Qualitative Research Design:

The Research Process and the

Research Proposal
Sources: Flick, 2009; Cresswell, 2007; Cresswell, 2009;
Babbie, 2001; Marshall and Rossman, 1999

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 Recall...

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 Walter Wallace’s Wheel of Science
I D
N Theories E
D D
U U
C Empirical C
T Generalizations Hypotheses T
I I
O O
N N

Observations

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 The research cycle (Hancke in
Marsh and Stoker, 2010: 239)
Research
Question

Falsification Literature
Debate
Review

Empirics
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 The researcher...

• “gathers information...reflects on their

meaning, arrives at and evaluates
conclusions, and eventually puts forward an
interpretation, most frequently in written
form.” (Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 21)

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 Formulation
of the overall
The Research question

Process
(from: Flick, Formulation
of specific research questions

2009: 99) Evaluation and reformulation of

the specific research questions
Formulation
of sensitizing concepts

Analyzing the data

Selection of research groups on

which to study the question
Generalization and
evaluation of the analyses

Evaluation and reformulation of

the specific research questions
Formulation of the
findings

Collection of data

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 “(R)eal research is often confusing,
messy, intensely frustrating, and
fundamentally nonlinear.”
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 21)

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 In studying the research process,
remember to focus on the journey as
well as on the destination.

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 A research proposal
• is “a plan for engaging in systematic inquiry
to bring about a better understanding of
the phenomenon and, increasingly, to
change problematic social
circumstances.”(Marshall and Rossman,
1999: 22)
• there is no single format but it usually
includes the following components...

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 3 Elements of a Research Proposal
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 22)

• Introduction (overview of the proposal, a

discussion of the topic or focus of the
inquiry and the general research question)
• Discussion of related literature (situates
the study in the ongoing discourse about
the topic and develops the specific
traditions to which the study links)

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 3 Elements of a Research Proposal
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 23)

• Research design and methods (details the

overall design, the site or population of
interest, the specific methods for gathering
data, a preliminary discussion of strategies
for analyzing the data, how the study’s
trustworthiness (validity) will be ensured,
the personal biography of the researcher,
and ethical and political issues that may
arise in the conduct of the study)

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 Introduction

• Overview
• Topic and purpose
• Potential significance
• Framework and general research questions
• Limitations

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 Review of Related
Literature

• Theoretical traditions
• Essays by informed experts
• Related research

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 Design and
Methodology
• Overall approach and rationale
• Site or population selection
• Data-gathering methods
• Data analysis procedures
• Trustworthiness
• Personal biography
• Ethical and political considerations

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 Bibliography

Appendices

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 8 Elements
(Babbie, 2001)

• Problem or Objective (What do you want to

study? Why is it worth studying? Does the
proposed study have practical significance? Does
it contribute to the construction of social
theories?)
• Literature Review (What have others said about
this topic? What theories address it and what do
they say? Are there consistent findings or do past
studies disagree? Are there flaws in the body of
existing research that you think you can remedy?)

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 • Subjects of the study (Whom or what will you
study in order to collect data? Identify the subjects
then in more concrete terms identify who is
available for study and how you’ll reach them. Will
you select a sample? How will you do that?)
• Measurement (What are the key variables in your
study? How will you define and measure them? Do
your definitions and measurements duplicate or
differ from those of previous research on this topic?
(Append measurement device and instruments)

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 • Data Collection Methods ( How will you collect
the data for your study? Will you conduct an
experiment or a survey?, etc.)
• Analysis (Indicate the kind of analysis you plan to
conduct, specify the purpose and logic of your
analysis; descriptive or explanatory?)
• Schedule (schedule for various stages of research)
• Budget (provide a budget that will specify where
the money will go)

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 In writing the research proposal...

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 The first sentence counts.

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 “The beginning writer plunges the barrel (the reader) into the depths of the
well (the article)...The experienced writer lowers the barrel (the reader, again)
slowly, by allowing the reader to acclimate to the depths (the study).”
(Cresswell, 2008: 103)

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 The introduction
(Wilkinson cited in Cresswell, 2009: 97)
• the initial passage that provides readers with the background
information for the research;
• catches readers’ attention and stimulates their interest through the use
of a “narrative hook of sufficient generality” (p. 103)
• establishes a framework for the research;
• shows the issue or concern leading to the research
• encourages readers to continue reading
• may begin with a personal statement of experiences from the author
(phenomenological studies) (p. 99)
• may be written from a personal, first person, subjective point of view in
which the researcher positions herself or himself in the narrative (p. 99)

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 Recall:
Introduction
(Marshall & Rossman, 1999: 24)

• Overview
• Topic and purpose
• Potential significance
• Framework and general research questions
• Limitations

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 Introduction:
Overview
(Marshall & Rossman, 1999:24-25)
• introduces the topic or problem, the purpose of study, the general
research questions and design of the study
• must be engaging
• provides a snapshot (a “hologram”) of what to expect
• the topic or problem is introduced then given a practical, political
(policy implications), social and theoretical significance
• presents the theoretical framework and outlines related research
to be discussed
• notes the design of the study
• gives the transition to the succeeding parts of the study (i.e., the
topic, significance and the research questions

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 Introduction:
The Topic
(Marshall & Rossman, 1999:25-26)

• may come from real-world observations

• can emerge from the interplay among
personal experience, theory, political
commitments (and advocacies), interests,
practice and growing scholarly interests

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 Deficiencies model of
an Introduction
(Cresswell, 2009: 100)

• The research problem

• Studies that have addressed the problem
• Deficiencies in the studies
• The significance of the study for particular
audiences
• The purpose statement

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 The research problem

• is the problem or issue that leads to the

need for a study
• can originate from many potential sources
• may be introduced by asking a question or
by giving a narrative hook

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 Cresswell’s tips in writing the
introductory section of a proposal (2009,
p. 104)
• Write a stimulating opening sentence to which a broad audience can relate.
• Refrain from using quotations.
• Avoid using idiomatic expressions or trite phrases.
• Provide statistical figures for impact.
• Identify clearly the research problem.
• Cite numerous references that justify the need to study the problem. (at
least 12 citations)
• Frame the problem correctly. Purpose must be consistent with the chosen
research method.
• Include a single research problem or multiple research problems to convey
the need to write the particular research.

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 Next section under the Introduction:
Studies that have addressed
the problem (Cresswell, 2009: 104)
• Note, this part is not the review of related
literature.
• This section summarizes large groups of
studies included in your proposal. (a summary
of the broad categories in your RRL)
• This part is written to make sure that the
researcher does not repeat exactly what
someone else has studied.

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 Tips in writing the Review in the
Introductory chapter
(Cresswell, 2009: 105)
• Refer to the Review of Related Literature and summarize
the groups of studies. Establish broad areas of research.
• Place the in-text references at the end of a paragraph or
a summary.
• Review research studies that employed qualitative,
quantitative or mixed methods approaches.
• Find recent literature to summarize, preferably, those
published within the past ten years. Cite older studies if
they are valuable because they have been widely
referenced by others.

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 Introduction:
Deficiencies in the studies
(Cresswell, 2009: 106)
This section
• contains deficiencies in past literature.
• discusses topics that have not been explored, new
samples of study or new sites for study to test the
theory; explores the voice of the underrepresented
• cites how planned study will remedy or address these
deficiencies
• uses phrases such as: “what remains to be explored”,
“little empirical research”, “very few studies”

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 Example of Studies and
their Deficiencies
“For this reason, the meaning of war and
peace has been explored extensively by
social scientists (Cooper, 1965; Alvik, 1968;
Rosell, 1968; Svancarova & Svancarova,
1967-1968; Haavedstrud, 1970). What remains
to be explored, however, is how veterans of past
wars react to vivid scenes of a new war.” (Ziller
quoted in Cresswell, 2009: 106)

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 Tips in writing deficiencies
(Cresswell, 2009: 107)
• Cite several deficiencies to make the case even
stronger for a study.
• Identify specifically the deficiencies of other studies
(e.g., methodological flaws, variables overlooked).
• Mention areas overlooked by past studies, including
topics, special statistical treatments, significant
implications, etc.
• Discuss how the proposed study will address or
remedy said deficiencies; express how the study will
contribute to the literature

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 Introduction:
Significance
(Cresswell, 2009: 107-108)
• This section creates a clear rationale for the
importance of the study.
Tips in writing the significance:
‣ Cite 3 or 4 reasons that the study adds to the
scholarly literature in the field.

‣ Add 3 or 4 more reasons about how the study

helps improve practice

‣ Include 3 or 4 more reasons as to why the study

will improve policy

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 Purpose of Study
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 33)
General Research
Purpose of the Study
Questions
Exploratory:
To investigate little-understood
What is happening in this social program?
phenomena
What are the salient themes, patterns, or
To identify or discover important
categories of meaning for participants?
categories of meaning
How are these patterns linked with one
To generate hypotheses for further
another?
research

Monday, March 6, 2017

 Purpose of Study
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 33)
General Research
Purpose of the Study
Questions
Explanatory:
What events, beliefs, attitudes, or policies
To explain the patterns related to the
shape this phenomenon?
phenomenon in question

To identify plausible relationships shaping How do these forces interact to result in

the phenomenon?
the phenomenon

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 Purpose of Study
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 33)
Purpose of the Study
Descriptive:
To document and describe the
phenomenon of interest
General Research
Questions
What are the salient actions, events,
beliefs, attitudes, and social structures
and processes occurring in this
phenomenon?

Monday, March 6, 2017

 Purpose of Study
(Marshall and Rossman, 1999: 33)
General Research
Purpose of the Study
Questions

Emancipatory:

To create opportunities and the will to How do participants problematize their

engage in social action circumstances and take positive social
action?

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 Tips in writing the research question
(Cresswell, 2009: 130)
• Begin the research question with what or how. Try to avoid “why”
because it implies causality.
• Focus on a single phenomenon or concept.
• Use these exploratory verbs: discover (grounded theory), seek to
understand (ethnography), explore a process (case study), describe the
experiences (phenomenology), report the stories (narrative research)
• Avoid these explanatory, directional verbs, such as, “affect”, “influence,”
“impact”, “determine”, “cause” and “relate”
• Expect the research question to evolve and change in the duration of the
research.
• Use open-ended questions.
• Specify the participants and research site in the study.

Monday, March 6, 2017