

In order to compute these corrections (and the adjusted elevations of the nodes), the
least‐squares method could be used. In this solution the parametric least‐squares
method is used.

Parametric least squares method

The parametric least squares method uses observation equations, where the
observables are expressed as the function of parameters.:

, ,….,

in order to linearize the problem, an approximate value of the parameters should be


defined (X10, X20, ….Xn0).

, ,…., , ,….,

where (x1, x2, …, xn) are the changes of the approximate parameters. After the
linearization, the above equation has the form of:

, ,….,

where A is the so called design matrix containing the partial derivatives of the functions
(Jacobian‐matrix) and x is the vector of the changes of the approximate parameters.

By reordering the above equation to the corrections, one gets:


where X is the vector of the approximate values of the parameters and l is the vector of
the approximate residual.

By minimizing the weighted square of the corrections:

one gets the solution of the parameter changes by:

Please note that AT is the transpose of the design matrix and PLL is the weight matrix:

where QLL is the variance‐covariance matrix of the observations, which is assumed to be


known.

After the computation of the parameter changes (x) the adjusted parameters can be
computed:

The adjusted observation residuals can be computed by the direct method:

Finally the variance‐covariance matrix of the parameters is:

The application of least-squares method for the adjustment of the leveling


network

In our case the elevation differences (observables) are expressed as the functions of
vertical coordinates (parameters):
Let’s define the approximate values of the vertical coordinates:

H22_0=0, H9_0=L1 and H1005_0=L3

Since one station in the network should be fixed (and the elevation of the other nodes
are computed relative to this one), the elevation of point 22 should be fixed to the value
of 0.

Thus the set of correction equations are:

Let’s see the contents of the design matrix:

1 0
1 0
0 1
1 1
0 1
1 1
and the approximate residual vector is:

_ _

_ _

In the next step the weight matrix (PLL) should be created. Please note that the weight
matrix is the inverse of the variance‐covariance matrix of the observations. When the
observations are statistically independent, then the variance‐covariance matrix as well
as the weight matrix have a diagonal form. The variances can be approximated by the
square of the ’a priori’ mean error of the observations.

The ’a priori’ mean error of leveling is given by the following formulae:

∆ √ for one way levelling and

∆ for two‐way levelling,

where α is the mean oscillation of the line of sight of the level, S is the length of the
leveling line and d is the instrument‐staff distance.
Thus the weights can be defined inverse proportionally with the length of the leveling
lines:

1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0
1
0 0 0 0 0

In the next step the changes of the parameters can be computed:

and the adjusted value of the parameters can be obtained by:

Since the parameters are in this case the elevations of the nodes, therefore the adjusted
values of the elevations of point 9, 22 and 1005 are determined.

Please note that these elevations are relative to the elevation of point 22.
11. Verticality check of the wall of shafts

It is a frequent task in the construction practice to check the verticality of the wall of
shafts. Before the assembly of the elevators (the placement of the leader rails) it is
necessary to carry out the exact survey of the geometry of the built walls.

Checking the verticality of surfaces, straights lines or edges in a shaft can be done using
a plumb bob or an optical plummet. The application of the plumb bob is more difficult,
since it swings when the hanging wire is long. In this case an appropriate damping
should be achieved. To eliminate this disadvantage the optical plummet instruments
were developed.

The most important part of the precise optical plummets is the standing geodetic
telescope, which can be turned around the central vertical axis that is fixed in the
tribrach. An automatic compensator or a precise level is used to make the line of sight of
the telescope vertical.

Figure 11-1. PZL precise compensator plummet

Such a precise compensator plummet is the Zeiss’s PZL (Präzisions‐Zenitlot)


instrument.
Figure 11-2. PZL schematic optical equipment and his beam procession

Because of the fact that the standing axis and the line of sight are not parallel due to
small misalignments, it is necessary to make two measurements in diametral positions.

The observations are started with the setting out of the station points. Afterwards a
sketch of the layout of the staircase is prepared. The station points are marked on the
sketch and the observation of their positions are taken relative to the walls.
In the next step the vertical section is defined (the interval of the section points is
defined relatively to the level of the basement).

After setting up the instrument, the horizontal distance between the walls and the
vertical line of sight should be measured. In order to do this, a yardstick (or a
horizontally placed leveling staff) can be placed to the section points. Afterwards the
readings are taken in two diametral positions (the instrument must be revolved around
the standing axis by 180°. Based on these measurements the vertical section of the wall
can be created and the winding of the shaft can be plot on graphs as well.
12‐13.Controlling measurement of crane rails
15030-58 MSz is the valid standard for the building and assembling of the crane rails in
Hungary. This standard includes the regulations that must be followed of design, -build and
technical approval.
The main rules which relate to surveying works:

- the winding tolerance of the theoretical center line of the ground-plan is ±10 mm,
- the tolerance of the middle distance of the rail is ± 5 mm,
- the tolerance of the altitude in the direction of the axis of the support of the crane rail
from the theoretical level is ±20 mm, but the maximal slant of the rail is 1 per
thousand,
- the altitude difference of the rails in one cross-section is max. 1 per thousand of the
distance of the rails,
- the eccentricity of the rail centre line compared to the middle of the support of the
crane rail is: at a steel support ±l0 mm, at a reinforced concrete support ±30 mm.

The controlling measurement justifies that the rail was being built according to a plan and it
kept its planned geometry during its use.

The geometry of the actual state of the crane rails are computed based on geodetic surveys.
The supports of the crane rails and the crane rails themselves describe a winding line
compared to the planned theoretical axis (both in the horizontal and the vertical sense). The
deteriorations from these planes are called horizontal- and altitude winding. The most
frequent task is the definition of the windings, but it is also necessary to make the following
checks:

- The examination of the verticality of supports,


- The examination of the theoretical axis of the rail and the theoretical axis of the crane-
bridge (crane-bridges),
- Checking the size of the bridge wheels and the rail lines,
- Checking the placement of the bumpers.

In the industry there are many kinds of crane rails. The most precise construction is required
by the - so called - travelling crane. That’s why we introduce the control measurements and
related computation of this kind of cranes. Of course this method can also be used for simpler
kinds of cranes.

The determination of horizontal winding needs different kind of equipments and measurement
techniques compared to the vertical winding. Due to this, the problem is solved in the
following way:

- the determination of the horizontal winding and the span of crane rails,
- the determination of the position of the supports of the crane rails and the
determination of the axis of the crane rails compared to each other,
- the determination of the altitude winding of the crane rails.
The determination of the horizontal winding and the span of the crane rails

Before starting the controlling measurements it is necessary to compute:

n = ±z e

where

n: permitted measurement difference of the structure

e: permitted size difference due to building and assembling

z: scale factor

According to MSz 15030-58 standard z = 0.4 (usual value)

n = ±0.4×5 = ±2mm.

Due to the fact that we are not allowed to exceed this permitted measurement difference
(n) at any point, we should use a 1” theodolite, invartape and a staff with a correct mm
graduation.

The horizontal winding of the crane rails is determined with offset surveying using a
theodolite. The first step of the work is to create the horizontal geodetic network.

Usually a rectangular quadrangle network (or chain) is used for this purpose, but the two
opposite sides of the network must be nearly parallel with the rails. We may set the points
of reference according to their spatial situation:

– on the floor level,


– near the altitude of the crane rails, or
– in different altitudes.

We may set out the control points:

– outside the crane rails,


– between the crane rails,
– partly outside the crane rails, partly between the crane rails.
On Figure 1 a rectangular quadrangle network is shown, which consist of four points. For
the determination of the horizontal winding we have to measure the offsets of the axis of
the rails to a straight line from the control points 1-2 and 3-4 in two faces.

It is necessary to fix the section of the examination points (see the bi values on Fig. 12-1)
for the determination of both the horizontal winding, and the span.

Figure 12-1. Rectangular quadrangle network


Figure 12-2. The theoretical axis of the crane rail

The situation of the theoretical axis of the crane rail can be computed according to the
notations of Fig. 12-2. The horizontal winding is defined as the discrepancy between the
true axis and a vertical plane coinciding with the theoretical rail axis.

The coordinate of the points of the theoretical axis:

thus the horizontal winding of rail “A” can be computed:

The horizontal winding of rail “B” is:


It must be noted that the values of the horizontal winding has a sign. The positive sign
means that the rail axis point lies outside the theoretical rail axis, while the negative sign
means that it lies inside the theoretical rail axis.

Please note that in the previous formulae f is the planned span and T is the horizontal
distance between the baselines. T can be measured directly, or it can be computed from
the network observations.

The adjustment of the network observations can be done using the techniques learned in
other courses. All the methods of the adjustment of direct and indirect observations can be
used for this purpose. In some cases only the angular misclosures are computed, and the
distances, which have not been observed, are computed using the corrected angles and the
measured distances.

The definition of the position of the supports of crane rails and the situation of the
axis of crane rails relative to each other

The crane rail standard prescribes the maximal eccentricity of the support of crane rail and
the axis of the rail. It is necessary to refer the observation of the winding of the rails to a
common vertical plane. Let’s discuss the principles of computing the horizontal winding
of the supports in a case, when the baseline is located between the supports of the crane
rails.

The position of the baselines can be seen on Fig. 3. In order to determine the horizontal
windings, firstly the ordinate values of the points of the theoretical axis are computed.
Using the notation of Fig. 3.:

The values of the horizontal winding of the examination points:


Figure 12-3. The position of the baseline

The determination of the altitude winding of the crane rails

According to the crane rail standard the altitude winding of the crane rails must be
determined, too. It is necessary to make the determination of the relative altitude
differences based on two independent leveling. In the industry it is necessary to use a
hanging tape for the determination of the absolute altitude. During this practice a leveling
staff is used instead.
Both automatic and tilting levels can be used for the observations. Since it is usually hard
to find a vibration-free environment on industrial sites, therefore the application of a
tilting level is strongly encouraged.

It is necessary to calibrate the level before the controlling observation, since it is hard to
ensure the equal instrument-staff distance during the observations. When the level is not
adjusted, then the tilting of the line-of-sight can be calculated, and the observations are
corrected for this effect.
References
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California Department of Transportation: Surveys Manual


(http://www.dot.ca.gov/hq/row/landsurveys/SurveysManual/Manual_TOC.html)

Fernsteuergeraete: Linear Displacement Transmitters, Technical Specification, Berlin, 2009

Department of the Army: Construction Surveying, p. 238, Washington D.C., 1985

DiBiagio, E.: A Case Study of Vibrating Wire Sensors That Have Vibrated Continuously for
27 Years, Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium on Field Measurements in
Geomechanics, Oslo, September 15-18, 2003, pp 445-459.

Gage Technic International Ltd: The theory of vibrating wire transducers. p 5, 2009

LCM Systems: PD13 Linear Displacement Transducer, Technical Specifications, 2008

Slope Indicator Inc.: VW Embedment Strain Gauge, White Paper, Mukilteo, 2009

Slope Indicator Inc: VW Spotweld Strain Gauge, White Paper, Mukilteo, 2004

Smith L.M, Brodt G.L, Stafford B.: Performance Assessment and Reinstatement of Vibrating
Wire Strain Gauges in Nuclear Power Plant Structures. Transactions SMiRT 16, Washington
D.C., 2001

Vishay Micro Measurements: Strain Gauge Rosettes: Selection, Application and Data
reduction. Technical Note TN-515, http://www.vishaymg.com, 2009

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