Unit one- introduction to scientific method research

Introduction to research - Meaning, concepts and definitions

The word research is derived from the French word, recherché, which is from the old French
word, recerhier, which simply means “to investigate thoroughly”. In this case, it means the
search for knowledge again and again.

Basically, research is fact finding. It is enquiry that utilizes the scientific method to study a
phenomenon, situation or society.

Research is knowledge that can be explained or verified through some procedure. For one to
engage in any research, the expected outcome of the research must be important otherwise
there will be no need for the research. Consequently, all research activities start from problems
that require solutions. This may sometime originate from an idea, a puzzle or simply the wish to
explore our knowledge about simple issues, phenomena, situations or societies.

The word research is composed of two syllables, re and search. The dictionary defines the
former as a prefix meaning again, a new or over again and the latter as a verb, meaning to
examine closely and carefully, to test and try, or to probe. Together they form a noun
describing a careful, systematic, patient study and investigation in some field of knowledge,
undertaken to establish facts or principles (Grinnell 1993).

The simplest meaning of research is to search for facts, answers to research question and
solution for the problem.

Thus, the term research refers to the systematic method consisting of enunciating the problem,
formulating a hypothesis, collecting the facts or data, analyzing the facts and reaching certain
conclusions either in the form of solution (s) towards the concerned problem or in certain
generalizations for some theoretical formulation.

So in general, research = Re + Search

‘Re’ means again and again and ‘Search’ means to find out something, the following is the
process:
 Observes collection of data
Person --------------------- phenomena ---------------------------- conclusion.
Again and again Analysis of data

Therefore, research means to observe the phenomena again and again from different
dimensions.

For example, there are many theories of learning due to the observation from different
dimensions. The research is a process of which a person observes the phenomena again and
again and collects the data and on the basis of data he draws some conclusions. Research is
oriented towards the discovery of relationship that exists among phenomena of the world in
which we live. The fundamental assumption is that invariant relationship exists between certain
antecedents and certain consequents so that under a specific set of conditions a certain
consequent can be expected to follow the introduction of a given antecedent.

So from the above mentioned meaning of research, we can give different interpretation of
research as-

 Searching again (re+ search)

 Scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic
 Careful investigation or inquiry for new facts in any branch of knowledge
 Systematized effort to gain new knowledge
 Manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing/
extending/ correcting/ verifying knowledge
 Activity engaged in intellectual pursuits of discovering something new and
meaningful.

Hence in conclusion we can summarize research as-

Research is:
 What:
 The process of new knowledge creation
 Why:
 To bridge the gap between the existing and the required knowledge or for
problem solving.
 How:
 Through a structured and sequential method of enquiry, directed towards a
clear objective.
 Development of Applications
generalizations, Solution of rigorous
Observable
principles or of a analysis
Careful experiences
theories problem
designed or empirical
procedure evidence
s
Objective
Expertise and Research and logical
finance

Careful Accurate observation

recording and Requires
and description Gathering data
reporting Non courage
repetitive from first hand

Some definitions of research-

Some of the definitions of research in literature are given below which can help you to
understand proper meaning and concept of research.

Encyclopedia of Social Science defines research as, “the manipulation of generalizing to extend,
connect or verify knowledge…” Manipulation incorporates experimentation adopted for the
purpose of arriving at generalization.

Kerlinger (1973) defines research as a “systematic, controlled, empirical and critical

investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relationship about various
phenomena.”

Burns (1994) also defines research as ‘a systematic investigation to find answers to a problem’

P.M Cook outlines research as an honest, exhaustive, intelligent searching for facts and their
meanings or implications, with reference to a problem. He sees the word ‘Research’ as an
acronym, each letter of the word, standing for a particular aspect as given below:

R = Rational way of thinking

E = Expert and Exhaustive treatment
S = Search and solution
E = Exactness
A = Analysis
R = Relationship of facts
C = Critical observation, Careful planning, Constructive attitude and
Condensed generalization
H = Honesty and Hard working

CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

The criteria for good research are as follows:

1. Purpose of research should be clearly defined and common concepts that are used
should be operationally defined.

2. The research procedure should be precisely planned, focused and appropriately

described in order to enable other researcher to do research for further advancement.

3. Research design should be carefully planned to generate results to maintained

objectivity.

4. The research report should be as much as possible frank enough to gauge effects of the
findings.

5. Data analysis in the research report should be adequate to reveal its significance and
the method of analysis employed be appropriate and

6. Validity and reliability of data should be examined carefully.

PURPOSE/AIM/OBJECTIVES OF GOOD RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answers to questions through the application of scientific
procedures. The main aim of research is to find out the truth which is hidden and which has not
been discovered as yet. Though each research study has its own specific purpose, we may think
of research objectives as falling into a number of following broad groupings:
 Research helps to determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else (studies with this object in view are
known as diagnostic research studies)’
 Research aims test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such
studies are known as hypothesis- testing research studies/experimental studies).
 Research extends knowledge of human beings social life and environment.
 Research reveals the mysteries of nature.
  Research establishes generalizations and general laws and contributes to theory
building in various fields of knowledge.
 Research verifies and tests existing facts and theory.
 Research helps us to improve our knowledge and ability to handle situation.
 General laws developed through research may enable us to make reliable
predictions of events.
 Research aims to analyze inter-relationship between variables and to derive
causal explanations, which help us to better understanding of the world in which
we live.
 Research aims to finding solutions to the problem, e.g.: - socio-economic
problems, health problems, organizational and human relational problems and
so on…
 Research also aims at developing new tools, concepts and theories for better
understanding to unknown phenomena.
 Research helps national planning board to focus our national development. It
enables the planners to evaluate alternative strategies, on-going programs and
evaluation etc.,
 Research provides functional data for rational decision making and formulation
of strategies and policies.

Thus, research is the fountain of knowledge for the sake of knowledge and an important source
of providing guidelines for solving different business, personal, profession governmental and
social problems. It is a sort of formal training which enables one to understand the new
developments in one’s field in a better way.

GOALS / OBJECTIVES OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Every science has goals. In physics, the goals are concerned with learning how the physical
world works. In astronomy, the goals are to chart the universe and understand both how it
came to be and what it is becoming.

The goals of psychologist conducting basic research are to

1. Describe behavior
2. Explain behavior
3. predict behavior
4. control behavior
5. The applied psychologist has a fifth goal also, that is application of psychological
techniques and principles to improve the quality of human life.

Most applied psychologist is able to conduct their own basic research, scientifically studying
particular problem in order to solve them. The process of accomplishing one goal and moving
on to the next is ideally a natural, flowing, experience, energized, by the psychologist’s interest
in the question being studied.
Let us describe the objectives in details

1. Description: What is happening?

The first step in understanding anything is to give it a name. Description involves

observing a behavior and noting everything about it, as for example, what is happening,
where it happens, to whom it happens, and under what circumstances it happens.

For example, a teacher might notice that a young girl in second grade classroom is not
behaving properly. She’s not turning in her homework, her grades are slipping badly,
and she seems to have a very negative attitude toward school. The teacher here
describes the student’s behavior, and this description of what she is doing gives a
starting place for the next goal: why is she doing it?
2. Explanation: Why is it happening?

To find out why the girl is not behaving properly, the teacher would most likely ask the
school counselor to administer some tests. Her parents might be asked to take her to a
pediatrician to make sure that there is no physical illness, such as an allergy. They might
also take here to a psychologist to be assessed. In other words, the teacher and others
are looking for an explanation for the young girl’s behavior.

Finding explanation for behavior is a very important step in the process of forming
theories of behavior. A theory is a general explanation of a set of observations or facts.
The goal of description provides the observations, and the goal of explanation helps to
build the theory.

If all the tests seem to indicate that the young girl has a learning problem, such as
dyslexia (an inability to read at expected levels for a particular age and degree of
intelligence), the next step would be trying to predict what is likely to happen if the
situation stays the same.

3. Prediction: When will it happen Again?

Determining what will happen in the future is a prediction. In the example, the
psychologist or counselor would predict (based on previous research into similar
situations), that this little girl will probably continue to do poorly in her schoolwork and
may never be able to reach her full learning potential.

Clearly, something needs to be done to change this prediction, and that is the point of
the last of the four goals of psychology: changing or modifying behavior.

4. Control: How can it be changed?

 Control, or the modification of some behavior, has been somewhat controversial in the
past. Some people hear the word control and think it is brainwashing, but that is not the
focus of this goal.

The goal is to change a behavior from an undesirable one (such as failing in school) to a
desirable one (such as academic success). Such efforts also include attempts at
improving the quality of life.

In the example of the young girl, there are certain learning strategies that can be used
to help a child (or an adult) who has dyslexia. She can be helped to improve her reading
skills. (Aylward etal,2003; Shaywitz,1996). The psychologist and educators would work
together to find a training strategy that works best for this particular girl.

5. Application- Improving the quality of life

Psychological researches are often conducted to solve various problems faced by the
society at different levels such as individual, organization, or community. Psychological
applications to solve problems in diverse settings are like in a classroom, in a school, or
in an industry, or in a hospital, or even in a military establishment, demand professional
help. Applications in the health sector are remarkable. Because of these efforts quality
of life becomes a major concern for psychologists.

Not all psychological investigations will try to meet all five of these goals. In some cases,
the main focus might be on description and prediction, as it would be for a personality
theorist who wants to know what people are like (description) and what they might do
in certain situation (prediction).

Some psychologists are interested in both description and explanation, as is the case
with experimental psychologists who design research to find explanations for observed
(described) behavior. Therapists, of course, would be more interested in control,
although the other four goals would be important in getting to that goal.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN PSYCHOLOGY

Importance and relevance of psychological research is well recognized almost in every sphere
of human life. Notable progress has been reported in the field of organizational behavior,
applied aspects of human being, medical sciences and education, through application of
psychological research findings.

Empirical and theoretical researches in psychology are taking place in various fields, such as
learning, motivation, perception, concept learning and memory and so on. In the quest of
psychological facts, laws and theories, psychologists have found research studies very helpful in
gauging human and animal behavior.
Practical gains of psychological research are many, yet include discoveries such as improved
methods of treating psychologically disordered people, better designs of vehicles to make them
easier and safe to use, and new ways of enhancing the performance and happiness of workers.

In psychological researches experimental methods are widely used. Therefore, nature of

majority of psychological researches is highly scientific. Psychological researches have
successfully led to control and manipulation of the variables associated with widely used
generic and comparative methods. Psychologists have developed such effective experimental
designs that that they have helped to isolate effect of other variables from independent
variables.

In psychological researches, rigorous scientific norms and statistical methods are applied in
collection, organization, description and analysis of the data. By turning psychological facts into
quantitative form, the nature of most of the psychological researches remains method oriented
(scientific).

NATURE OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Psychological research attempts to understand why people and animals behave as they do.
Psychologists usually define behavior as overt activities, such as eating, recalling stories, and so
on. What about covert psychological processes, such as thinking and feeling? Although
thoughts and feelings are not directly observable, they influence such aspects of behavior as
reaction time and blood pressure, which are often used to measure these covert processes.

Before we examine what researchers have found in the major areas of psychology, we need to
identify the ways psychologists gather data about behavior and mental processes. You may be a
daily consumer of mass media reports on research findings. Some of these are valuable, some
are worthless, and others are confusing and misleading. You will become a wiser consumer of
research-based conclusions as you develop your understanding of how psychological research is
conducted and why the scientific view of knowledge dictates such methods. Let us turn now
how psychologists know what they know.

Recall that psychology is the scientific study of behaviour and mental functioning of individuals.
It is scientific because it uses the principles and practices of the scientific method.

Empirical investigation in any field requires the use of the scientific method to observe,
measure, and experiment. Even if you never do any scientific research in your life, mastering
information on psychological research will be useful. You can improve your critical thinking
skills by learning how to ask the right questions about behaviour and how to evaluate the
answers you find.

Why do Psychologists do Research?

We have already mentioned the benefits of conducting research as a systematic way of
developing knowledge and theory for the profession and science of clinical psychology. There
are also a variety of personal reasons why clinical psychologists may wish to engage in research
(Milne, 1987). Some of the more common ones are:
1. Curiosity.
Research exists to answer questions: it must add something to knowledge at the
end; otherwise there is no point in doing it. For many researchers, this is an end
in itself: they want to make sense of the world and see research as a way of
doing so.
2. Personal pleasure.
Some psychologists do research purely for the intrinsic satisfaction. They may
enjoy the challenge of research, feel a need to maintain their intellectual
sharpness (especially in the middle or later stages of their career), value the
contact it brings with other colleagues, or simply see research as a break from
everyday routine. There is also the satisfaction of seeing one’s work in print and
of feeling one is shaping the development of one’s profession.
3. Professional and social change.
Ideally, research should not just lead to an accumulation of knowledge, but also
to some change in professional practice, or social or legal reforms. Karl Marx’s
epitaph puts this point forcefully: ‘‘Philosophers have interpreted the world, the
point, however, is to change it.’’ Many clinicians want to know which
interventions work and which do not, and to change their practice, or that of
their profession, accordingly. Others are disturbed by the manifest inequalities in
western societies, and want to make social or political changes that will alleviate
psychological distress (e.g., Joffe & Albee, 1981).
4. Competition between professions and theoretical orientations.
Similarly, some people may be drawn to research as a way of advancing their
professional field or favored theoretical orientation. Research is a way of
legitimizing existing professional practices and of developing new ones. A large
part of applied psychology’s claim to professional status is that its procedures
were legitimized by research. In marketing jargon, one of psychology’s ‘‘unique
selling points’’ is that its practitioners possess research expertise.
5. Individual career needs.
The career structure of one’s employing institution may dictate that in order to advance
up the hierarchy one must conduct research. There are research requirements for
clinical psychology students wanting to obtain a professional qualification, and a
 research track record may be required for appointment to senior positions in the
profession.
6. Institutional demands.
In service settings, there is often pressure from management to conduct evaluation or
other forms of applied research.
7. Research as avoidance.

There may also be negative reasons for conducting research, such as using research to
retreat from the stresses of personal contact with clients. Parry and Gowler (1983) look
at how psychologists’ involvement in research may be a strategy for coping with their
occupational stress (if it provides a justification for reducing large caseloads).

Concerns of psychological research

Psychological research focuses on four sets of concerns:

1. the stimulus events that cause a particular response to start, stop, or change in quality
of quantity;
2. the structure of behavior that links certain actions in predictable, orderly ways to other
actions;
3. the relationships between internal psychological processes or psychological
mechanisms and observable behavior patterns; and
4. The consequences that behavior has on the individual’s social and physical environment.

Researchers begin with the assumption of determinism, the idea that all events (physical,
mental and behavioral) result from specific causal factors. Researchers also assume that
behavior and mental processes follow set patterns of relationships that can be discovered and
revealed through research.

CHARACTERISTICS/ FEATURES OF RESEARCH

A. SPECIFIC CHARACTERISTIC/ FEATURES OF A GOOD RESEARCH

Good research possesses certain specific qualities which are as follows

 Good research is systematic: it means that research is structured according to

set of rules to follow certain steps in specified sequence. Systematic research
also invites creative thinking, and certainly avoids use of guessing and intuition
for arriving at the conclusion.
 Good research is empirical: it implies that any conclusion drawn is based upon
hardcore evidence gathered from information collected from real life
 experiences and observations. This provides a basis for external ability to
research results.
 Good research is valid and verifiable: Research involves precise observation and
accurate description. The researcher selects reliable and valid instruments to be
used in the collection of data and uses some statistical measures for accurate
description of the results obtained. Whatever you conclude on the basis of
finding is correct and can be verified by yourself and others.
 Good Research is logical: it suggests that research is guided by the rules of
reasoning and logical process of induction (general to specific) and deduction
(specific to general) that plays an important role in carrying out research. In fact,
logical reasoning makes research feasible and more meaningful in the context of
decision making.
 Good research develops theories and principles: which are very helpful in
accurate prediction regarding the variables under study. On the basis of the
sample observed and studied, the researcher makes sound generalizations
regarding the whole populations. Thus, research goes beyond immediate
situations, objects or groups being investigated by formulating a generalization
or theory about these factors.
 Research is replicable: the designs, procedures and results of scientific research
should be replicable so that any person other than the researcher himself may
assess their validity. Thus, one researcher may use or transit the results obtained
by another researcher. Thus, the procedures and results of the research are
replicable as well as transmittable.

CHARACTERISTICS OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

 In psychological researches experimental methods are widely used. Therefore,

nature of majority of psychological researches is highly scientific. Psychological
researches have successfully led to control and manipulation of the variables
associated with widely used generic and comparative methods. Psychologists
have developed such effective experimental designs that that they have helped
to isolate effect of other variables from independent variables.

 In psychological researches, rigorous scientific norms and statistical methods are

applied in collection, organization, description and analysis of the data. By
turning psychological facts into quantitative form, the nature of most of the
psychological researches remains method oriented [scientific].

Scientific research

Science aims at description, explanation and understanding of various objects or phenomena in

nature. Research is a special Endeavour, which involves systematic and critical investigation
towards increasing the stream of knowledge. Now it is easier to define scientific research.
We may define scientific research as a “systematic and critical investigation about the natural
phenomena to describe, explain and finally to understand the relations among them”.

Meaning and essentials of scientific method

Scientific method is a way in which one can test opinion, impressions or guess by examining
available evidences for and against them. So it is controlling lot of things and establishing stable
belief.

Essentials of scientific method are,

 Scientific method aims at discovering facts.
 It is itself corrective in nature.
 It is itself based on systematic doubts.
 Scientific theories are abstract in nature.

Scientific Method of research

It is obvious that it would be impossible to comprehend the nature and content of research
without an appreciation of method. The method used in scientific research is usually designated
as scientific method.

The scientific method of social research can be made clearer when it is described in terms of its
characteristics. The scientific research is based on objective observation, recording,
classification, generalization and verification. These are also defined as the steps of social
research.

Through these steps, scientific method brings about not only verifiability of the facts, but also it
lays the confidence in the validity of conclusions.

The major characteristics and steps of scientific method

The following are the five main steps /characteristics of scientific method.
1. Objective observation
2. Recording
3. Classification
4. Generalization
5. Verification

 Objective observation: The initial step in a scientific method is a minute, factual

and objective observation of subject matter. This objective observation is an
essential condition in scientific study. Without it no study can legitimately be
called scientific. The observations of scientist are impartial. Consequently, the
scientific method is inapplicable to any subject the study of which cannot be
objective.
  Recording. The second step is the accurate transcription of observation. In this
too, it is essential to be factual, minute, objective, and impartial.
 Classification. Third step, in the scientific method is the classification of the
collected data so that the scattered facts may form distinct patterns.
 Generalization. The fourth step, in the scientific method is the formulation of
general laws on the basis of the pattern of this classified data i.e. generalization.
 Verification – The generalization cannot be declared to be scientific unless they
are thus conclusively verified. That subject which does not admit of a similar
verification cannot be studied scientifically.

Now let us see the necessary qualities of this method. They are:
1. Factuality
2. Universality
3. validity
4. power of prediction
5. discovery of cause effect relation

 Factuality- The subject should be related to facts.

 Universality- Its laws should be universal.
 Validity- Its laws should be such that their validity can be verified.
 Power of prediction- The subject should be such that some prediction can be
based on its laws
 Discovery of cause effect relation-The subject should be such that it may be
possible to discover a valid cause- effect relation in its laws.

TYPES OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

The purpose of research is to discover answer to questions through application of scientific

procedures. Research always starts from a question like why, what, how etc, The nature of
questions varies the type research procedure and methods and procedure also varies. Research
may be classified crudely, according to its major intent or the method.

According to the intent, research may be classified as pure research (basic research), applied
research, exploratory research, descriptive study, action research etc,

According to the method of study, research may be classified as experimental research,

analytical study, historical research and survey.

The above classification is not a watertight demarcation. It is just a narration to understand the
different approaches to research. The different types of research are not sharply distinguishable
from one another. There may be overlapping between one type to other. However, they can be
categorized as below
Any classification of research into different types is inevitably arbitrary. However, researches
have been classified differently depending on the approach, the purpose and the nature of
research activity. Broadly speaking, research can be classified according to its aim, purpose and
method as follows:
1. Basic/ pure/ fundamental research,
2. Applied research,
3. Exploratory research,
4. Descriptive research,
5. Diagnostic research,
6. Evaluation studies,
7. Action research,
8. Experimental research,
9. Analytical study,
10. Survey, and
11. Historical study

The above classification is just an approach to differentiate the various aspects of research.
These different types do not indicate water-tight demarcations and are not clearly
distinguishable from each other. However, the outcome and quality of a research project
depends on the suitable choice of the type.

However, each type needs a different research design. We now, discuss the salient features of
these different types.

1. Basic Research/ fundamental/ pure research

Basic research is mainly concerned with generalization with the formulation of a theory. It is a
research concerning principles or laws or rules. It aims at the achievement of knowledge and
truth. Research studies concentrating on some natural phenomenon or relating to pure
mathematics are examples of this research. It aims at some theoretical conclusions. It may
verify the old theory or establish a new one. It tries to explain the cause and effect relationship
in social phenomena. It is essentially positive and not normative. That is, it explains the
phenomena as they are and not as they should be.

It is focused to collect knowledge without any intention to apply it. It is purely intellectual in
character. It is also known as pure or fundamental research. Intellectual curiosity is the only
motivational factor behind it. It is not necessarily problem oriented. It aims at extension of
knowledge. It may lead to either discovery of a new theory or refinement of an existing theory.
The development of various sciences owes much too pure research. The findings of pure
research enrich the store house of knowledge. Pure research lays the foundation for applied
research. The findings of pure research formed the basis for innumerable scientific and
technological inventions like steam engine, auto mobiles and telecommunication etc, which
have revolutionized and enriched our human life.
Basic research had many definitions, most of them unsatisfying in one way or another. It can
even authoritatively have been said that an adequate or operational definition of basic research
is not possible (Kidd-1959).

In many cases basic research is done to test theory to test relations among phenomena in order
to understand the phenomena, with little or to thought of application of the results to practical
problems (Kerlinger – 1972).

The best example is that to Michael Faraday. He said research in electricity, without knowing
that, it would be useful. He did continuous search to find out the truth or knowledge.
Researching knowledge is for knowledge sake only.

Contributions of basic Research

 Basic research brings solutions to many practical problems by developing principles.
 Basic research helps to find out the critical factors in practical problems.
 Basic research provides many alternative solutions and thus enables us to choose best
solutions.

2. Applied Research

Applied research is concerned with the solution of particular problems. It aims at finding a
solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an industrial organization. It is empirical
and practical. It is concerned with applied aspects of life. Research to identify social, economic
or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the marketing research are
examples of applied research.

Applied research is focused up on a real life problem requiring an action pr policy decision. It
tries to find out practical and immediate result. It is thus problem oriented and action directed.

According to Kerlinger (1979) applied research is research directed towards the solution of
specified practical problems. Julian Simon has pointed out that applied social sciences help in
making policy decision.

“Applied research methods are sometimes more sophisticated than any methods used in pure
research (touffers: 1950)

There is vast scope for applied research in the fields of technology, management, commerce,
economics and other social sciences. Innumerable problems are face in these areas.

They need empirical study for finding solutions. The immediate purpose of an applied research
is to find solutions to practical problems, it may incidentally contribute to the development of
theoretical knowledge by leading to the discovering of new facts or testing of a theory or to
conceptual clarity.
Contributions of Applied Research
 Applied research can contribute new facts. It uncovers new facts which enrich the
concerned body of knowledge.
 Applied research can put theory to the test. It offers an opportunity to test the validity
of existing theory.
 Applied research may aid in conceptual clarification. Many concepts are vague. E.g.
small farmer, social responsibility, social structure etc; Applied research aid conceptual
clarity.
 Applied research may integrate previously existing theories. A practical problem has
many facts. It cannot be solved by the application of abstract principles from a single
science.

The solution of a practical problem may require some integration of the theories and principles
of various disciplines.

Basic and Applied Research - Compared

The procedures and techniques utilized by basic and applied researchers do not differ
substantially. Both employ the scientific method to answer the questions at hand.

The scientific community is the primary consumer of basic research. The consumers of applied
research findings are practitioners such as teachers, counselors, and caseworkers, or decision
makers such as managers, committees, and officials. Often, someone other than the researcher
who conducted the study uses the results of applied research. This means that applied
researchers have an obligation to translate findings from scientific technical language into the
language of decision makers or practitioners.

The results of applied research are less likely to enter the public domain in publications. Results
may be available only to a small number of decision makers or practitioners, who decide
whether or how to put the research results into practice and who may or may not use the
results. Applied and basic researchers adopt different orientations toward research
methodology. Basic researchers emphasize high standards and try to conduct near-perfect
research. Applied researchers make more trade-offs. They may compromise scientific rigor to
get quick, usable results. Compromise is no excuse for sloppy research, however. Applied
researchers squeeze research into the constraints of an applied setting and balance rigor
against practical needs. Such balancing requires an in-depth knowledge of research and an
awareness of the consequences of compromising standards.

3. Exploratory research:

It is also called formulative study. Such a study is conducted to gain familiarity with a
phenomenon as it is a preliminary study of an unfamiliar problem. It is similar to a doctor’s
initial investigation of a patient, for getting some clues for identifying his ailment. Exploratory
research is ill structured and is usually in the form of a pilot study. It helps the researcher to
formulate a more precise research problem or to develop a hypothesis, or concentrate on
discovery of new ideals and insights.

In short, the purpose of an exploratory study may be:

i. To gather information for clarifying concepts,
ii. To develop familiarity with the problem,
iii. To generate new ideas, and
iv. To determine the feasibility of the study.

Exploratory research is necessary in social sciences as these sciences are relatively of recent
origin and there are only a few researches in them.

4. Descriptive Research:

It is a fact finding mission. The aim of these studies is to accurately lay down the characteristics
of any group, situation or individual. It is the simplest type of research, but is more specific than
exploratory study.

Descriptive study is possible in the case of:

i. Problems which are describable and not arguable. For example, philosophical or
other controversial issues are not suitable for descriptive research.
ii. The date should be amenable to an accurate, objective and if possible quantitative
analysis for reliability and significance.
iii. It should be possible to develop valid standards of comparison.
iv. It should lend itself to verifiable procedure of collection and analysis of data.

However, the study by itself does not deal with the testing of propositions or hypothesis.

5. Diagnostic Research:

It is similar to the descriptive study. But it is focused towards discovering the frequency with
which something occurs and to find out why does it occur. It aims at identifying the causes of a
problem or association of occurrence of a problem with something else and tries to obtain a
possible solution. Thus, it requires:

i. Prior knowledge of the problem.

ii. It must be thorough formulation.
iii. Clear cut definition of the population.
iv. Adequate method for collecting correct information.
v. Precise measurement of variables.
vi. Statistical analysis.
A diagnostic research involves large amount of work. It is guided by hypothesis and it is not
possible in areas where knowledge is not advanced enough to make a diagnosis of the given
situation.

6. Evaluation Studies:

It is a type of applied research. It is made for assessing the effectiveness of various planned or
implemented social or economic program (like family planning, adult literacy, mid-day meal for
students) or to assess the impact of developmental projects on the development of the area
(like irrigation projects, rural development projects, slum clearance).
Thus, its aim is:

i. To appraise the effect of any activity for its qualitative and quantitative
performance,
ii. To determine the conditions required for success of a program or activity,
iii. To assess the changes required over time, and
iv. To find the means to bring about these changes.

7. Experimental Research:

It tries to assess the effect of one particular variable or a set of variables on a phenomenon. It
aims at determining whether and in what manner variables are related to each other, i.e. it
tests a hypothesis of causal relationship between variables. There are various types of designs
available for an experimental study. These designs aim at using procedures which can reduce
bias and increase the reliability of results.

8. Survey:

Survey is a fact finding study. It is a method of research which involves collection of data
directly from the individuals (either from the entire group i.e. a sample). It requires planning by
experts in the field of surveys. It also needs careful analysis and then rational interpretation of
the findings.

The surveys may be conducted for various purposes:

i. Fact-finding surveys may have a descriptive purpose. They provide required
information to the Government, business houses, private bodies etc. on the various
subjects like expenditure patterns, market demand, etc.
ii. Many inquires are conducted to explain certain phenomenon. Such surveys test
hypothesis, to explain relationships between different variables, e.g. consumer
behavior or responses to certain stimuli, effect of changes in tax structure on
expenditure, income earning capacity, labor productivity etc. Such surveys are useful
for making predictions and for taking policy decisions.
iii. Surveys are also concluded to make spatial and/or temporal comparisons of
behavioral groups, economic status, demographic patterns etc.
The above mentioned purposes of the survey clearly indicate that a survey is a field study and it
is conducted in a natural setting.

It seeks direct responses from individuals. It can cover a large population and tackle various
problems. The study may be intensive or extensive. It covers a definite geographical area.

Surveys can be conducted on all aspects of human behavior. However, we can broadly divide
them into two categories namely, (1) Social, (2) Economic.

Survey method of conducting research is the most versatile of all methods of research. It is also
the only practical way to obtain detailed first hand information on different aspects of a given
topic.

It enables a researcher to draw generalizations about large population on the basis of a sample
study. Survey is also a useful instrument for verifying theories.

However, success of a survey depends on the willingness and co-operation of the respondents.
Results obtained from a survey are, therefore, subject to these response errors to consider
while judging the reliability or accuracy of the results obtained from
a survey.

9. Historical Research:

It is a study based on past records. It is based on the belief that the past contains the key to the
present and then present influences the future. This method is more often used in sociological
research. Historical study helps in tracing the evolution, growth and transformation of society.

The major limitation of this method is that it is difficult to judge the accuracy and reliability of
past data. If the data relates to very distant past period, it is difficult to perceive the significance
of such data. Apart from these limitations, verification of results is not possible in historical
studies.

Steps/ stages and procedures for conducting a scientific research

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being objective and gathering
a multitude of information for analysis so that the researcher can come to a conclusion. This
process is used in all research and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method.

Basically the goal of the research is to find the truth and to use a scientific method that results
in a reasonable and answers to a question. In the research process also consists of the series of
action and also the steps for conducting the research which is scientific. Therefore, there are
following stages of research process which are as follows:
1. Identification of the Problem The first step in the process is to identify a
problem or develop a research question. The research problem may be
something the agency identifies as a problem, some knowledge or information
that is needed by the agency, or the desire to identify a Recreation trend
nationally. The problem that the agency has identified is childhood obesity,
which is a local problem and concern within the community. This serves as the
focus of the study.
2. Review of Literature
The review of literature identifies the flaws or holes in previous research which
provides justification for the study. Literature review is also conducted in a given
subject area before a research question is identified. The review is a careful
examination of a body of literature pointing towards the answer to your research
question. Literature reviewed typically includes scholarly journals, authoritative
databases and primary sources. Sometimes it includes newspapers, magazines,
other books, films, and audio and video tapes, and secondary sources. Primary
sources are the origin of information under study, fundamental documents
relating to a particular subject or idea. These may be accessible as physical
publications, as publications in electronic databases, or on the internet.
Secondary sources are documents or recordings that relate to or discuss
information originally presented elsewhere. These may be accessible as physical
objects or electronically in databases or on the internet. So, the review of
literature is guided by the all good research and writing. Literature review is also
mechanized by which our research is viewed as a cumulative process. Therefore,
this makes the literature an integral part of the scientific process.
3. Formulating a Hypothesis
Now that the problem has been identified, the researcher must learn more
about the topic under investigation. To do this, the researcher must review the
literature related to the research problem. This step provides foundational
knowledge about the problem area. The review of literature also educates the
researcher about what studies have been conducted in the past, how these
studies were conducted, and the conclusions in the problem area. In the obesity
study, the review of literature enables the programmer to discover horrifying
statistics related to the long term effects of childhood obesity in terms of health
issues, death rates and projected medical costs. In addition, the programmer
finds several articles and information from the Centers for Disease Control and
Prevention that describe the benefits of walking 10,000 steps a day. The
information discovered during this step helps the programmer fully understand
the magnitude of the problem, recognize the future consequences of obesity
and identify a strategy to combat obesity (i.e., walking).
4. Identifying, Manipulating and Controlling Variables
Many times the initial problem identified in the first step of the process is too
large or broad in scope. In step 3 of the process, the researcher clarifies the
problem and narrows the scope of the study. This can only be done after the
 literature has been reviewed. The knowledge gained through the review of
literature guides the researcher in clarifying and narrowing the research project.
In the example, the programmer has identified childhood obesity as the problem
and the purpose of the study. This topic is very broad and could be studied based
on genetics, family environment, diet, exercise, self-confidence, leisure activities,
or health issues. All of these areas cannot be investigated in a single study;
therefore, the problem and purpose of the study must be more clearly defined.
The programmer has decided that the purpose of the study is to determine if
walking 10,000 steps a day for three days a week will improve the individual’s
health. This purpose is more narrowly focused and researchable than the original
problem.
6. Formulating a Research Design
Terms and concepts are words or phrases used in the purpose statement of the
study or the description of the study. These items need to be specifically defined as
they apply to the study. Terms or concepts often have different definitions
depending on who is reading the study. To minimize confusion about what the terms
and phrases mean, the researcher must specifically define them for the study. In the
obesity study, the concept of “individual’s health” can be defined in hundreds of
ways, such as physical, mental, emotional, or spiritual health. For this study, the
individual’s health is defined as physical health. The concept of physical health may
also be defined and measured in many ways. In this case, the programmer decides
to more narrowly define “individual health” to refer to the areas of weight,
percentage of body fat and cholesterol. By defining the terms or concepts more
narrowly, the scope of the study is more manageable for the programmer, making it
easier to collect the necessary data for the study. This also makes the concepts more
understandable to the reader.
7. Constructing Devices for Observation and Measurement
The plan for the study is referred to as the instrumentation plan. The
instrumentation plan serves as the road map for the entire study, specifying who will
participate in the study; how, when, and where data will be collected; and the
content of the program. In the obesity study, the researcher has decided to have the
children participate in a walking program for six months. The group of participants is
called the sample, which is a smaller group selected from the population specified
for the study. The study cannot possibly include every 10- to 12-year-old child in the
community, so a smaller group is used to represent the population. The researcher
develops the plan for the walking program, indicating what data will be collected,
when and how the data will be collected, who will collect the data, and how the data
will be analyzed. The instrumentation plan specifies all the steps that must be
completed for the study. This ensures that the programmer has carefully thought
through all these decisions and that she provides a step-by-step plan to be followed
in the study.
8. Sample Selection and Data Collection
Once the instrumentation plan is completed, the actual study begins with the
collection of data. The collection of data is a critical step in providing the information
 needed to answer the research question. Every study includes the collection of some
type of data whether it is from the literature or from subjects-to answer the
research question. Data can be collected in the form of words on a survey, with a
questionnaire, through observations, or from the literature. In the obesity study, the
programmers will be collecting data on the defined variables: weight, percentage of
body fat, cholesterol levels, and the number of days the person walked a total of
10,000 steps during the class. The researcher collects these data at the first session
and at the last session of the program. These two sets of data are necessary to
determine the effect of the walking program on weight, body fat, and cholesterol
level. Once the data are collected on the variables, the researcher is ready to move
to the final step of the process, which is the data analysis.
9. Data Analysis and Interpretation
The researcher finally has data to analyze so that the research question can be
answered. In the instrumentation plan, the researcher specified how the data will be
analyzed. The researcher now analyzes the data according to the plan. The results of
this analysis are then reviewed and summarized in a manner directly related to the
research questions. In the obesity study, the researcher compares the
measurements of weight, percentage of body fat and cholesterol that were taken at
the first meeting of the subjects to the measurements of the same variables at the
final program session. These two sets of data will be analyzed to determine if there
was a difference between the first measurement and the second measurement for
each individual in the program.
UNIT 2- Basic concept in scientific research

A. CONCEPTS
A concept (or construct) is a generalized idea about a class of objects, attributes,
occurrences, or processes that has been given a name. Such names are created or
developed or constructed for the identification of the phenomenon, be it physical or
non-physical. All these may be considered as empirical realities e.g. leadership,
productivity, morale, motivation, inflation, happiness, banana. Concepts are the building
block of a theory. Concepts abstract reality. That is, concepts are expressed in words,
letters, signs, and symbols that refer to various events or objects.

For example, the concept “asset” is an abstract term that may, in the concrete world of
reality, refer to a specific punch press machine. Concepts, however, may vary in degree
of abstraction and we can put them in a ladder of abstraction, indicating different levels.

Moving up the ladder of abstraction, the basic concept becomes more abstract, wider
in scope, and less amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher operates at two
levels: on the abstract level of concepts (and propositions) and on the empirical level of
variables (and hypotheses). At the empirical level we “experience” reality – that is we
observe the objects or events. In this example the reality has been given a name i.e.
banana. Moving up the ladder this reality falls in wider reality i.e. fruit, which in turn
becomes part of further wider reality called as vegetation.

Researchers are concerned with the observable world, or what we may call as “reality.”
We try to construct names to such empirical reality for its identification, which may
refer to as concept at an abstract level.

Theorists translate their conceptualization of reality into abstract ideas. Thus theory
deals with abstraction. Things are not the essence of theory; ideas are. Concepts in
isolation are not theories. Only when we explain how concepts relate to other concepts
we begin to construct theories.

Concepts are basic elements of scientific method but by and large all concepts are
abstractions and represent only certain aspects of reality. In the words of P.V.Young
“Each new class of data, isolated from other classes on the other basis of definite
characteristics, is given name, a label in short hand concept. A concept is in reality a
definition in short hand of a class or group of facts”.
Things we observe are the observable realities, which could be physical or abstract. For
purposes of identification of reality, we try to give a name to it. By using the name, we
communicate with others and over time it becomes part of our language.

In other words, a concept is an idea expressed as a symbol or in words. Natural science

concepts are often expressed in symbolic forms. Most social science concepts are
expressed as words. Words, after all, are symbols too; they are symbols we learn with
language. Height is a concept with which all of you are familiar. In a sense, a language is
merely an agreement to represent ideas by sound or written characters that people
learned at some point in their lives. Learning concepts and theory is like learning
language.

Concepts are an Abstraction of Reality

Concepts are everywhere, and you use them all the time. Height is simple concept form
everyday experience. What does it mean? It is easy to use the concept of height, but
describing the concept itself is difficult. It represents an abstract idea about physical
reality, or an abstraction of reality. Height is a characteristic of physical objects, the
distance from top to bottom. All people, buildings, trees, mountains, books and so forth
have height. The word height refers to an abstract idea. We associate its sound and its
written form with that idea. There is nothing inherent in the sounds that make up the
word and the idea it represents. The connection is arbitrary, but it is still useful. People
can express the abstract idea to one another using these symbols.

In other words, concepts are the abstractions of reality – physical of non-physical like
table, leadership, productivity, and morale are all labels given to some phenomenon
(reality). The concepts stand for phenomenon not the phenomenon itself; hence it may
be called an abstraction of empirical reality.

Degree of Abstraction
Concepts vary in their level of abstraction. They are on a continuum from the most
concrete to the most abstract. Very concrete ones refer to straightforward physical
objects or familiar experiences (e.g. height, school, age, family income, or housing).
More abstract concepts refer to ideas that have a diffuse, indirect expression (e.g. family
dissolution, racism, political power)
The organization of concepts in sequence from the most concrete and individual to
the most general indicates the degree of abstraction. Moving up the ladder of
abstraction, the basic concept becomes more abstract, wider in scope, and less
 amenable to measurement. The scientific researcher operates at two levels of concepts
(and propositions) and on the empirical level of variables. At the empirical level we
experience reality – that is we observe objects or events.

Categories of Concept

Concepts are divided into two categories i.e.

1. Concepts by postulation and
2. Concept by intuition.

The concepts following in the first category have meaning except from the specific
theory; When these concepts are used in two different theories these communicate
two different meanings, sometimes even different and opposite from each other on
the other hand concept by intuition devotes something which is immediately
apprehended. The meaning of these concepts is constant whoever uses it. Both the
categories of concepts have equal importance and significance in social science
research.

Features of Good Concept

a. The concepts should be clear, definite and precise.

b. The concept should be comprehensive and clear in formation and understanding.
c. The concept should avoid multiple meaning and as far as possible should convey exactly
what was intended when the concept was coined.

Types of Concepts

a. Concrete concepts: - Symbolize material objects which can be seen, touched and fret.
eg. book, table
b. Abstract concepts refer to properties or characteristics of objects. eg. Weight, height

Characteristics of concepts

1. Concepts are symbols which we attach to the bundle of meanings we hold.

2. Concepts represent only one part of reality.
3. Different people hold different concepts of the same thing.
4. Concepts also represent various degree of abstraction.

A concept is thus an abstract symbol representing an object, a property of object, or a certain

phenomenon.
Sources of Concepts

Everyday culture is filled with concepts, but many of them have vague and unclear definitions.
Likewise, the values and experiences of people in a culture may limit everyday concepts.
Nevertheless, we borrow concepts from everyday culture; though these to be refined.

We create concepts from personal experiences, creative thought, or observation. The classical
theorist originated many concepts like family system, gender role, socialization, self-worth,
frustration, and displaced aggression. We also borrow concepts from sister disciplines.

Importance of Concepts

Social science concepts form a specialized language, or jargon. Specialists use jargon as a short
hand way to communicate with one another. Most fields have their own jargon. Physicians,
lawyers, engineers, accountants, plumbers, and auto mechanics all have specialized languages.
They use their jargon to refer to the ideas and objects with which they work. Special problems
grow out of the need for concept precision and inventiveness. Vague meanings attached to a
concept create problems of measurement.

Therefore, not only the construction of concepts is necessary but also these should be precise
and the researchers should have some agreement to its meaning. Identification of concepts is
necessary because we use concepts in hypothesis formulation. Here too one of the
characteristics of a good hypothesis is that it should be conceptually clear.

The success of research hinges on

 How clearly we conceptualize and

 How well others understand the concept we use.

B. Problem (Research Problem)

The problems lie everywhere around us. They even lie at our door step and in our
backyards. Human nature is so complicated, that a problem solved for one individual
may still exist for another individual, a problem solved for one class/ school/teacher/
situation/ system/time etc., still remains a problem for another class/ school/ teacher/
situation/system/time or a problem solved for the time being may reappear with a lapse
of time. We become habitual of living in the age of problems i.e. we are so much
surrounded by the problem that we suffer from,” problem blindness”. But in order to
solve the problem or making research we need to delimit the problem.
 Selection of problem is not the first step in research but identification of the problem is
the first step in research. Selection of problem is governed by reflective thinking. It is
wrong to think that identification of a problem means to select a topic of a research or
statement of the problem.

A topic or statement of the problem and research problem are not the synonyms but
they are inclusive. The problem concerns with the functioning of the broader area of
field studied, whereas a topic or title or statement of the problem is the verbal
statement of the problem. The topic is the definition of the problem which delimits or
pin points the task of a researcher.

It is the usual practice of the researcher that they select the topic of the study from
different sources especially from research abstracts. They do not identify the problem,
but a problem is made on the basis of the topic. It results that they have no active
involvement in their research activities, whatever, they do, do mechanically.

Definitions of the Problem:

The obstacles which hinder our path are regarded as problem. Different definitions of the
problem are given below;
1. “Problem is the obstacle in the path of satisfying our needs.” -John Geoffery
2. “Problem is a question which is to be solved.” - John. G. Tornsand
3. “To define a problem means to put a fence around it, to separate it by careful
distinctions from like questions found in related situations of need.” -Whitney
4. “A problem is a question proposed for a solution generally speaking a problem exists
when there is a no available answer to same question.” -J.C. Townsend
5. “A problem is an interrogative sentence or statement that asks: What relation exists
between two or more variables?” -F.N. Kerlinger
6. “To define a problem means to specify it in detail and with precision each question and
subordinate question to be answered is to be specified, the limits of the investigation
must be determined. Frequently, it is necessary to review previous studies in order to
determine just what is to be done. Sometimes it is necessary to formulate the point of
view or educational theory on which the investigation is to be based. If certain
assumptions are made, they must be explicitly noted.” -Monero and Engelhart
7. ‘A solvable problem is one that posses a question that can be answered with the use of
man’s normal capacities’.- McGuigan (1964)

Identification of a Research Problem:

The following steps are to be followed in identifying a research problem;

1. Determining the field of research in which a researcher is keen to do the research work.
2. The researcher should develop the mastery on the area or it should be the field of his
Specialization.
3. He should review the research conducted in area to know the recent trend and studies
are being conducted in the area.
4. On the basis of review, he should consider the priority field of the study.
5. He should draw an analogy and insight in identifying a problem or employ his personal
experience of the field in locating the problem. He may take help of supervisor or expert
of the field.
6. He should pin point specific aspect of the problem which is to be investigated.

The Sources of the Problem:

I. The classroom, school, home, community and other agencies of education are
obvious sources.
II. Social developments and technological changes are constantly bringing forth new
problems and opportunities for research.
III. Record of previous research such specialized sources as the encyclopedias of
educational, research abstracts, research bulletins, research reports, journals of
researches, dissertations and many similar publications are rich sources of research
problems.
IV. Text book assignments, special assignments, reports and term papers will suggest
additional areas of needed research.
V. Discussions-Classroom discussions, seminars and exchange of ideas with faculty
members and fellow scholars and students will suggest many stimulating problems
to be solved, close professional relationships, academic discussions and constructive
academic climate are especially advantageous opportunities.
VI. Questioning attitude: A questioning attitude towards prevailing practices and
research oriented academic experience will effectively promote problem awareness.
VII. The most practical source of problem is to consult supervisor, experts of the field
and most experienced persons of the field. They may suggest most significant
problems of the area. He can discuss certain issues of the area to emerge a problem.

Although research problems should not be assigned or they should not be proposed
and allotted by a guide but consultation with the more experienced faculty member
or research worker is a desirable practice.
 One of the most important functions of the research guide is to help the student
clarify his thinking, achieve a sense of focus and develop a manageable problem
from one that may be vague and too complex.

Statement of Problem:

Kerlinger has identified following three criteria of good problem statements;

1. A problem should be concerned with relation between two or more variables.

2. It should be stated ‘clearly and unambiguously in question form’.
3. It should be amenable to empirical testing.

Meeting these criteria in his problem statement will result, in a clear and concise idea of what
the researcher wants to do. This sets the state for further planning.

Objectives of Assumptions about the Problem:

1. To make the research work feasible.

2. To delimit the scope of the problem.
3. To establish the proper frame of reference.

Aspects of Delimiting a Problem:

1. Delimited to certain variables that should be mentioned clearly in the problem.

2. Delimited to the area or level as primary level, secondary level, college or university
level.
3. Delimited to size of sample, considering the time, energy and money.
4. Delimited to the best method only.
5. Delimited to the best available tool for measuring the variable.
6. Delimited to the most appropriate techniques.
7. Other delimitations particular to a problem.

As the above delimitations help the researcher for conducting the study, the findings of studies
also confine to these delimitations.

Evaluation of the Problem:

When considering a problem, a researcher is required to ask himself a series of questions about
it. These are helpful in the evaluation of the problem on the basis of personal suitability of the
researcher and social value of the problem.

Following questions must be answered affirmatively before the study is under Taken:

1. Is the Problem Researchable?

2. Is the Problem New?
3. Is the Problem Significant?
4. Is the Problem Feasible for the Particular Researcher?

In order to be feasible, a problem should agree with the following:

a. Research competencies of the Researcher
b. Interest and enthusiasm of the Researcher
c. Financial consideration in the Project
d. Time requirement for the Project
Characteristics of a Scientific Problem

After analyzing above written definitions of a problem statement, it can be said there are
certain characteristics of a problem statement:
i. A problem statement is written clearly and unambiguously, usually in question
form.

A few examples of problem statement are given below:

a. What is the relationship between IQ and class-room achievement?
b. What is the relationship between anxiety and adjustment among school going children?
c. Do students learn more from a lecture method than from discussion method?

ii. A problem expresses the relationship between two or more than two variables.

This kind of problem permits the investigator to manipulate two or more than two
variables to examine the effects upon the other variables. For example: Do teacher
reinforcement cause improvement in student performance? In this example, one
variable is teacher reinforcement and the other variable is student performance. It
illustrates the problem found in a scientific study because the problem statement
explores the effect of teacher’s reinforcements on student performance.

The conditions for a problem statement are:

a. The problem should be testable by empirical methods
b. A problem statement should be solvable.
c. The data of a scientific problem should be quantitative.
 d. The variable relating to the problem should be clear and definite.

Ways in which a Problem is Manifested

A problem is said to exist when we know enough that there is something we do not know
really.

There are at least three ways in which a problem is said to be manifested:

1. Gap in knowledge: A problem is manifested when there is a noticeable gap or absence
of information. Suppose a community or group intends to provide psychotherapeutic
services, two questions arise, viz.,
i. What kind of psychotherapy they should offer and
ii. Which one of the different forms of therapeutic methods is most effective for a
given type of mental disease?

In this example, there exists a noticeable gap in the knowledge, and hence the collection of
necessary data and their explanation are needed for filling the gap in knowledge.

2. Contradictory results: When several investigations done in the same field are not
consistent and therefore, at times, contradictory, a problem is to find out a new answer
and settle the controversy.

3. Explaining a Fact: Another way in which we become aware of a problem is when we are
in possession of a ‘fact’, and we ask ourselves, “Why is this so?” When the facts in any
field are found in terms of unexplained information, a problem is said to exist.

Identifying a Research Problem

The identification of a research problem may be accomplished in a variety of ways -

 observations of everyday life,

 thinking or brainstorming sessions
 theoretical predictions and explanations,
 technological developments which make new research possible
 Problems suggested in the research literature; or any combination of these methods.

Considerations in Selecting a Research Problem

When selecting a research problem/topic there are a number of considerations to keep in mind
these considerations are interest, magnitude, measurement and clarity about the concept,
level of expertise, relevance, availability of data and ethical issues. If you select a problem
without considering these issues it could become extremely difficult to sustain the required
motivation and interest, and hence its completion as well as the amount of time taken could be
affected.

The Importance of Formulating a Research Problem

The formulation of a research problem is the first and most important step of the research
process. It is like the identification of a destination before undertaking a journey. As in the
absence of a destination, it is impossible to identify the shortest route, so also in the absence of
a clear research problem, a clear and economical plan is impossible.

A research problem is like the foundation of a building. The type and design of the building is
dependent upon the foundation. If the foundation is well designed and strong you can expect
the building to be also strong and well designed. In the case of research, the research problem
serves as the foundation of a research study. If it is well formulated, you can expect a good
study to follow.

According to Kerlinger (1986), if one wants to solve a problem, one must generally know what
the problem is. It can be said that a large part of the problem lies in knowing what one is trying
to do.

You must have a clear idea with regard to what it is that you want to find out about and not
what you think you must find.

A research problem may take a number of forms, from the very simple to the very complex. The
way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows, that is
i. the type of study design that can be used,
ii. the type of sampling strategy that can be employed,
iii. the research instrument that can be used or developed
iv. And the type of analysis that can be undertaken.

The formulation to a problem is like the ‘input’ into a study, and the ‘output’ – the quality of
the contents of the research report and the validity of the associations or causation established
– is entirely dependent upon it. Hence the famous saying about computers – ‘garbage in,
garbage out’ – is equally applicable to a research problem.

C. Objectives

Once the problem, the theoretical background, and the concepts have been explained, it is time
to address the aim and objectives of the study. At this stage you are required to present the
aim and the objectives of the study in brief to justify your study in terms of both its rationale
and the implications that it might raise.
It is important to examine whether the researcher has raised very clearly the questions to
which he/she is looking for a solution. These questions should be explicit – the researcher
should categorically put down the questions on paper. This set of questions can be converted
into objectives. Objectives are the foundations of a research project. Eventually the objectives
guide the entire process of research.

The major attributes of well-written objectives are:

 Clarity of expression and direction

The objectives must have been stated clearly enough to indicate what the
researcher is trying to investigate. It is equally important to avoid overlaps in
stating objectives.
 Measurability
The objectives must be stated in a manner that they are measurable; in case of
qualitative research it should be possible to at least codify the data and
information so that assessment can be made whether the objectives have been
achieved or not.
 Comprehensiveness
The objectives provide the guiding framework for a research project. Hence, the
statement of objectives should be comprehensive enough to cover each and
every aspect of the research study. Stating differently, nothing should be outside
the purview of the stated objectives.
 Judiciousness
Another important attribute is the judiciousness in and justifiability of choosing and
stating objectives. For example, many young scholars, in their postgraduate
dissertations and doctoral theses mention “recommending future research” as one of
the objectives. In all fairness, this is not feasible. Similarly, in a short time-bound project,
a research objective that actually calls for sustained and long-term study becomes less
feasible.

Here it is important to note that rationale for doing the project will be accomplished
only if the study is done well. Preparing a proposal of your study will show that you have
devised a plan to study your problem that seems feasible, you reinforce the sense that
the aims and objectives of the study will be achieved. The value of the study lies not
only in what it alone will produce, but also in how it may add to or challenge other
research in the area.

D. HYPOTHESIS
Once the selection, formulation and definition of the problem have been
accomplished, the derivation of hypotheses is the most important step in the
research process. It is usually considered as the principal instrument in research.
The hypothesis is a powerful tool in research process to achieve dependable
knowledge. It helps the researcher to relate theory to observation and
observation to theory.
 When a researcher observes known facts and takes up a problem for analysis, he
first has to start somewhere and this point of starting is Hypothesis. In other
words, one has to proceed to formulate tentative solution. These purposed
solutions constitute the Hypothesis.

The collection of facts (data) will be fruitful if they are either for or against this
proposed solution. The tentative explanation or solutions are the very basis for
research process.

Definition

a. Goode and Hatt defined it as “a proposition which can be put to test to determined
validity”.
b. Rummel- “a hypothesis is a statement capable of being tested and there by verified or
rejected”.
c. “A hypothesis is a tentative generalization, the validity of which remains to be tested in
its most demeatary stage, the hypothesis may be a mere hunch guess imaginative data,
which becomes the basis s for action investigation” - George a Lundberg
d. “Any supposition which we make in order to endeavor to deduce conclusions in
accordance with facts which are known to be real under the idea that if the conclusions
to which the hypothesis leads are known truths, the hypothesis itself either must be or
at least likely to be true.” -J.S. Mill
e. “It is a shrewd guess or inference that is formulated and provisionally adopted to
explain observed facts or conditions and to guide in further investigation.” -John W.
Best
f. “A hypothesis is a statement temporarily accepted as true in the light of what is, at the
time, known about a phenomenon, and it is employed as a basis for action in the search
for new, truth, when the hypothesis is fully established, it may take the form of facts,
principles and theories.” -Barr and Scates
g. “Hypothesis is an assumption whose testability is to be tested on the basis of the
compatibility of its implications with empirical evidence and previous knowledge.”
-Gorge J. Mouly

Characteristics of a Good hypothesis

What is a good hypothesis? What are the criteria of for judging it?

To fulfill the answer of these questions, an acceptable hypothesis should fulfill certain
conditions.

1. Conceptual Clarity
 A hypothesis should be conceptually clear. It should consist of clearly defined and
understandable concepts
2. Specificity
A hypothesis should be specific and explain the expected relation b/w variables and the
conditions under which these relations will hold.
3. Testability
A hypothesis should be testable and should not be a moral judgment. It should be
possible to collect empirical evidences to test techniques.
4. Availability of techniques
Hypothesis should be related to available techniques. Otherwise they will not be
researchable therefore the research must make sure that methods are available for
testing his proposed hypothesis.
5. Consistency
Hypothesis should be logically consistent. The propositions derived should not be
contradictory
6. Objectivity
Scientific hypothesis should be free from value judgment. The researcher system of
values has n o placing Research.
7. Simplicity
A hypothesis should be as simple as possible. Simplicity demands insight. The more
insight the researcher has into a problem, the simpler will be his hypothesis.

Types of Hypothesis

1. Descriptive Hypothesis
These are propositions; they described the characteristics of a variable. The variable
may be an object, person, organization, situation or event. For ex. “The rate of
unemployment among arts graduates is higher than that of commerce graduates”.
2. Relational Hypothesis
These are propositions which describe the relationship between two variables. The
relation suggested many be positive or negative for ex. ‘Families with higher income
spent more for recreation’. ‘Upper class people have more children than lower class
people’.
3. Causal Hypothesis
Causal Hypothesis states that the existence of, or a change in, one variable causes for
leads to an effect on other variable. The 1st variables are called independent variable
later the dependent variable.
4. Common Sense Hypothesis
 These represent the commonsense ideas. They state the existence of empirical
uniformities received through day to day observations.
5. Question form:

A hypothesis stated as a question represents the simplest level of empirical observation.

It fails to fit most definitions of hypothesis. It frequently appears in the list. There are
cases of simple investigation which can be adequately implemented by raising a
question, rather than dichotomizing the hypothesis forms into acceptable / reject able
categories.
6. Non –Directional Hypothesis or Null Hypothesis:
This hypothesis is stated in the null form which is an assertion that no relationship or no
difference exists between or among the variables. Null hypothesis is a statistical
hypothesis testable within the framework of probability theory. It is a non-directional
form of hypothesis.

There is a trend to employ or develop null hypothesis in research in most of the

disciplines. A null hypothesis tentatively states that on the basis of evidence tested
there is no difference. If the null hypothesis is rejected, there is a difference but we do
not know the alternative or the differences. In this the researcher has not to anticipate
or give the rational for the declaration or directional form. It does not make researcher
biased or prejudiced. He may be objective about the expected outcomes of the research
or findings.

Actually this is a statistical hypothesis which is self- explanatory. Null hypothesis means
zero hypotheses. A researcher has not to do anything in developing it while research
hypothesis is second step in the process of reflective thinking.

A null hypothesis in an appropriate form is order to accommodate the object of inquiry

for extracting this information. It does not necessarily reflect the expectations of the
researcher so much as the utility of the null form as the best fitted to the logic of chance
in statistical knowledge or science.

It is the no difference form, i.e. there is no difference or relationship between or among

variables under certain conditions.

Statistical tests of significance are used to accept and reject the null hypothesis. If it is
rejected, the general hypothesis is accepted.
 Non-directional hypothesis is known as null hypothesis because it ‘nullifies’ the positive
argument of the findings or non-directional statement of the generalization. It is also
termed as statistical or zero hypothesis because it denies the existence of any
systematic principles apart from the effect of chance. It assumes that none or zero
difference exists between the two population means or the treatments.

Null means ‘Zero’ when a hypothesis is stated negatively. It is called Null Hypothesis.
The object of this hypothesis is to avoid the personal bias of the investigator. In the
matter of collection of data, a null hypothesis is used to collect additional support for
the known hypothesis.

7. Directional Hypothesis:
A directional hypothesis connotes an expected direction in the relationship or difference
between variables. This type of hypothesis developer appears more certain of
anticipated evidence. If seeking a tenable hypothesis is the general interest of the
researcher, this hypothesis is less safe than the others because it reveals two possible
conditions. First that the problem of seeking relationship between variables is so
obvious that additional evidence is scarcely needed. Secondly, researcher has examined
the variables very thoroughly and the available evidence supports the statement of a
particular anticipated outcome.

8. False Hypothesis
A hypothesis which is bound to be unsatisfactory when verified is called a false
hypothesis.
9. Barren Hypothesis
A hypothesis from which no consequences can be deducted is called a Barren
Hypothesis. It is a hypothesis which cannot be tested scientifically.
E.g. the child fell ill because a wicked women’s eye felt upon it. This is a baseless
hypothesis because it cannot be verified.

1. Declarative hypothesis
A hypothesis developed as a declarative statement provides an anticipated relationship
or difference between variables. Such a hypothesis developer has examined existing
evidence which led him to believe that a difference may be anticipated as additional
evidence. It is merely a declaration of the independent variables effect on the criterion
variable.

Sources of Hypothesis
Hypothesis can be derived from various sources.

1. Theory
This is one of the main sources of hypothesis. It gives direction to research by stating
what is known. Logical deduction from theory leads to new hypothesis.
2. Observation
Hypothesis can be derived from observation. For example, from observation of price
behavior in a market the relationship b/w price and demand of an article can be
hypothesized.
3. Analogies
Analogies are other sources of hypothesis. Julian Hexley has pointed out that causal
observation in nature or in the framework of another science may be a fertile source of
Hypothesis.
4. Intuition and personal experiences
Intuition and personal experiences may also contribute to the formulation of
hypothesis. Personal life and experience of person determine their perception and
conception these may, in term direct a person to certain hypothesis more quickly. The
story Newton and falling apple, the flash of wisdom to Sree Buddha under Banyan tree
illustrate this accidental process
5. Findings and Studies
Hypothesis may be developed out of the findings of other studies in order to repeat the
test.
6. Culture
Another source of hypothesis is the culture in which the researcher is nurtured. For
example, social work as an academic discipline originated from western culture. Over
the past decade a large part of the hypothesis on American society examined by
researchers were connected with violence. Nepalese society is caste-ridden. It is riddled
with inequalities and privileges.

Formulation of Hypothesis
The word hypothesis consists of two words – Hypo+ Thesis. ‘Hypo’ means tentative or subject
to the verification. ‘Thesis’ means statement about solution of the problem. Thus the literal
meaning of the term hypothesis is a tentative statement about the solution of the problem.
Hypothesis offers a solution of the problem that is to be verified empirically and based on some
rationale. Again, ’hypo’ means the composition of two or more variables which are to be
verified and ‘thesis’ means position of these variables in the specific frame of reference.

A hypothesis is a tentative assumption drawn from knowledge and theory. It is used as a guide
in the investigation of other facts and theory that are as yet unknown. Its formulation is one of
the most difficult and most crucial steps in the entire scientific process. A poorly chosen or
poorly worded hypothesis can prevent the following:
1. The obtaining of enough pertinent data,
2. The drawing of conclusions and generalizations, and
3. The application of certain statistical measures in the analysis of the result.

Hypothesis is the central core of study that directs the selection of the data to be gathered, the
experimental design, the statistical analysis and the conclusions drawn from the study.

A study may be devoted to the testing of one major hypothesis, a number of subsidiary
hypothesis, or both major and subsidiary hypotheses. When several hypotheses are used, each
should be stated separately in order to anticipate the type of analysis required and in order to
definitely accept or reject each hypothesis on its own merit. Irrespective of number or type
used each hypothesis should be testable and based upon a logical foundation.

Difficulties in the Formulation of Useful Hypothesis:

Moving from the operational to the conceptual level and vice –versa is a critical ingredient of
the research to demonstration process. The following are the difficulties in the formulation of
hypothesis:

1. Absence of knowledge of a clear theoretical framework.

2. Lack of ability to make use of the theoretical framework logically.
3. Lack of acquaintance with available research technique resulting in failure to be able to
phrase the hypothesis properly.

Functions of Hypothesis:

H.H. Mc Ashan has mentioned the following functions of hypothesis-

a. It is a temporary solution of a problem concerning with some truth which enables an

investigator to start his research works.
b. It offers a basis in establishing the specifics what to study for and may provide possible
solutions to the problem.
c. It may lead to formulate another hypothesis.
d. A preliminary hypothesis may take the shape of final hypothesis.
 e. Each hypothesis provides the investigator with definite statement which may be
objectively tested and accepted or rejected and leads for interpreting results and
drawing conclusions that is related to original purpose.
f. It delimits field of the investigation.
g. It sensitizes the researcher so that he should work selectively, and have very realistic
approach to the problem.
h. It offers the simple means for collecting evidences for verification.

Importance of a Hypothesis:
1. Investigator’s eyes: Carter V. Good thinks that by guiding the investigator in further
investigation hypothesis serves as the investigator’s eyes in seeking answers to
tentatively adopted generalization.
2. Focuses research: Without hypothesis, a research is unfocussed research and remains
like a random empirical wandering. Hypothesis serves as necessary link between theory
and the investigation.
3. Clear and specific goals: A well thought out set of hypothesis places clear and specific
goals before the research worker and provides him with a basis for selecting sample and
research procedure to meet these goals.
4. Links together: According to Barr and Scates, “It serves the important function of
linking together related facts and information and organizing them into wholes.”
5. Prevents blind research: In the words of P.V. Young, ”The use of hypothesis prevents a
blind search and indiscriminate gathering of masses of data which may later prove
irrelevant to the problem under study."
6. Guiding Light: ”A hypothesis serves as powerful beacon that lights the way for the
research work.”
7. It provides direction to research and prevent the review of irrelevant literature and the
collection of useful or excess data.
8. It sensitizes the investigator certain aspects of situation which are irrelevant from the
standpoint of problem at hand.
9. It enables the investigator to understand with greater clarity his problem and its
ramification.
10. It is an indispensible research instrument, for it builds a bridge between the problem
and the location of empirical evidence that may solve the problem.
11. It provides the investigator with the most efficient instrument for exploring and
explaining the unknown facts.
12. It provides a frame work for drawing conclusion.
13. It stimulates the investigator for further research.
Fundamental Basis of Hypothesis:
The researcher deals with reality on two levels;
1. The Operational Level:
On the operational level researcher must define events in observable terms in order to
operate with the reality necessary to do researches.
2. The Conceptual Level:
On the conceptual level the researcher must define events in terms of underlying
communality with other events. Defining at a conceptual level, the researcher can
abstract from single specific to general instance and begin to understand how
phenomena operate and variables interrelate. The formulation of a hypothesis very
frequently requires going from an operational or concrete level to the conceptual or
abstract level. This movement to the conceptual level enables the result to be
generalized beyond the specific conditions of a particular study and thus to be of wider
applicability.

Research requires the ability to move from the operational to the conceptual level and
vice–versa. This ability is required not only in constructing experiments but in applying
their findings as well. The process of making conceptual contrasts between operational
programs is called conceptualization or dimensionalization.

E. VARIABLES AND TYPES OF VARIABLES

Variable is central idea in research. Simply defined, variable is a concept that varies. The
concrete observable events which represent the abstract concepts or constructs are called
variables. Variable is a concept which can take on different quantitative values.

A variable is defined as anything that varies or changes in value. Variables take on two or more
values. Because variable represents a quality that can exhibit differences in value, usually
magnitude or strength, it may be said that a variable generally is anything that may assume
different numerical or categorical values. Once you begin to look for them, you will see
variables everywhere.

For example; height, weight, income, age etc. The main focus of the scientific study is to analyze
the functional relationship of the variables. A variable is a quantity which can vary from one
individual to another. It is the quantity which can vary from person to person.

Likewise, gender can be another example of variable; it can take two values: male or female.
Marital status is a variable; it can take on values of never married, single, married, divorced, or
widowed. Family income is a variable; it can take on values from zero to billions of Rupees. A
person’s attitude toward women empowerment is variable; it can range from highly favorable
to highly unfavorable. In this way the variation can be in quantity, intensity, amount, or type;
the examples can be production units, absenteeism, gender, religion, motivation, grade, and
age. A variable may be situation specific; for example, gender is a variable but if in a particular
situation like a class of Research Methods if there are only female students, then in this
situation gender will not be considered as a variable.

Definition-

1. “Variable is a property that taken on different value”, - Kerlinger

It is any feature or aspect of an event, function or process that, by its presence and nature,
affects some other event or process, which is being studied.

Variables and Their Types

1. Continuous Variable:
It is that which can assume any numerical value within a specific range.
2. Discrete Variable:
A variable for which the individual values fall on the scale only with distinct gaps
is called a discrete variable.
3. Dependent Variable or Criterion variable:
If one variable depends or is a consequence of other, it is termed as dependent
variable. Criterion variable is the basis on which the effectiveness of the
experimental variable is studied.
Examples

Education suicide rate

(Independent) (Dependent)

Education Income

(Independent) (Dependent)

It is important to note that it is not always easy to pick which are the dependent variable and
the independent variable.
 Migration family instability

4. Independent Variable or Experimental Variable:

The variable that is antecedent to the dependent variable is termed as an
independent variable. The variable whose effect is going to be known is known
as experimental variable.
5. Controlled Variable:
The effectiveness of an experimental variable is examined by comparing with
other variable, known as controlled variable.
6. Confounding Variable:
Those aspects of study or sample, that might influence the dependent variable
(outcome measures), and whose effect may be confused with the effects of the
independent variable. They are of two types; Intervening and extraneous
variable.
7. Intervening Variable:
There are a number of abstract variables in psychological /social experiments
which is intervening on the effect of experimental or criterion variable. Such
variable is called intervening variable.

For controlling intervening variable appropriate research design should be

used. Intervening variables are hard if not impossible, to observe because
they usually have to do with an individual’s feelings like boredom, stress,
fatigue, excitement etc. Extraneous variable on the other hand, are more
readily observed or measured and thus are more easily controlled.
8. Extraneous Variable:
Independent variables that are not related to the purpose of the study, but
may affect the dependent variable are termed as extraneous variables.
Suppose the researcher wants to test the hypothesis that there is a
relationship between children’s gain in social studies achievement and their
self-concept. Here self-concept is independent variable and achievement in
social study is dependent variable. Intelligence may as well affect the social
studies achievement; but since it is not related to the purpose of the study
undertaken by the researcher, it will be termed as extraneous variable.
Whatever effect is noticed on dependent variable as a result of extraneous
variable(s) is technically described as an ‘experimental error.’
 A study must always be so designed that the effect upon the dependent
variable is attributed entirely to the independent variables and not to some
extraneous variable(s). When the dependent variable is not free from the
influence of extraneous variable(s), the relationship between the dependent
and independent variable is said to be confounded by an extraneous
variable(s).

Extraneous variable can be controlled by removing the variable causing

distraction. It may be eliminated by selecting cases with uniform
characteristics and through randomization.
9. Organismic Variable:
There are some variables which cannot be manipulated. They are accepted by
the researcher as they are. They are levels of intelligence, sex, class levels, and
the like. The researcher can classify the subjects by sex but he cannot modify to
suit his research condition. If a researcher attempts to compare boys and girls on
some learning task, any differences might be attributed to sex differences but
not necessarily so. The differences between boys and girls could be due to
differences in intelligence, training, motivation or a myriad of other conditions
present in all human beings and not necessarily to biological differences
between sex. Those variables which cannot be manipulated and cannot
themselves point out causal relations are called organismic variables.

F. Operational Definition

In research we must measure concepts and constructs, and this requires more rigorous
definitions. A concept must be made operational in order to be measured. An operational
definition gives meanings to a concept by specifying the activities or operations necessary to
measure it. An operational definition specifies what must be done to measure the concept
under investigation. It is like a manual of instruction or a recipe: do such-and-such in so-and-
so manner.

Operational definition is also called a working definition stated in terms of specific testing or
measurement criteria. The concepts must have empirical referents (i.e. we must be able to
count, measure, or in some other way gather thee information through our senses). Whether
the object to be defined is physical e.g. a machine tool) or highly abstract (e.g. achievement
motivation), the definition must specify characteristics and how to be observed. The
specification and procedures must be so clear that any competent person using them would
classify the objects the same way. So in operational definition we must specify concrete
indicators that can be observed/measured (observable indicators).

G. REVIEW OF LITERATURE (Literature review)

Review of literature is a collective body of works done by earlier scientists and published in the
form of books or in the form of articles in journals or published as monograph etc. Every
scientific investigation starts with a Review of Literature. In fact, working with the literature is
an essential part of the research process which helps generate ideas, helps in developing
significant questions and is regarded as instrumental in the process of research design. In this
unit we will be dealing with the review of literature, how to go about it, what its importance is
and how the review should be organised and how to relate it to the present research report.

A literature review is based on the assumption that knowledge accumulates and that we learn
from and build on what others have done. Scientific research is a collective effort of many
researchers who share their results with one another and who pursue knowledge as a
community.

Today’s studies build on those of yesterday. Researchers read studies to compare, replicate, or
criticize them for weaknesses.

Goals of a Literature Review

Reviews vary in scope and depth. Different kinds of reviews are stronger at fulfilling different
goals of review. The goals of review are:

1. To demonstrate a familiarity with a body of knowledge and establish credibility. A

review tells the reader that the researcher knows the research in an area and knows the
major issues. A good review increases a reader’s confidence in the researcher’s
professional competence, ability, and background.
2. To know the path of prior research and how a current research project is linked to it. A
review outlines the direction, ability, and background of research on a question and
shows the development of knowledge. A good review places a research project in a
context and demonstrates its relevance by making connections to a body of knowledge.
3. To integrate and summarize what is known in an area. A review pulls together and
synthesizes different results. A good review points out areas where prior studies agree,
where they disagree, and where major questions remain. It collects what is known to a
point in time and indicates the direction for future research. No reinventing the wheel.
No wastage of effort.
4. To learn from others and stimulate new ideas. A review tells what others have found so
that a researcher can benefit from the efforts of others. A good review identifies blind
 alleys and suggests hypotheses for replication. It divulges procedures, techniques, and
research designs worth copying so that a researcher can better focus hypotheses and
gain new insights.
5. Identification of variables. Important variables that are likely to influence the problem
situation are not left out of the study.
6. Helps in developing theoretical framework.
7. Helps in developing theoretical framework.

Types of Reviews

When beginning a review, researcher may decide on a topic or field of knowledge to examine,
how much depth to go into, and the kind of review to conduct. There are six types of review:

1. Self-study reviews increase the reader’s confidence. A review that only demonstrates
familiarity with an area is rarely published but it often is part of an educational program.
In addition to giving others confidence in a reviewer’s command of field, it has the side
benefit of building the reviewer’s self confidence.
2. Context reviews place a specific project in the big picture. One of the goals of review is
creating a link to a developing body of knowledge. This is a background or context
review. It introduces the rest of a research and establishes the significance and
relevance of a research question. It tells the reader how a project fits into the big picture
and its implications for a field of knowledge. The review can summarize how the current
research continues a developing line of thought, or it can point to a question or
unresolved conflict in prior research to be addressed.
3. Historical review traces the development of an issue over time. It traces the
development of an idea or shows how a particular issue or theory has evolved over
time. Researchers conduct historical review only on the most important ideas in a field.
4. Theoretical reviews compare how different theories address an issue. It present
different theories that purport to explain the same thing, then evaluates how well each
accounts for findings. In addition to examining the consistency of predictions with
findings, a theoretical review may compare theories for the soundness of their
assumptions, logical consistency, and scope of explanation. Researchers also use it to
integrate two theories or extend a theory to new issues. It sometimes forms a hybrid –
the historical theoretical review.
5. Integrative review summarizes what is known at a point in time. It presents the current
state of knowledge and pulls together disparate research reports in a fast growing area
of knowledge.
6. Methodological reviews point out how methodology varies by study. In it researcher
evaluate the methodological strength of past studies. It describes conflicting results and
 shows how different research designs, samples, measures, and so on account for
different results.

Where to find the Research Literature

 Computer: on line systems.

 Scholarly journals.
 Books – containing reports of original research, or collection of research articles.
READERS or Book of Readings.
 Dissertations.
 Government documents.
 Policy reports and presented papers.
 Bibliographic indexes.

H. RESEARCH ETHICS / ETHICS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH

Definition of ethics

There is no single definition of the word ethics because many people have various views about
it. Some tried to equate ethics with feelings but being ethical is clearly not a matter of following
one's feelings. A person following his or her feelings may recoil from doing what is right.

In fact, feelings frequently deviate from what is ethical. From another perspective, ethics could
be perceived as religion but most religions of course, advocate high ethical standards. Yet if
ethics were confined to the realm of religion, then ethics would apply only to religious people.

But ethics applies as much to the behavior of the atheist as to that of the saint. Religion can set
high ethical standards and can provide intense motivations for ethical behavior but ethics,
however, cannot be confined to religion nor is it the same as religion.

Being ethical is also not the same as following the law. The law often incorporates ethical
standards to which most citizens subscribe. But laws, like feelings, can deviate from what is
ethical. Our own laws and political accountability are obvious examples of laws that deviate
from what is ethical. The lack of social consensus on many issues makes it impossible to equate
ethics with all that have been mentioned so far.

What then is ethics? Ethics can be referred to as a well based standards of right and wrong that
prescribe what humans ought to do or the conduct of human beings, usually in terms of rights
and obligations, benefits to society, fairness, or specific virtues. Ethics, for example, refers to
those standards that impose the reasonable obligations to refrain from rape, stealing, murder,
assault, slander, and fraud. Ethical standards also include those that enjoin virtues of honesty,
compassion, and loyalty. Consequently, ethical standards include standards relating to rights,
such as the right to life, the right to freedom from injury, and the right to privacy. Such
standards are adequate standards of ethics because they are supported by consistent and well
founded reasons.

It can further be defined in relation to the study and development of one's ethical standards. As
mentioned above, feelings, laws, and social norms can deviate from what is ethical. So it is
necessary to constantly examine one's standards to ensure that they are reasonable and well
founded. Ethics also means, then, the continuous effort of studying our own moral beliefs and
our moral conduct, and striving to ensure that we, and the institutions we help to shape, live up
to standards that are reasonable and solidly-based.

Another way of defining 'ethics' is to focus on the disciplines that study standards of conduct,
such as philosophy, theology, law, psychology, or sociology. For example, a "medical ethicist" is
someone who studies ethical standards in medicine. Finally, one may define ethics as a method,
procedure, or perspective for deciding how to act and for analyzing complex problems and
issues. For instance, in a complex issue like global warming one may take an economic,
ecological, political, or ethical perspective on the problem. While an economist might examine
the cost and benefits of various policies related to global warming, an environmental ethicist
could examine the ethical values and principles at stake in the issue.

Thus, many different disciplines, institutions, and professions have ethics for behavior that suit
their aims and goals. These ethics or norms also help members of the discipline to coordinate
their actions or activities and to establish the public's trust of the discipline.

For instance, ethical norms governing conduct in medicine, social work, law, engineering, and
business. Ethical norms also serve the aims or goals of research and apply to people who
conduct scientific research or other scholarly or creative activities, and there is a specialized
discipline, research ethics, which studies these norms including social research.

Ethics involves what is right, impartial, fair, just and responsible. Ethical practice is as important
in media as it is in any other walk of life. Ethics based journalism with objectivity, accountability,
fairness and truth as the key elements and are vital for responsible media practice.

The concepts of ethics are very subjective and relative; therefore, it would be relevant to look
at the theories which can be considered to determine correct media behavior.

Basically, three efficient theories that are consistently employed to determine media behavior
are:
A. Consequentialism
B. Utilitarianism
C. Deontology
Consequentialism

This theory suggests that the ethical value of an action should be determined on its
consequences. Consequentiality theories concentrate only on the outcome of an action without
considering about the means, i.e. how the consequences came about. Hence, all actions should
be considered as of their possible outcomes before being executed.

The consequences of an action can be judged from two perspectives: Ethical Egoism and Ethical
Altruism.

Ethical Egoism does not reflect a cohesive social model as such actions can harm others while
Ethical Altruism holds those actions that benefit others and can be considered good.

Utilitarianism
Utilitarianism theory is applicable to the media as it considers the betterment of society at
large. It considers ethical as that which is designed to create the greatest good for the
maximum numbers.

There are many arguments against consequentialism and the utilitarian theories of ethics. The
utilitarian approach encourages responsible and thoughtful behavior. Although it is possible to
make mistakes in judgment, it is advisable to invest time in considering all the possible
outcomes of a certain action, to determine whether the overall good is greater than the
negative consequences.

Deontology
Deontology concentrates on a person’s duty to determine appropriate action. Kant is believed
to be the most famous follower of this theory. He believed it was the pretention behind an
action that rendered it ethical or unethical. Kant felt that there was only one virtue which was
good without qualification i.e. goodwill. Actions inspired by goodwill are done out of respect for
moral law and duty. Kant’s categorical perspective, “will to act well out of duty” has three
important guidelines:
 An agent should be motivated by the principle, which he would be happy to see as a
universal maxim.
 Always treat people as an end in themselves and not just a means.
 Act as if you were the law maker in the kingdom of ‘End’. (Kant, 1785)

Research process and ethics

Ethical considerations in research are critical. Ethics are the norms or standards for conduct
that distinguish between right and wrong. They help to determine the difference between
acceptable and unacceptable behaviors.

Ethical standards prevent against the fabrication or falsifying of data and therefore, promote
the pursuit of knowledge in truth sense. Ethical behavior is also critical for research because it
encourages an environment of trust, accountability and mutual respect among researchers.
Researchers must also adhere to ethical standards for the public to support and believe in the
outcome of the research.

The public or the society wants to be assured that researchers followed the appropriate
guidelines for issues such as human rights, animal welfare, compliance with the law, conflicts of
interest, safety, health standards and so on. The handling of ethical issues such as honesty,
objectivity, respect for intellectual property, social responsibility, confidentiality, non-
discrimination etc. greatly impacts the integrity of the researcher and the research project.

Hence, being ethically responsible at every stage adds tremendous value to the research as a
process and to the researcher as an individual. Being unethical is not an option.

Principles of Ethics in Research/ Ethical responsibilities of a researcher

The following is the summary of some ethical principles and the ethical responsibilities of
researcher that various codes address:

1. Voluntary Participation-: This requires that people should not be coerced into
participating in research. This is especially relevant where researchers had previously
relied on 'captive audiences' for their subjects -- prisons, universities, and places like
that Informed consent-:. Essentially, this means that prospective research participants
must be fully informed about the procedures and risks involved in research and must
give their consent to participate.
2. Honesty-: Strive for honesty in all scientific communications. Honestly report data,
results, methods and procedures, and publication status. Do not fabricate, falsify, or
misrepresent data. Do not deceive colleagues, granting agencies, or the public.
Honesty is essential, not only to enable clear and straightforward communication, but
also to engender a level of trust and credibility in the outcomes of the research. This
applies to all researchers, no matter what subject or discipline they represent.

3. Objectivity-: Strive to avoid bias in experimental design, data analysis, data

interpretation, peer review, personnel decisions, grant writing, expert testimony, and
 other aspects of research where objectivity is expected or required. Avoid or minimize
bias or self-deception. Disclose personal or financial interests that may affect research.
4. Integrity-: Keep your promises and agreements; act with sincerity; strive for consistency
of thought and action.
5. Carefulness-: Avoid careless errors and negligence; carefully and critically examine your
own work and the work of your peers. Keep good records of research activities, such as
data collection, research design, and correspondence with agencies or journals.
6. Openness- Share data, results, ideas, tools, resources. Be open to criticism and new
ideas.
7. Respect for Intellectual Property-: Honor patents, copyrights, and other forms of
intellectual property. Do not use unpublished data, methods, or results without
permission. Give credit where credit is due. Give proper acknowledgement or credit for
all contributions to research. Never plagiarize.
8. Confidentiality-: Protect confidential communications, such as papers or grants
submitted for publication, personnel records, trade or military secrets, and client
records. They must be assured that identifying information will not be made available to
anyone who is not directly involved in the study. The stricter standard is the principle of
anonymity which essentially means that the participant will remain anonymous
throughout the study even to the researchers themselves.

The objective behind being ethically responsible is to cause no harm or offence during
the process of knowledge creation and dissemination. Therefore, the researcher should
assess the appropriateness of the chosen research methods and their possible
outcomes even before the execution. This involves recognizing and avoiding making any
revelations or claims that could harm the reputation, dignity or privacy of others.
Sensitive information should be dealt by assuring confidentiality and anonymity.
9. Responsible Publication-: Publish in order to advance research and scholarship, not to
advance just your own career. Avoid wasteful and duplicative publication.
10. Responsible Mentoring-: Help to educate, mentor, and advise students.
Promote their welfare and allow them to make their own decisions.
11. Respect for colleagues-: Respect your colleagues and treat them fairly.
12. Social Responsibility-: Strive to promote social good and prevent or mitigate social
harms through research, public education, and advocacy.
13. Non-Discrimination-: Avoid discrimination against colleagues or students on the basis of
sex, race, ethnicity, or other factors that are not related to their scientific competence
and integrity.
14. Competence-: Maintain and improve your own professional competence and expertise
through lifelong education and learning; take steps to promote competence in science
as a whole.
15. Legality-: Know and obey relevant laws and institutional and governmental policies.
16. Human Subjects Protection-: When conducting research on human subjects minimize
harms and risks and maximize benefits; respect human dignity, privacy, and autonomy;
 take special precautions with vulnerable populations; and strive to distribute the
benefits and burdens of research fairly.
17. Plagiarism
With the advancement of technology, availability and access to others research work
has increased. Such abundance has given rise to professional or academic dishonesty
like plagiarism. It means copying someone’s research work (concepts, idea, data or
report) and claiming it to be owns and original without acknowledging the original
source. This is a serious offence. It might lead to serious legal offences like the violation
of one’s Intellectual Property Rights (IRP).
18. Acknowledging others
One can simply avoid plagiarism by acknowledging the original contributors. A
researcher can acknowledge the intellectual contribution of other researchers through
proper citation in the main text and in the bibliography or reference section at the end
of the manuscript. Acknowledgement for funding and other kind of support can be done
at the beginning.
19. Use of appropriate language
Use of language is crucial. It sets the tone of the study. Inappropriate use of language
can lead to biasness, disrespect, stereotyping, prejudice discrimination and intolerance.
Therefore, the use of natural and jargon free is preferable.
20. Data collection
Appropriateness of the data collection technique ensures the collection of the required
and relevant data. If data is to be collected from the secondary source then the
researcher must ensure legitimate access. If it involves primary source then method of
identification of the respondents (sampling technique) is as important as the method of
data collection. The respondents must be made aware about the purpose of the
research, why and how their opinion is required and how their identity and the
information are to be treated. The respondent must give their consent to be a part of
the study then their response should be collected. The respondents must be given
adequate time to respond. It has to be the discretion of the respondent what and how
much they want to reveal. The researcher should not push the respondents for
collecting data.
21. Representation of data
The researcher should not be under any influence or pressure to manipulate data for
the desired outcome. Data must be truly represented and it must be free from the bias,
prejudice of the researcher. There should not be any deliberate falsification. The
researcher should not try to mould or misrepresent or misinterpret data.

Importance of Ethics in Research

The application of Ethics is important in research because-:
 Some of these norms promote the aims of research, such as knowledge, truth, and
avoidance of error. For example, prohibitions against fabricating, falsifying, or
misrepresenting research data promote the truth and avoid error.
 Since researches often involve a great deal of cooperation and coordination among
many different people in different disciplines and institutions, many of these ethical
standards promote the values that are essential to collaborative work, such as trust,
accountability, mutual respect, and fairness.

For example, many ethical norms in research, such as guidelines for authorship,
copyright and patenting policies, data sharing policies, and confidentiality rules in peer
review, are designed to protect intellectual property interests while encouraging
collaboration. Most researchers want to receive credit for their contributions and do not
want to have their ideas stolen or disclosed prematurely.

 Many of the ethical norms help to ensure that researchers can be held accountable to
the public. For instance, federal policies on research misconduct, on conflicts of interest,
on the human subjects’ protections, and on animal care and use are necessary in order
to make sure that researchers who are funded by public money can be held accountable
to the public.
 Ethical norms in research also help to build public support for research. People are more
likely to fund research project if they can trust the quality and integrity of research.
Finally, many of the norms of research promote a variety of other important moral and
social values, such as social responsibility, human rights, and animal welfare, compliance
with the law, and health and safety. Ethical lapses in research can significantly cause
harm to human and animal subjects, students, and the public.

For example, a researcher who fabricates data in a clinical trial may harm or even kill
clients and a researcher who fails to abide by regulations and guidelines relating to
radiation or biological safety may jeopardize his health and safety or the health and
safety and staff.

I. Ethnocentrism in psychological research

Definition

Core definition
 Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view the world through the lens of one’s own culture.
That is, individuals tend to judge others’ behaviors, customs, beliefs, and attitudes by
their own cultural standards.

 Ethnocentrism is based on the assumption that one’s own way of life is superior to all
others.
 Ethnocentrism is a general phenomenon that occurs for individuals across most cultures
and societies, although the extent to which it occurs may vary. In 1906, William Graham
Sumner, a professor of political and social science at Yale University, first coined the
term ethnocentrism. Sumner defined it as the tendency to believe that one’s society or
culture is the center of all others and is the basis for judging other groups. Moreover,
Sumner argued ethnocentrism is the tendency to believe that one’s own society or
culture is superior to other groups.
 Hence it is the tendency to see one’s own cultural beliefs as more correct, appropriate,
and moral than other cultures.
 it is the use of one’s own culture as a yardstick (yard measure) for judging the ways of
other individuals or societies, generally leading to a negative evaluation of their values,
norms, and behaviors
 All of us learn that the ways of our own group are good, right, and even superior to
other ways of life. which may lead to ethnocentrism
 As sociologist William Sumner (1906), who developed this concept, said, “One’s own
group is the center of everything, and all others are scaled and rated with reference to
it.”
 Ethnocentrism has both positive and negative consequences. On the positive side, it
creates in-group loyalties. On the negative side, ethnocentrism can lead to
discrimination against people whose ways differ from ours. For example, most
schoolchildren are taught that their own school and country are the best. The school
song, the pledge to the flag, and the national anthem are forms of positive
ethnocentrism. However, negative ethnocentrism can also result from constant
emphasis on the superiority of one’s own group or nation. Likewise, a Hindu person
would probably be just as horrified to be served some juicy roast beef. Because
ethnocentrism involves evaluating practices with respect to one’s own cultural rules and
assumptions, we often find flaws in another culture’s practices.

 Hence ethnocentrism refers to seeing one’s own cultural beliefs and practices as more
correct, appropriate, or moral than those of other cultures. To some extent, culture is
inherently ethnocentric, because adopting cultural norms means viewing those
practices as right or natural. By comparison, the norms of other cultures seem
“deviant,” “weird,” or even “immoral.” To glimpse the power of ethnocentrism, imagine
how repulsed you would be if you were invited to dinner at someone’s home and served
a main course of roasted grasshoppers.

 Ethnocentrism is the tendency to view one’s own culture as the most superior. Here we
apply our own cultural values to judge the behavior and beliefs of people of other
culture. Ethnic groups have certain beliefs, Values, habit, customs, norms and a
common back-ground. They consider themselves different from others and special
because they have different cultural features like their language, religion, historical
experience, geographic isolation, kinship, race and a common descent etc. All this gives
 them a sense of solidarity. Ethnicity is identifying with and feeling groups because of
their own affiliation. Ethnic diversity may lead to positive group interaction or co-
existence or conflict. The positive group interaction will result in a pluralistic society but
the conflict will lead to ethnocentrism. Modern society is multicultural. Root of
ethnocentrism is ethnic conflict that leads to prejudice and discrimination. Prejudice is
devaluing, looking down at, a group for its values and attributes.
 Ethnocentrism is a cultural attitude that one’s own culture is the best. We evaluate
other culture on the basis of our own cultural perspective. It is the tendency to consider
our cultural pattern as normal and therefore superior to all other cultural. It is a value
judgment about oneself and others. By devaluing others, we deny them equal
opportunities in life. This prejudicial attitude was called by Sumner as ethnocentrism. It
is taking for granted like superiority of one own culture. It is a view of things in which
one’s own culture is at the centre of everything and all others are scaled with reference
to it. Not only different community groups are ethnocentric but even within a
community there can be discrimination as high and low caste, educated and illiterate.
There are no human groups or even individuals who are not ethnocentric at least to
some extent. Ethnocentrism provides for group identity, unity and loyalty. For example,
it reinforces the spirit of nationalism and patriotism.

Ethnocentrism can be defined as the following syndrome of behaviors:

a. a tendency to under-value the out-group's products

b. an increased rejection and hostility towards out-group members
c. a tendency to over-value the in-group's products
d. an increased liking for in-group members (accompanied by pressures for conformity and
group cohesion) (LeVine and Campbell, 1 972)

It is only when cultures come into contact with one another that the question of ethnocentrism
arises.

Ethnocentrism is the application of one’s own cultural values in evaluating the behavior and
beliefs of people from other cultures. This means that the cultural values projected as the
standard or norm are considered superior to that of the beliefs and values of other cultures.
Ethnocentrism is the opposite of cosmopolitanism, which values other cultures for their
difference. A cosmopolitan outlook does not seek to evaluate the values and beliefs of other
people according to one’s own. It celebrates and accommodates different cultural propensities
within its fold and promotes cultural exchange and borrowings to enrich one’s own culture.

How psychologists try to avoid ethnocentrism?

To avoid ethnocentrism in their own research, social psychologist is guided by the concept of
cultural relativism, the recognition that social group and cultures must be studied and
understood on their own terms before valid comparisons can be made, and cultural relativism
frequently is taken to mean that social scientists never should judge the relative merits of any
group or culture. This is not the case.

Cultural relativism is an approach to doing objective cross-cultural research. It does not require
researchers to abdicate their personal standards. In fact, good social scientists will take the
trouble to spell out exactly what their standards are so that both researchers and reader will be
alert to possible bias in their studies.

Effect of ethnocentrism in research and ethnocentric bias

Ethnocentrism can serve a valuable function in societies, if the members of a society believe
that the norms and values of their culture are right and goods, they will be more likely to
subscribe to them. But ethnocentrism also poses a danger in that it can lead to social
isolation, inhibiting cultural exchanges that promote growth and development. The successful
society must therefore have mechanisms for overcoming excessive ethnocentrism and
facilitating cultural exchange. Ethnocentrism is a multidimensional construct, which involves
specific intra-group and intergroup attitudes, which give a strong sense of importance to one’s
own ethnic group over others and also over individual group members. The authors drew on
various usages of ethnocentrism (some of which are presented above) and identified different
themes within them. Psychologist argued on conceptual, theoretical, and empirical grounds
that ethnocentrism involves six facets, which all express a central idea of one’s own ethnic and
cultural group importance. This conceptualization rejected mere in-group love, attachment, or
identification as well as out-group hatred, hostility, and contempt as aspects of ethnocentrism,
as none of these necessarily involves a very strong sense of group importance. As a result,
according to this conceptualization, ethnocentrism consists of two intra-group facets (strong
devotion to the ethnic in-group and Intra-group cohesion) and four intergroup facets
(preference for the ethnic group over others, belief in group superiority, readiness to exploit
other groups for the sake of the in-group, and demand for ethnic purity). This means that
researcher may also be biased: psychologists may design research or draw conclusions that
makes sense or applies to their own cultural group only and silently involved him in
ethnocentric bias. This is when psychologists view the results, behaviors or responses of a
study that used participants not from their own ethnic group through the eyes of their own
ethnic experiences. As a result, the psychologists may feel that their own ethnic group is
superior compared to the one(s) they are studying and therefore misinterpret behaviors and
draw the wrong conclusions about the behavior being studied.

STRENGTHS OF STUDYING ETHNOCENTRISM

 Allows us to discover the diversity of behavior & experience throughout the world.
 Encourages researchers to be wary of assuming their culture is superior and making
biased conclusions about human behavior.
  By understanding the mechanisms of ethnocentrism, we may be able to improve
society. (eg; Reicher & Haslam)
 It may allow us to discover which behaviours are inherited and which are learned
(cross-cultural studies) (eg; Autism is found in all cultures, social groups, etc.)

J. Researcher’s/ experimenters’ Biases

One of the challenges, while doing research is to remain objective and free from biases. Most of
your ideas and beliefs are probably linked with certain bias because they are influenced by your
opinions or values. A variety of biases have been found to distort people’s impressions of
collected data.

1. External influences- such as one’s culture or the media can influence people to
accept a particular world view.
2. Personal bias - distorts estimating or evaluating processes as a result of personal
beliefs, attributes, or past experiences.
3. Observer bias- operates when some events are taken as meaningful by some
and not taken meaningful by others. It must be kept in mind that researchers
themselves were raised in certain cultures and societies. They also might have
been exposed to certain gender role expectations. These background factors can
all affect the way that researchers observe and interpret events in their lives.
4. Expectancy bias -can affect observations of behavior by encouraging reactions to
the events being observed. Researchers sometimes expect to find specific
outcomes; they may see what they expect to see rather than remain objective.
Unfortunately, if one is not alert to the possibility of expectancy bias, it may
seem as though the observed events are being “discovered” instead of created
by the observer’s expectations.
5. Finally, placebo biases- operate when people strongly want to believe a
treatment is successful. For example, many people may claim to feel better after
taking a placebo such as a sugar pill. In those cases, where the outcome involves
a subjective judgment about results, that is, how well a person feels well or
whether the pain has been reduced or relieved, the desire for a drug or
therapeutic method to work may be enough to achieve the desired result.
UNIT 3- Sampling

Sampling `

Simply speaking, the method of selecting for a study a portion of the universe with a view to
draw conclusion about the universe is known as sampling, sampling may be defined as “the
selection of part of an aggregate or totality on the basis of which a judgment or inference about
the aggregate or totality is made.” So, it is a process of selecting samples from a group or
population to become the foundation for estimating and predicting the outcome of the
population as well as to detect the unknown piece of information.

Sampling is a process, which allows us to study a small group of people from the large group to
derive inferences that are likely to be applicable to all the people of the large group. Sampling is
the process of obtaining information regarding the entire research population or aggregate or
totality by examining only a part of it. It is a picture in miniature to represent the larger whole,
to enable the researcher to make a judgment or inference about the whole with the
presumption that the sample data will provide valid and reliable conclusions.

Sampling is not only typical to the field of science, rather in our day-to-day life, we take to such
method. For example, a cook presses a few pods of boiled rice in the cooking pot to be able to
know that it is ready to be served. Similarly, while examining the quality of food grain one need
not examine each and every grain contained in the bag. Rather an examination of a handful of
grains gives the impression regarding the entire bag. We frequently practice some crude
versions of sampling, because in practice, census enquiry is not always possible as it involves a
great deal of time, money and energy and therefore, the census method may be practically
beyond the capacity of an ordinary researcher. Probably, Government is the sole institution
which can completely enumerate all the items. Even then government takes ten years of time
for population census. Moreover, many a time it is well nigh impossible to touch every item in
the population and seldom it is possible to obtain sufficient accuracy by studying only a part of
the total population. If the universe is small, it needs to be emphasized that it is of no use to
take recourse to a sample survey.

TERMS & CONCEPTS USED IN SAMPLING & SAMPLE DESIGN: -

“A sample design is the theoretical basis & the practical means which we infer the
characteristics of some population by generalizing from the characteristics of selectively few of
the units comprising the population.

There are creations other terms that are characteristics of all sampling discussion & with which
the reader should be familiar. These terms are listed & defined below.
 A. Census
A census is the procedure of systematically acquiring and recording information about the
members of a given population. It is a regularly occurring and official count of a particular
population. The term is used mostly in connection with national population and housing
censuses; other common censuses include agriculture, business, and traffic censuses.

The word is of Latin origin: during the Roman Republic, the census was a list that kept track of
all adult males fit for military service. The modern census is essential to international
comparisons of any kind of statistics, and censuses collect data on many attributes of a
population, not just how many people there are but now census takes its place within a system
of surveys where it typically began as the only national demographic data collection. Although
population estimates remain an important function of a census, including exactly the
geographic distribution of the population, statistics can be produced about combinations of
attributes e.g. education by age and sex in different regions.

Purpose of census
The purpose of census is to:
a. Provide the facts essential to government for policy-making, planning and
administration.
b. Decision-making that facilitates the development of socio-economic policies -enhance
the welfare of the population.
c. Provides important data for the analysis and appraisal of the changing patterns of
rural/urban movement and concentration, the development of urbanized areas,
geographical distribution of the population according to such variables as occupation
and education, as well as the socio-economic characteristics of the population and the
labour force.
d. Aids in the decision-making processes of the private sector. Population size and
characteristics influence the location of businesses and services that satisfy the needs of
the target population.
e. Population censuses also constitute the principal source of records for use as a sampling
frame for the household surveys during the years between censuses.

Users of census data

Since census provides rich and valuable information about the population, there are many users
of such data. Some of them are:
 Central and local government
 Interest and representative groups
 Businesses
 Local community
 Ethnic groups, cultural groups, religious groups etc.
 Students
 Media etc.
 B. POPULATION OR UNIVERSE: -

This concept population, most of the times, is used to describe the total number of people
living in a defined geographical entity or area. This is as it relates to the common usage of the
term population. But in research, population is not limited to human beings alone; it includes
objects, events, people that have at least a common characteristic which is common to all of
them.

Population, or Universe, is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristics
on which the samples seek to drawn inferences, for e.g. families with incomes within a given
range.

From a statistical point of view, the term ‘Universe’ refers to the total of the items or units in
any field of inquiry, whereas the term „population‟ refers to the total of items about which
information is desired. The attributes that are the object of study are referred to as
characteristics and the units possessing them are called as elementary units. The aggregate of
such units is generally described as population.

Thus, all units in any field of inquiry constitute universe and all elementary units (on the basis of
one characteristic or more) constitute population. Quite often, we do not find any difference
between population and universe, and as such the two terms are taken as interchangeable.
However, a researcher must necessarily define these terms precisely.

The population or universe can be finite or infinite. The population is said to be finite if it
consists of a fixed number of elements so that it is possible to enumerate it in its totality.

For instance, the population of a city, the number of workers in a factory is examples of finite
populations. The symbol ‘N’ is generally used to indicate how many elements (or items) are
there in case of a finite population. An infinite population is that population in which it is
theoretically impossible to observe all the elements. Thus, in an infinite population the number
of items is infinite i.e., we cannot have any idea about the total number of items. The number
of stars in a sky, possible rolls of a pair of dice are examples of infinite population.

According to Nkpa (1997), a population refers to all the elements in a well-defined collection or
set of values. Kerlinger (1981) defined population as all members of any well-defined class of
people, events or objects. It means therefore that any entity, group or set which constitutes a
population must have at least one attribute or characteristic which is common to all of them.

The population of a study therefore represents the target of the study as defined by the aims
and objectives of the study. When you conduct a research study, you have a particular
population in mind. For instance, chemistry teachers in the unity school, technical drawing
teachers in Imo State Senior Secondary Three students offering physics in the 2007 school
certificate examination from Lagos State, women farmers in Etiti agricultural zone, Professors in
Nigerian Universities etc.

When to Study the entire Population

You would have noticed that whenever the term population is mentioned in common usage, it
often implies a huge number of people. But in research, the term represents numbers which
may range from very few to very many people, things, objects, events etc. depending on the
nature of investigation to be carried out. You have also noticed that in most studies, samples
are drawn and studied with a view to generalizing the findings to the entire population.
However, some of the times, it is necessary to study the entire population. This is possible
under the following conditions:
1. When the research involves a population of very few subjects. If the study involves a
population of relatively few people, institutions, objects, events or things. It is better to
study the entire population. Again, if members of the population are few and hold views
or characteristics that should not be neglected, or when sampling cannot be
representative of the population, then the entire population is studied.
2. When enough time and resources are available the entire population can be studied.
When there is enough time and fund the entire population can be studied.
3. When the research specifically seeks to determine the population-, in some situations
there is a need to determine the precise number of subjects belonging to categorized
set of characteristics.
4. When the topic demands the study of a specific group, - sometimes such group can be
distinguished from any other group or persons e.g. the classification of prisoners at the
Okigwe Prisons by gender and geopolitical zones.

C. Sample Size

Once you have identified your target population and its characteristics, two major issues may
be required to be taken care of. These are how to compose the samples and the sample size.
The composition of the samples will be treated in the next section.

On the issue of determining a sample size, which would adequately and appropriately represent
the population it would be drawn from, you will note that a large sample size increases the
likelihood of accurately estimating the population characteristics from the sample. You should,
therefore, select a sample which is large enough to improve the possibility of getting results
which may be similar to what you would have obtained if you had used the entire population.
There is no single number which has been fixed as an ideal sample size.

The sample size is dependent on a number of factors. Such factors include:

 expense in terms of time and money;

 subject’s availability to participate in the study;
  size of the population of the study;
 management and control abilities of the researcher;
 complexity of the research conditions and that of the data to be collected and analysed;
 efficiency in drawing the sample itself;
 Level of cooperation expected of and available from the proposed sample/ However, a
large sample is much more likely to be representative of the population.

D. Sample frame
The frame describes the population in terms of sampling units. It may often be a
geographical area, such as a list of city blocks or countries. Sometimes, it may even be the
subscription list for a magazine. In essence, a frame lists or maps elements of the universe.

E. Sample

A sample is composed of some fraction or part of the total number of elements or units in
defined population sampling, therefore is a method of selection some fraction of population.

F. Sample design

The design describes the method by which the sample is chosen.

G. Sample error

The errors which arise due to use of sampling surveys are known as the sampling errors.
Since a sample survey implies the study of small population of the total universe and
drawing inferences about the population, there would naturally be as certain amount of in
accuracy or errors. Such errors are known as sampling errors or sampling fluctuations. It a
census is taken, sampling errors could be expected to disappear.

Even when a sample is random one, it may not be exactly representative of the population
from which it is chosen. This is because samples are seldom, if ever, perfect miniature of the
populations. However, there errors can be controlled sampling errors are of two types –
Biased & unbiased.

1. BIASED ERRORS: -Are those which rise as a result to any bias error prejudice of the
person in selecting a particular sampling method may purposive sampling method may
be adopted in place of a simple random sampling method. As a result of such a errors,
or cumulative errors or non-compensating errors. As bias or prejudice forms a constant
component of error that does not decreases in a large population as the no. in the
sample increases i.e. such errors are likely to increase with as increase in the size of the
sample.
2. UNBIASED ERRORS: - Arises due to chance differences, between the members of the
populations included in the sample, those not included. It is known as random sampling
 errors the random sampling error decreased on an average as size of the sample
increases. Such error is, therefore, also known as non cumulative or compensating
error.

Bias may arise due to: -

1. Faulty process of selection.

2. Faulty work during the collection of information, &
3. Faulty method of analysis and Faulty selection of sample may give rise to bias in
a no. of ways, such as: -
a. Purpose sampling,
b. Selection of sample in a haphazard way,
c. Substitution of selected item in the sample by another,
d. Incomplete investigation or response etc, during the process of collecting the
actual information in a survey (whether sample or census, certain inaccuracies
may creep in. These may raise due to improper formulation of decision, problem
wrongly defining the population, specifying wrong decision, securing an
inadequate frame, poorly designed questionnaire, an ill trained, interviewer,
failure of a respondent’s memory, unorganized collection procedure, faculty
editing or cooling of response. Faulty methods of analysis may also introduce
bias. Such bias can be avoided by adopting the proper methods of analysis.

Among the many suggestions that could help in reducing biases and improving sampling
designs are –

1. Manageable and specific problem selection,

2. Intensive study, verification and reporting of methodological biases;
3. Systematic documentation of related research.
4. Greater investment in enumeration;
5. Effective protesting.
6. Use of complementary research methods, and
7. Replication.

Population and Samples- comparison

Best and Khan (1995) define population thus: “A population is any group of individuals that
have one or more characteristics in common that are of interest to the researcher. The
population may be all the individuals of a particular type or a more restricted part of that group.

All primary school pupils, all female secondary school teachers, all university science educators
may be a population”.
A sample is a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis. By the
characteristics of the sample, one can make certain inferences about the characteristics of the
population from which it is drawn. Contrary to some popular opinion, samples are not selected
haphazardly, they are chosen in a systematically random way, so that chance or the operation
of probability can be utilized.

A sample is drawn from a population which refers to all possible cases of what one is interested
in studying. In most educational studies, the target population is often people who have some
particular characteristic in common, such as: all teachers all vice – chancellors, all politicians
etc.

A population is not always made up of people; it could be integrated science laboratories in

Tribhuvan University, all chemistry textbooks used in kathmandu etc. A sample consists of one
or more elements selected from a population. The manner in which the elements are selected
for the sample has great implications for the scientific utility of the research based on that
sample. To select a good sample, you need to define clearly the population from which the
sample is to be drawn. Failure to define the population clearly can make generalizing from the
sample observations highly ambiguous and result in drawing inaccurate conclusions.

CRITERION OF GOOD SAMPLE

The characteristics of a good sample are described below:

1. Representative character: A sample must be representative of the population.

Probability sampling technique yield representative sample.
2. No bias and prejudices: The selection of the sample should be objective. Sample should
be free from bias and prejudices. Then only dependable result can be achieved.
Investigator has to be very cautious in this task
3. Conformity with the subject – matter and meant: In sample methods the
representative units selected, should be as per the subject matter and means.
4. Accuracy: Accuracy is defined as the degree to which bias is absent from the sample. An
accurate sample is the one which exactly represents the population.
5. Precision: The sample must yield precise estimate. Precision is measured by standard
error.
6. Size: A good sample must be adequate in size in order to be reliable.

OBJECTIVE/ PURPOSE OF SAMPLING: -

A large population cannot be studied in its entirety for reasons of size, time, cost or
inaccessibility. Limited time, lack of large amount of funds, and population scattered in a very
wide geographical area often make sampling necessary. Sarantakos (1998:140) has pointed out
the following purposes of sampling:
 1. The chief objective of sampling is to get the desired information about the universe with
a prescribed reliability at the minimum cost or with the maximum reliability at the given
cost. The information about the population yield by the sample is probable rather than
certain in nature
2. The precision of estimate & the degree of reliability of estimate depend upon the
sampling method adopted and the procedure of estimation
3. Population in many cases may be so large and scattered that a complete coverage may
not be possible. Suppose, the Patanjali Ayurved Limited wants to find the reactions of
customers who have used its noodles and honey. For this, lakhs of customers would have
to be contacted in different cities. Some of these customers might be residing in
inaccessible areas and hence it would be impossible to collect information within a short
span of time.
4. It offers a high degree of accuracy because it deals with a small number of persons.
5. In a short period of time valid and comparable results can be obtained. A lengthy period
of data collection generally renders some data obsolete by the time the information is
completely in hands.
6. Sampling is less demanding in terms of requirements of investigators since it requires a
small portion of the target population.
7. It is economical since it contains fewer people. Large populations would involve
employing a large number of interviewers which will increase the total cost of the
research.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD SAMPLE: -

1. A good sample is one which, within restrictions imposed by its size, will reproduce the
characteristics of the population with the greatest possible accuracy
2. It should be free from error due to bias or due to deliberate selection of the unit of the
sample.
3. It should be free from random sampling error. It should not be selected by a procedure
where there is a connection between the method of selection & the characteristics
under consideration.
4. There should not be any substitution of originally selected unit by some other more
convenient in any way.
5. It should not suffer from income plate coverage of the units selected for study ie, if
should not ignore the failures in the sample in responding to the study
6. Relatively small samples properly selected may be much more reliable than large
samples properly selected. But at the same time it is very essential that the sample is
adequate in size so that it can become really reliable.
 7. In the samples, only such units should be included, which as for as possible, are
independent.
8. While constructing a sample, it is important that measurable or known probability
sample techniques are used. This will substantially reduce the likely discrepancies.

ADVANTAGES/ USES OF SAMPLING: -

Cochran has enlisted four advantages of sampling: -

1. REDUCED COST: - It the data are collected for the entire population; cost will be
very high. It is economical of cost when the data are collected from sample
which is only a fraction of the population.
2. GREATER SPEED: - The use of sampling is economical of time also sampling is
less time consuming than the census technique. Tabulation, analysis, etc also
take much less time in the case of sample than in the case of a population.
3. GREATER SCOPE: - completed enumeration of all units of the population is not
only most often impracticable, but they require highly trained personal &
sophisticated equipment sample. Signifies things and personnel with a little
training can collect and handle the data. There is great scope & flexibility of
studies when a sample is used.
4. GREATER ACCURACY: - Sampling ensures completeness & a high degree of
accuracy due to limited area of operation. In dealing with a sample the volume
of work is reduced. Therefore, careful executioner of field hook is possible; the
processing of the data is also done more accurately, which in then produces
better results.
5. QRGANISATION OF CONVENIENCE: -Sampling involves very few organizational
problems. Due to small numbers, it does not require vast facilities. It is
economical in respect of resources. The spaces & equipment required for this
study are very small.
6. SUITABLE IN LIMITED RESOURCES: - In every society, there are more problems &
less resources, particularly when the people are poor & problems uncountable.
This is the method which enables the research to work even with limited
resources.
7. BETTER SUPPORT: - Usually it is difficult for the researcher to establish support
with the support between the researcher & the respondents. As the population
of the study increases, the problem of supporter also increases but in a
manageable sample, it is possible for the researcher to establish this meaningful
support.
8. In a small sample, it becomes possible to scrutinize the data collected.

DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF SAMPLING: -

 1. CHANCES OF BIAS: - The most common argument against the sampling method is the
fact that it may involvers biased selection & thereby it leads us to draw erroneous
conclusions. A bias in the sample may be caused either by faulty method of selection of
individuals for the sample or the nature of phenomena itself.
2. DIFFICULTIES IN SELECTING A TRULY REPRESENTATIVE SAMPLE: -The results of a
sample are accurate & usable only when the sample is representative of the whole
group selection of a truly representative sample is very difficult particularly when the
phenomena under study are of a complex nature. A no of reasons stands in the way of
selecting good samples.
3. NEED FOR SPECIALIZED KNOWLEDGE: - The sampling method cannot be used by
everybody. It requires a specialized knowledge. In sampling technique, statistical
analysis may be needed. For such knowledge, the researches may commit serious
mistakes.
4. IMPOSSIBLITY OF SAMPLING: - Sometimes the universe is too small, or two
heterogonous, so that it is not possible to drive a representative sample. In such cases,
census study is the only alternative. In the studies, where a very high standard of
accuracy is expected, the sampling method may be Unsuitable. Even if the sample is
drawn most carefully, there are always some chances of error
5. Sampling demands a thorough knowledge of sampling methods and procedures and an
exercise of greater care: otherwise the results obtained may be incorrect or misleading.
6. When the characteristic to be measured occurs only rarely in the population, a very
large sample is required to secure units that will give reliable information about it. A
large sample has all the drawbacks of a census survey.
7. A complicated sampling plan may require more labour than a complete coverage.
8. It may not be possible to ensure the representatives of the sample even by the most
perfect sampling procedures. Therefore, sampling results in a certain degree of sampling
errors i.e. there will be some difference between the sample value and the population
value

CLASSIFICATION/ TECHNIGUES/ TYPES/ METHODS OF SAMPLING

Sampling methods may be classified into two generic types:

1. Probability or Random sampling

2. Non-probability or Non-random sampling.

PROBABILITY SAMPLING: -
Probability sampling– it is a method that use objective sample selection so that every
member of a population has a known probability of being selected. It is based on the theory
of probability. It is also known as random sampling. It provides a non zero chance of selection
for each element of the population.

Its chief characteristics are: -

1. Every member of the population has an equal chance of being included in the sample.
2. The probability of selection of a sample given size from a given population is also same.
For e.g. If one selects a sample of size 50 from a population of size of size 500, every unit
out of 500 can enter into a sample with equal probability 50/500 = 1/10. Similar, one
can formulate several different samples of size 50 out of 500 members of the
populations. The probability of selecting any one group of 50 is also identical for all such
groups.
3. Probability sampling gives a representative sample and hence the findings of the sample
can be generalized to draw conclusion, about the population.
4. It is possible to estimate sampling errors in case of probability sampling. Hence, one can
state the results, with a desired level of confidence in probability terms. For e.g. one can
say that sample results are acceptable with a confidence level. Say, 0.95 probabilities.
Probability sampling should be used when a researches wants to generalize his finding
and hence desires a greater degree of accuracy in estimating population values.
However, cost and time required for probability sampling may be large.

DESIGNS/ SUB TYPES OF PROBABILITY SAMPLING:

Following is the list of various designs of probability sampling: -

a. Simple Designs
b. Complex design

a. Simple design- simple design can be further divided into-

1. Simple Random sampling (SRS)

2. Stratified Random sampling
3. Systematic Random Sampling

Simple Random Sampling: -

Simple random sampling is a probability sampling method in which respondents are selected
using random numbers.

Simple random sampling means that every member of the sample is selected from the total
population in such a manner that all members of the population have essentially the same
probability of being selected. This is the most popular, basic method of sampling. It is
considered the most trust worthy method of securing representative of the whole population.
But it is neither arbitrary nor careless or haphazard. Random method of selection provides an
unbiased cross section of the population.

The advantages/ uses of random sampling: -

1. It required only a minimum knowledge of the population in advance.

2. It is free of errors in classification.
3. It is appropriate for data analysis which includes uses of inferential statistics.
4. It is more represent alive of the population.
5. It is free from bias and prejudice.
6. The method is simple to use.
7. It is easy to assess the sampling error in this method.

Disadvantages/ limitations of random sampling: -

1. It carries large errors for the same sample size than are found in stratified sampling.
2. If the units or items are widely dispersed the selection of sample becomes impossible.
3. If the units or items are heterogeneous in nature or of different size and nature, random
sample method would not be applicable.
4. Lack of use of available knowledge concerning the population and lack of knowledge
concerning the size of the sample units prior to their selection are some other
disadvantages.
5. It is occasionally very different to have a completely cataloged universe.
6. Cases selected may be too widely dispersed or even impossible to contact and thus
adherence to the whole sample may not be possible.
7. There are instances where the investigator does not want a representative sample. In
some studies, such as exploratory survey which the object is to gain insight into the
problem the investigator may choose as his sample only informed persons who can
provide his with the maximum degree of insight into his problem.

Stratified random Sampling: -

Stratified random sampling – A probability sampling method in which the sample is forced to
contain respondents from each of the key segments of a population.

Stratified random sampling is a refinement of simple random sampling since in addition to

randomness; stratification introduces a secondary element of control as a means of increasing
precision and representatives. A stratified random sample is, in effect a weighted combination
of random subsamples may be chance have an under proportion of one type of unit in it, it is
advisable to use stratified random sampling. The population is divided into smaller
homogeneous groups or strata by some characteristics and from each of these smaller
homogeneous groups draw at random a predetermined no. of units. Proportional sampling
enable tone to achieve even greater represent activeness in form each stratum in proportion to
its actual size in the total population.

This method is also called combination of both random sampling & purposive selections.

In the selection of strata or group, we employ purposive method, but in selecting actual units
from each stratum random method is used.

The usual stratification factors are sex, age, socio-economic status educational back ground,
residence, (rural or urban), occupation, political – party affiliation, religion & race. In the
standardization of tests and public opinions polls, the method of stratified sampling is
necessary.

ADVANTAGES/ USES OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING: -

1. In random sample although every unit has an equal chance of being selected,
sometimes important units are left out by chance but under stratified sampling, no
significant group can remain unrepresented.
2. Replacement of a unit can be done conveniently if the originally selected case is
inaccessible. If a person refuses to co-operate with the survey, he can be easily
substituted by another unit from the same stratum.
3. It is possible to select such a sample through stratification that most of the unit are
geographically, localized. A purely random sample fails to provide such a control and the
cases randomly selected may be very widely dispersed. Concentration of units’
economies time and cost of survey.

DISADVANTAGES/ LIMITATIONS OF STRATIFIED SAMPLING: -

1. Bias may be caused in the sample through improper stratification owing to overlapping
in the strata or disproportionate selection.2.
2. When the sizes of different strata are unequal, attainment of correct proposition
becomes difficult.
3. Lack of accurate information on proportion of population in each category and faulty
classification may be listed as some other disadvantages.
 4. The task of stratified sampling is itself not so easy placing variables in the proper and
right strata is not as easy task. If depends on the understanding and knowledge of the
investigation.

Systematic random sampling

This method of sampling is an alternative to random sampling. As the interval between sample
units is fixed, this method is also known as fixed interval method.

Applications: - Systematic selection can be applied to various populations such as students in a

class houses in a street, telephone directly, customers of a bank, assembly line output in a
factory members of an association, and so on. Strictly speaking this method of sampling is not a
probability sampling. It is sometimes called a pseudo – random sampling.

Advantages: - The major advantages of systematic sampling are:

1. It is much simpler than random sampling. It is easy to use.
2. It is easy to instruct the field investigators to use this method.
3. This method may require less time. A researcher operating on a limited time schedule
will prefer this method.
4. This method is cheaper than simple random sampling.
5. It is easier to check whether every ‘K’ th has been included in the sample.
6.
7. Sample is spread overtly over the population.
8. It is statistically more efficient than a simple random sample when population elements
are ordered chronologically, be size, class, etc. then systematic sampling gives a better
representative sample.
Disadvantages: - The primary disadvantages of systematic sampling are:
1. This sampling cannot be considered to be a probability sampling in the strict sense of
the term.
2. As each element does not have an equal chance of being selected the resulting sample
is not a random one. For studies aiming at estimations or generalization, this
disadvantage would be a serious one.
3. This method may sometimes give a biased sample. If by chance, several elements
chosen represent a particular group, that group would be over represented in the
sample.

b. Complex Designs: -
Complex design can be further divided into the following.

1. Cluster sampling-
 Where the population elements are scattered over wider area and a list of
population elements is not readily available, the use of simple or stratified
random sampling method would be too expensive and time consuming. In such
cases cluster sampling is usually adopted.

Meaning: - Cluster sampling means random selection of sampling units

consisting of population elements. Each such sampling unit is a cluster of
population elements. Then from each selected sampling unit a sample of
population elements is drawn by either simple random selection or stratified
random selection.

Cluster sampling v/s stratified sampling

There are certain differences between them.

Cluster sampling Stratified sampling
1. The sampling unit is a cluster or a group The population element itself is the
consisting of population elements sampling unit
The population is divided into many clusters The population is divided into a few sub
or sub groups, each with a few elements groups or strata each with many
elements
Cluster is done on the basis of geographical Stratification is done on the basis of
area or administrative divisions etc variables under study.
We try to secure heterogeneity with sub We aim at securing homogeneity within
groups and homogeneity between sub sub groups and heterogeneity between
groups sub groups.
We make a random selection of sub groups We make a random selection of
or cluster elements from each sub groups
.
The resulting sample may give a lower degree It yields a higher degree of
of representativeness for a given sample size representativeness sample for the same
sample size
The sampling error may be great The sampling error may be less
The cost per element is lower The cost per element is higher

Advantages/ uses: - The primary advantages of the cluster sampling method are.

a. This method is much easier and more convenient to apply when large populations are
studied or large geographical areas are covered. Even a ready list of population
elements is not necessary a researcher can simply draw a random sample of
 geographical sections and adopt single of multistage sampling depending of the
vastness of the area covered by the study.
b. The cost of this method is much less when compared with other sampling methods.
c. This method promotes the convenience of field work as it could be done in compact
places
d. Sampling under this method does not require more time.
e. Units of study a can be readily substituted for other within the same random section
f. This method is flexible; where it involves multistage sampling it is possible to employ
different types of sampling in successive stages.

Disadvantages/ limitations: - This method has certain stages. They are:

a. The cluster sizes may vary and this variation could increase the bias of the resulting
sample. For example, if the researcher were to interview all adults in households in each
selected street the number of adults would vary from house to house. There would be
certain bias resulting from the large coverage of big families.
b. The sampling in this method of sampling is greater. Thus this method is statistically less
efficient than other probability sampling methods

2. Area sampling-

This is an important form of cluster sampling. In large field surveys, clusters consisting of
specific geographical areas like districts, villages or blocks in city are randomly drawn. As the
geographical areas are selected as sampling units in such cases their sampling is called area
sampling. It is not a separate method of sampling, but forms part of cluster sampling.

3. Multi-stage sampling

In this method sampling is carried out in two or more stages. The population is
regarded as being composed of a number of first stage sampling units. Each of
them is made up to a number of second stage units and so forth that is at each
stage, a sampling unit is a cluster of the sampling units of the subsequent stage.
First a simple of the first stage sampling units is drawn, then from each of the
selected first stage sampling unit, a sample of the second stage sampling units is
drawn the procedure continues down to the final sampling units or population
elements. Appropriate random sampling method is adopted at each stage.

Advantages/ uses: - The crucial advantages of multi-stage sampling are:

a. It results in concentration of fieldwork in compact small areas and consequently in a

saving of time, labor and money.
b. It is more convenient, efficient and flexible than single-stage sampling.
 c. It obviates the necessity of having a sampling frame covering the entire population.

Disadvantages / limitations: -

The major disadvantage of the multi-stage sampling is that the procedure estimating sampling
error and cost advantage is complicated. It is difficult for a non-statistician to follow this
estimation procedure.

4. Replicated / Inter-penetrating sampling.

Replicated or interpenetrating sampling involves selection of a certain number of

sub-samples rather than one full sample from a population. All the sub-samples
should be drawn using the same sampling technique and each is a self contained
and adequate sample of the population.

Advantages: - The major advantages of replicated or interpenetrating sampling are:

1. It provides a simple means of calculating the sampling error.
2. It is practical. If the size of the total sample is too large to get the results ready in
time, one or more of the replications can be used to get the advance results.
3. The replicated sample can throw light on variable non-sampling. If each of the
subsample is interviewed by a different or set of interviewers. An estimation of
inter-viewer variation can be obtained.
Disadvantages: - A disadvantages of replicated sampling is that it limits the amount of
stratification that can be employed. This limitation is a real drawback to the use of replicated
sampling in a multi-stage sampling plan.

NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING: -

Non-probability sampling – Non-probability sampling involves a subjective selection of

respondents. Therefore, the probability of selecting respondents is unknown. This means that
because the sample is not chosen objectively it is not possible to state results with any degree
of statistical certainty.

It is not based on the theory of probability. However, simplicity convenience and low cost are
the chief merits of this type of sampling. In such cases, non-random sampling methods can be
used to study the required populations.

Its demerits/ limitations are: -

a. It cannot ensure an equal chance or probability of selection to every unit of the

population.
 b. The probability of selection of each on it is unknown.
c. A non-probability sample may not be a representative one.
d. It is, therefore, not possible to estimate population parameters (values) from the
results obtained from the sample.
e. Sampling errors cannot be estimated with any known probability. The results obtained
contain sampling bias

However nonrandom sampling is used or has advantages when –

a. The population list is not available or incomplete.

b. The researcher does not aim at finding generalizations regarding population’s parameters.
He is only interested in studying the nature of a phenomenon.
c. The cost of the probability sampling is too large and the researcher does not expect
corresponding adequate benefits out of his study,
d. There is a given time for completing the study. The probability sampling may be more time
consuming & does not permit completion of week within the given time constraint.

CLASSIFICATION OF NON – PROBABILITY SAMPLING

1. ACCIDENTAL SAMPLING: -
In Accidental sampling, the researcher simply reaches out & taken cases that fall to land
continuing the process till such time as the sample researcher a designated size. The
researcher, for e.g. may take the first 150 persons he meets on any one of the
pedestrian paths of a street who are willing to be interviewed or to provide the kind of
information that he is seeking. In such a sample, there is no other way of estimating, the
bias (difference between the average sample value & true population value) except by
doing a parallel study with a probability sample or undertaking a complete censor.

This type of sampling, besides being economical & convenient, can also afford a basis
for stimulating insights & hypothesis, where too much accuracy is not needed or where
pre-occupation is with tentative dues to hypothesis– formulation (as in exploratory
studies) accidental sample is quite useful. Thus, in this a researcher select any case he
common across for e.g., if due to wealth to study the behavior of police, the researcher
stand outside the police station & asks the opinion of those who comes out of the police
station about police behavior. This method is adopted to survey quickly public opinion.
In this, it is not possible to known whether the sample is representative or not.

2. JUDGEMENT OR PURPOSIVE SAMPLING: - A judgment sample is one which is elected

according to some one’s personal judgment in the choice and includes only those items
of the universe in the sample which he considers are most typical of the convenience.
 While choosing the sample, only the average items are considered & extreme items are
omitted & election of the sample adjusted in accordance with the object of the enquiry,
so that no significant item may be ignored.

This method has advantages or uses: -

a. When only a small no. of sampling units is in the universe &

b. In solving everyday business problems & making public policy decision i.e. to the
urgent problems Thus it is one of the non–probability methods of sampling. Probability
sample are designed to be representative. Judgment sampling involves the selection of
a group form the population on the basis of available information thought to be
representative of the total population of the selection of a group by institution on the
basis of criterion deemed to be self–evident. If for any reason in the researcher
judgment, a particular subgroup or stratum is satisfactorily representative its selection
illustrates the principle of judgment sampling, pilot studies could he based on such
samples. They furnish the sample of what are known as the cases or typical cases.
c. The chief advantages are the elimination of cost & time in preparing the sample & the
ability of the researcher to include certain feature of stratification in the sample.

Disadvantages

Disadvantages include uncontrolled variability & bias in the estimates, strong assumptions,
based upon through knowledge of the population, & elimination of the use of infecticutial
paramedic statistical tools for purpose of generalization by & leave complete reliance on
intuition & hunch is risky.

3. QUOTA SAMPLING: -

This is a form of convenient sampling involving selection of quota groups of accessible

sampling units by traits such as sex, age social class etc. when the population is known
to consist of various categories by sex, age, religion, social classes, etc. in specific
proportions, each investigator may be given an assignment of quota groups specified by
the pre-determined traits in specific proportions. He can then select accessible persons
belonging to those quota groups in the area assigned to him.

Quota sampling is therefore a method of stratified sampling in which selection within

strata is non-random. It is this non-random element that constitutes its greatest
weakness.

Merits/ uses/ advantages: - The major advantages of quota sampling are:

 a. It is considerably less costly than probability sampling.
b. It is takes less time.
c. There is no need for a list of population. Thus quota sampling is a suitable method of
sampling a population for which no suitable frame is available.
d. Field work can easily be organized; strict supervision need not be required.

Shortcomings/disadvantages/ limitations: -

The method of quota sampling suffers from certain major shortcomings.

a. It may not yield a precise representative sample and it is impossible to estimate
sampling error. The findings, therefore, are not generalizable to any significant extent.
b. Interviewers may tend to choose the most accessible persons; they may ignore slums or
area difficult to reach. Thus they may fail to secure a representative sample within their
quota groups.
c. Strict control of field work is difficult.

4. Snowball sampling-

In snowball sampling, the researcher identifying and selecting available respondents

who meet the criteria for inclusion in his/her study. After the data have been collected
from the subject, the researcher asks for a referral of other individuals, who would also
meet the criteria and represent the population of concern.

This is the colorful name for a technique of building up a list or a sample of a special
population by using an initial set of its members as informants. For example, if a
researcher wants to study the problem faced by human trafficking, through some source
like Nuwakot villagers, then he can ask each one of them to supply names of other
victims known to them and continue this procedure until he gets an exhaustive list from
which he can draw a sample or make a census survey.

This sampling technique may also be used in socio-metric studies. For example, the
members of a social group may be asked to name the persons with whom they have
social contracts, each one of the persons so named may also be asked to do so and so
on. The researcher may thus get a constellation of associates and analyze it.

Advantages: -

The advantages of snow-ball sampling

a. It is very useful in studying social groups, informal group in a formal organization, and
diffusion of information among professionals of various kinds.
b. It is useful for smaller populations for which no frames are readily available.

Disadvantages: -
 a. The major disadvantages of snow-ball sampling are that it does not allow the use of
probability statistical methods. Elements included are dependent on the subjective
choice of the original selected respondents.
b. It is difficult to apply this method when the population is large.
c. It does not ensure the inclusion of all elements in the list.

Difference between Probability and Non-Probability Sampling

Probability sampling Non probability sampling

1. It is a method of sampling which gives the In the absence of any idea of probability
probability that a sample is the method of sampling is known as
representative of population. non-probability sampling.

2. Probability sampling is generally used in It is generally used in action researches

fundamental research in which the
purpose is to generalize the results.
3. It refers from the sample as well as the
population.
4. Every individual of the population has
equal probability to be taken into the
sample.
5. It may be representative of the
population.
6. Its observations (data) are used for the
inferential purpose.
7. Inferential or parametric statistics are
used
8. There is a risk of drawing conclusion.
9. It is based on Law of probability sampling
i.e. Law of Statistical Regularity and Law
of Inertia of the Large Sample.
in which one studies a class without any
generalization purpose.
There is no idea of population.
There is no probability of selecting any
individual.
It has free distribution.
The observations are not used for
generalization purpose.
Non-inferential or non-parametric
statistics are used
There is no risk for drawing conclusions.
It is not based on law of probability
sampling.
 UNIT 4- Data Collection techniques
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Contents

a. Concept of data; types of data-primary and secondary, quantitative and qualitative;

differences between the data- quantitative and qualitative.
b. Data collection methods- concept and types
i. Experimental method
ii. observational method- naturalistic, structured, unstructured
iii. survey- questionnaire and interview
iv. case study
v. focus group discussion
c. Triangulation in research
 concept
 Types of triangulation- data triangulation, investigator triangulation, theory
triangulation, interdisciplinary triangulation and methodological triangulation.

Concept of data

Definition –
“Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials past and present serving as bases for study
and analysis”.

Meaning of Data
The search for answers to research questions calls collection of Data. Data means observations
or evidences. The scientific researches require the data by means of some standardized
research tools or self-designed instrument. The information collected from various sources
through the use of different tools and techniques generally comprise numerical figures, ratings,
descriptive narrations, responses to open-ended questions, field notes, etc.

Data can be regarded as information. It can be given out or taken for the purpose of making
interferences in research. In this case, it may include numerical or statistical results or figures
such as percentages. It may also include verbal materials like newspaper accounts, scholastic
essay etc. we can therefore say that any collection of verbal or numerical information from
which inferences or conclusions can be drawn or analyzed is regarded as data. It means that
data can be quantitative or qualitative. Any information which comes in numbers, figures,
measures or quantities is said to be quantitative. Likewise, any information which comes as
verbal descriptions of attribute or characteristic is regarded as qualitative data.
So when you have evidences obtained from other research studies, observations made from
the field and laboratory settings, information extracted from records and documents, score
collected from tests of various types etc; you say you have data.

To carry out a research study, you have to collect the relevant data so that the hypotheses or
generalizations you hold tentatively can be verified. This involves selection of samples from the
concerned population. Each tool or technique is appropriate for collecting a particular type of
data or information, which lends itself to a particular type of analysis and interpretation for
drawing meaningful conclusions and generalizations.

Research tools are administered on the sample subjects for collecting evidences or data. Most
psychological research will lead to the gathering of data by means of some standardized test or
self-constructed research tools. It should provide objective data for interpretation of results
achieved in the study. The data may be obtained by administering questionnaires, testing,
personal observations, interviews and many other techniques of collecting quantitative and
qualitative evidence.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FACTS AND DATA

The facts and data have been distinguished in the following manner:
1. The facts are organized in their original form whereas data are organized in
systematic order.
2. The facts do not have any coherence of system whereas data have an organic unity
like body.
3. The facts are difficult to interpret. The interpretation of facts is usually subjective
and employs then imagination of the researcher. Data can be interpreted easily
and most objectively.
4. The facts are mysterious in nature we have to explore the facts but data have no
mystery at all.
5. The facts are descriptive in nature whereas data are explanatory.
6. The facts are not amenable to objective statistical treatments whereas data can be
easily subjected to in objective statistical treatment.
7. The facts may not be directly the basis of findings or research conclusions, but data
are directly linked with research conclusions.
8. The facts are usually too broad and are not linked and a purposive way whereas
data are always collected with a sense of purpose.
9. The facts are collected in historical or survey research whereas data are gathered
in a scientific and experimental research.

PURPOSE FOR DATA COLLECTION

The researcher must know how much and what kind of data collection will take place and
when. He must also be sure that the types of data obtainable from the selected instruments will
be usable in whatever statistical model he latter use to bring out the significance of the study.
The data collection is the accumulation of specific evidence that will enable the researcher to
properly analyze the results of all activities by his research design and procedures. The main
purpose of data collection is to verify the research hypotheses.

The data are needed in a research work to serve the following purposes:
1. Collection of data is very essential in any research to provide a solid foundation
for it.
2. It is something like the raw material that is used in the production of data.
Quality of data determines the quality of research.
3. It provides a definite direction and definite answer to a research inquiry.
Whatever inquiry has to give a definite answer to an investigation. Data are
very essential for a scientific research.
4. The data are needed to substantiate the various arguments in research
findings.
5. The main purpose of data collection is to verify the hypotheses.
6. Statistical data are used in two basic problems of any investigation:
a. Estimation of population parameters, which helps in drawing generalization.
b. The hypotheses of any investigation are tested by data collection
procedure.

7. The qualitative data are used to find out the facts and quantitative data are
employed to formulate new theory or principles.
8. Data are also employed to ascertain the effectiveness of new device for its
practical utility.
9. Data are necessary to provide the solution of the problem.

Precautions in Data Collection

In the data collection the following precautions should be observed:

a. The data must be relevant to the research problem.
b. . It should be collected through formal or standardized research tools.
c. The data should be such as these can be subjected to statistical treatment
easily
d. The data should have minimum measurement error.
e. The data must be tenable for the verification of the hypotheses.
f. The data should be such as parameters of the population may be estimated
for inferential purpose.
g. The data should be complete in itself and also comprehensive in nature.
h. The data should be collected through objective procedure.
i. The data should be accurate and precise.
j. The data should be reliable and valid.
 k. The data should be such that these can be presented and interpreted easily.
l. The scoring procedure of the research tool should be easy and objective.

Classification of data /types of data

A. Classification based on sources

Data can be collected through different sources. Researchers collect their data according to
their needs. However, the categories of sources can be divided into two main types,

1. Primary data /primary sources of data.

Primary data collection is necessary when a researcher cannot find the data needed in
secondary sources. Researchers may interest in primary data about demographic/
socioeconomic characteristics, attitudes / opinions / interests, awareness/knowledge,
intentions, motivation, and behavior. Three basic means of obtaining primary data are
observation, surveys, and experiments. The choice will be influenced by the nature of the
problem and by the availability of time and money. Primary sources are original sources from
which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected.

Primary data is information observed or collected from firsthand experience. In the case of
psychological research, it is the data collected by the researcher for the study currently being
undertaken. The collection of primary data would involve designing the study, gaining ethical
approval, piloting the study, recruiting and testing participants and finally analyzing the data
collected and drawing conclusions.

The study might be an experiment, possibly with a questionnaire and / or an observational

element to measure the dependent variable. Or the study could just involve a questionnaire or
just an observation. The Data collected would be specifically related to the aims and/ or
hypothesis of the study.

Advantages of primary data:

1. It is original source of data
2. It is possible to capture the changes occurring in the course of time.
3. It is flexible to the advantage of researcher.
4. Fresh Data: Through primary sources a fresh data are collected as per the requirement
of the study. A researcher can collect this data on the basis of definitions adopted by his
own study. It is nothing but the first hand data.
5. Accurate Data: While collecting primary data, a researcher can maintain accuracy at
appropriate level. He can avoid the circumstances which create errors in data collection
of primary data. He can take precautions to collect the accurate data.
6. Reliable and Valid Data: The reliability and validity can be tested while collecting data or
by pilot survey it can be tested. It is possible in case of primary data to collect reliable
and valid data.
 7. Easy Access: The primary data are collected direct from respondents and not from any
other organization. So it is easy to collect it from them with easy access. In many types
of collection of primary data, face to face interaction results into the data required.
8. Collection of suitable Data: The collection of primary data is nothing but creating a new
dataset. So suitable data can be collected while collecting primary data considering
objectives of the study.

Disadvantages of primary data:

1. Primary data is expensive to obtain
2. It is time consuming
3. It requires extensive research personnel who are skilled.
4. It is difficult to administer.

SECONDARY SOURCES OF DATA

Secondary data is information that was collected for a purpose other than the current one. The
researcher could use data collected by them but for a different study or collected by another
researcher. The researcher might make use of government statistics such as information about
the treatment of mental health, or make use of data held by a hospital or other institutions. A
correctional study often uses secondary data and review studies use secondary data,
conducting Meta – analysis on such data.

These are sources containing data which have been collected and compiled for another
purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily compendia and already compiled statistical
statements and reports whose data may be used by researchers for their studies e.g., census
reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statement, Reports of
Government Departments, Annual reports, publications of international organizations such as
UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial journals newspapers etc. Secondary
sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records.

Sources of Secondary Data:

The various sources of secondary data can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Published sources, and
2. Unpublished sources.

1. Published Sources:

The governmental, international and local agencies publish statistical data, and chief among
them are explained below:
a. International Publications:
 There are some international institutions and bodies like I.M.F, I.B.R.D, I.C.A.F.E and
U.N.O who publish regular and occasional reports on economic and statistical matters.
b. Official Publications of Central and State Governments:
Several departments of the Central and State Governments regularly publish reports on
a number of subjects. They gather additional information. Some of the important
publications are: The Rastra Bank of Nepal Bulletin, Census of Nepal, Statistical Abstracts
of States, Agricultural Statistics of Nepal, Nepalese Trade Journal, etc.
c. Semi-Official Publications:
Local-Government institutions like Municipal Corporations, District Boards, etc. Publish
reports relating to different matters of public concern.
d. Publications of Research Institutions
e. Publications of various Commercial and Financial Institutions.
f. Reports of various committees and commission appointed by the Government are also
important sources of secondary data.
g. Journals and News paper:
Journals and News paper are very important and powerful source of secondary data.
Current and important materials on statistics and socio- economic problems can be
obtained from journals and newspaper.

2. Unpublished Sources:
Unpublished data can be obtained from many unpublished sources like records maintained by
various government and private offices, the theses of the numerous research scholars in the
universities or institutions etc.

Advantages and disadvantages of secondary sources of data

Advantages

 The secondary research process can be completed rapidly – generally in 2 to 3 week.

Substantial useful secondary data can be collected in a matter of days by a skillful
analyst.
 When secondary data is available, the researcher need only locate the source of the
data and extract the required information.
 Secondary research is generally less expensive than primary research. The bulk of
secondary research data gathering does not require the use of expensive, specialized,
highly trained personnel.
 Secondary research expenses are incurred by the originator of the information.

Disadvantages

 Secondary information pertinent to the research topic is either not available, or

is only available in insufficient quantities.
 Some secondary data may be of questionable accuracy and reliability. Even
government publications and trade magazines statistics can be misleading.
  Data may be in a different format or units than is required by the researcher.
 Much secondary data is several years old and may not reflect the current market
conditions. Trade journals and other publications often accept articles six months
before appear in print. The research may have been done months or even years
earlier.
As a general rule, a thorough research of the secondary data should be undertaken prior to
conducting primary research. The secondary information will provide a useful background and
will identify key questions and issues that will need to be addressed by the primary research.

Precautions in the Use of Secondary Data:

Since secondary data have already been obtained, it is highly desirable that a proper scrutiny of
such data is made before they are used by the investigator. In fact, the user has to be extra-
cautious while using secondary data.

In this context Prof. Bowley rightly points out that “Secondary data should not be accepted at
their face value.” The reason being that data may be erroneous in many respects due to bias,
inadequate size of the sample, substitution, errors of definition, arithmetical errors etc.

Even if there is no error such data may not be suitable and adequate for the purpose of the
enquiry.

Prof. SimonKuznet’s view in this regard is also of great importance. According to him, “the
degree of reliability of secondary source is to be assessed from the source, the compiler and his
capacity to produce correct statistics and the users also, for the most part, tend to accept a
series particularly one issued by a government agency at its face value without enquiring its
reliability”.

Therefore, before using the secondary data the investigators should consider the following
factors:
a. The suitability of data:
The investigator must satisfy him that the data available are suitable for the purpose of
enquiry .It can be judged by the nature and scope of the present enquiry with the
original enquiry. For example, if the object of the present enquiry is to study the trend in
retail prices, and if the data provide only wholesale prices, such data are unsuitable.
b. Adequacy of Data:
If the data are suitable for the purpose of investigation, then we must consider whether
the data are useful or adequate for the present analysis. It can be studied by the
geographical area covered by the original enquiry. The time for which data are available
is very important element. In the above example, if our object is to study the retail price
 trend of Nepal, and if the available data cover only the retail price trend in the state of
Kathmandu, then it would not serve the purpose.

c. Reliability of Data:
The reliability of data is must. Without which there is no meaning in research. The
reliability of data can be tested by finding out the agency that collected such data. If the
agency has used proper methods in collection of data, statistics may be relied upon.

It is not enough to have baskets of data in hand. In fact, data in a raw form are nothing
but a handful of raw material waiting for proper processing so that they can become
useful. Once data have been obtained from primary or secondary source, the next step
in a statistical investigation is to edit the data i.e. to scrutinize the same. The chief
objective of editing is to detect possible errors and irregularities. The task of editing is a
highly specialized one and requires great care and attention. Negligence in this respect
may render useless the findings of an otherwise valuable study. Editing data collected
from internal records and published sources is relatively simple but the data collected
from a survey need excessive editing.

While editing primary data, the following considerations should be borne in mind:
1. The data should be complete in every respect
2. the data should be accurate
3. the data should be consistent
4. the data should be homogenous

Evaluation of primary and secondary data

Primary data-

The greatest strength of generating primary data is the control of researcher has over the data.
The data collection can be designed so it fits the aims and hypothesis of the study. The
limitations are that it is a very lengthy and therefore expensive process. Simply designing a
study takes a lot of time and then time spent, recruiting participants, conducting the study and
analyzing the data.

Secondary data-

It is simple to just access someone else’s data and cheaper because significantly less time and
equipment is needed. Such data may have been subjected to statistical testing and thus it is
known whether it is significant.
The limitation is that for some studies, the data may not exactly fit the needs of the study.

Based on the above evaluation these data can be differentiated as-

DISTINTION BETWEEN PRIMARY DATA AND SECONDARY DATA:

Primary Data Secondary Data

1. Source Original source Secondary source
2. Methods of data Observation method, Published data of different
collection questionnaire method, agencies
interview method etc
3. Statistical process Not done Done
4. Originality of Data Original first time collected by No data are collected by some
user other agency
5. Use of data For specific purpose data are Data are taken from other
complied source and used for decision
6. Terms and definition Incorporated Not include
of units
7. Copy of the schedule Included Excluded
8. Method of data Given Not given
collection
9. Description of sample Given Not given
selection
10. Timer More Less
11. Cost Expensive Cheaper
12. Efforts More Less
13. Accuracy More accurate Less accurate
14. Training personnel Expert/trained required Less trained personnel
required

B. Classification based on nature

The research studies in behavioral science are mainly concerned with the characteristics or
traits. Thus, tools are administered to quantify these characteristics, but all traits or
characteristics cannot be quantified.

The data can be classified into two broad categories:

1. Qualitative data or attributes.
2. Quantitative data or variables.

The opposite of quantitative data is qualitative data. The former is numerical whereas the latter
isnot. A diferent kind of distinction is made between primary and secondary. The former is data
collected by a researcher specifically for a current research project whereas the latter is data
collected by someone else and / or for a different project than the current one.

1. Qualitative Data or Attributes: Qualitative data are verbal or symbolic. The

detailed descriptions of observed behaviors, people, situations and events,
are some examples of qualitative data. For example, the responses to open-
ended questions of a questionnaire or a schedule, first hand information
from people about their experiences, ideas, beliefs, and selected content or
excerpts from documents, case histories, personal diaries and letters are
other examples of qualitative data. The characteristics or traits for which
numerical value cannot be assigned, are called attributes, e.g. motivation,
confidence, honesty integrity etc.

Qualiattive data cant be counted but it can be turned into quantitative data
by palcing the data in categories and then counting frequency . Sometimes
people define qualitative data as being about what people think and feel, but
quantitive questions can also concern what people think and feel.

Open questions in questionnaire may collect qualitativer data – data that

express the quality of things. This include descriptions, words, meaning,
pictures, and so on.

In an observational study researchers can describe what they see and this
would be qualitative.

Qualitative data provide detailed information which can provide unexpected

insights into thoughts and behavior because the answer are not restricted by
previous expectations

Of course the complexity makes it more difficult to analyze such data and to
draw conclusion.
2. Quantitative Data or Variables:
Quantitative data are obtained by applying various scales of measurement. The
experiences of people are collected in a way to fit into standard responses to
which numerical values are attached. These data are close-ended and hardly
provide any depth or details. The characteristics or traits for which numerical
value can be assigned, are called variables, e.g. Achievement Intelligent, Aptitude
Height, Weight etc.

Quantitative data is data that represents how much or how long , how many etc
there area of something, i.e. behavoir is measured in numbers or quantities.

Some major chararacteristics include-

 The dependent variable in an experiment is quantittative
 Closed questions in questionnaire collect quantitative data- numerical information
about your age , how many hours you work in a week, how highly you rate different tv
programs etc
 In an observational study a tally of behavioral categarioes is quantitative.

Comparison/ differences between qualitative and quantitative data

Basis for comparison Qualitative data Quantitative data

1. Meaning Qualitative data is the data in Quantitative data is the
which the classification of type of data which can
objects is based on be measured and
attributes / qualities and expressed numerically.
properties.
2. Research It follows normally 1. It follows
methodology exploratory research normally
methodology. i.e to provide conclusive
insight and understanding. research
methodology
which aim at
testing a specific
hypothesis and
examine the
relationships.

3. Approach The approach to inquiry in quantitative data has an

the case of qualitative data isobjective and focused
subjective and holistic approach
4. Analysis When the data type is It follows statistical
qualitative the analysis is analysis of research
non-statistical findings
5. Collection of data It collects primarilyIt collects primarily
unstructured data structured data
6. Determination It determines depth of It determines level of
understanding occurrence
7. Asking Qualitative data is all about Quantitative data is all
why? Questions. about ‘How much or
how many’
8. Sample In qualitative data the sample The sample size is large
size is small and that too is in quantitative data
drawn from non- drawn from the
representative samples
 representative sample.

9. Outcome Qualitative data develops Quantitative data

initial understanding, i.e. it recommends the final
defines the problem. course of action.

Strengths and problems with qualitative and quantitative data

Strengths of quantitative data

 As the data are numerical, this allows easier comparison and statistical analysis to take
place.
 As the data are numerical, they are objective and scientific - there is only minimal
chance of psychologists miscalculating the data.

Problems with quantitative data

 As the data are numerical, they miss out on valuable information. If the answer is
simply yes/ no or on a rating scale we do not know why participants chose the answer
that they did.
 Using these data can be seen as reductionist as psychologists are reducing complex
ideas and behaviors down to a number or percentage.

Strengths of qualitative data

 The data collected is in-depth and in the words of the participants so it is rich and in
detail and represents what participants believe.
 As the data is directly from participants we can understand why they think, feel or act in
that way.

Problems with qualitative data

 The interpretation of the data could be subjective as we are dealing with words rather
than numbers - psychologists could misinterpret participants' meaning.
 There may be researcher bias. Psychologists might only select data that fits into their
hypothesis or aim of the study.
Some other types of data

A. Personal Data (relating to Human beings) are of two types.

i. Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals. Like name, sex,
race, social class, relation, education, occupation, income etc.
ii. Behavioral Variables: Attitudes, opinion knowledge, practice, intensions etc.

B. Organization Data: - Consist of data relating to an organization, origin ownership,

function, performance etc.
C. Territorial Data: - are related to geo-physical characteristic, population, infrastructure
etc of divisions like villages, cities, distinct, state etc.

Data collection methods/ techniques

A.Case study method

What is a case study?
Let’s begin by understanding what case study as a method in behavioral research is. A case
study is a qualitative research method involving an in-depth and detailed investigation to gather
information about one or more individuals or groups. It lays emphasis on studying few cases in
great depth instead of gaining surface information about many cases. As Madan, Paliwal &
Bhardwaj (2011) point out, “It is a method of study in depth rather than breadth.” The data is
collected not just from one source but many and the researcher, during the course of the study,
employs several research tools such as interviews, observation, and psychometric tests;
Individually or in combination to comprehensively and exhaustively study the aspect of
concern.

For example, a researcher interested in conducting a case study on an autistic child might
observe the child in different settings, interview the parents and administer psychometric tests
to draw inferences about the behavior of interest. The holistic understanding of the child will
thus be gained by putting together and analyzing the data collected from multiple sources.

In social science research, the case study method is widely adopted one in carrying our research
in the field. The credit for introducing case study goes to Fredrick replay. The English social
philosopher, her bet Spencer, was among the first to adopt case study method in comparative
studies of different cultures, the problem of juvenile delinquency was complex to understand
simply on the basis of available statistical data. It was Healey, who supported the case study
method which afforded a deeper understanding of the juvenile delinquency phenomena. Later,
sociologists, psychologists, anthologist, technologists and educationists interested in the study
of primitive as well as modern cultures by case study method. H. Gisbrians have had restored.
To this method while portraying historical character of a particular historical period and
describing the developments today, many a novelist and dramalist have used some
resemblance of the case study method for presenting a word picture of character

Definition of case study method

Different authors define case study in their own distinctive ways.

 Young (1960) in her book Scientific Social Surveys and Research describes case study as
“a comprehensive study of a social unit be that unit a person, a group, a social
institution, a district or a community.” Her definition incorporates drawing inferences
about each and every aspect being studied in minute details.
 Odum & Jocher (1929) believe “the case study method is a technique by which
individual factor whether be it an institution or just an episode in a life of an individual
or a group is analyzed in its relationship to any other in the group.” Thus a fairly
exhaustive study of a person or group is called or a life or case history. (As cited in
Madan, Paliwal & Bhardwaj, 2011, p.113)
 According to Goode and Hatt,” it is an approach which views any social unit as a whole.
It is a way of organizing social data so as to preserve the unitary character of the social
object being studied.”
 In the word of charles Horfon Coolye,” Case study depends our perception and gives us
a clear insight into life It gets at behaviour directly and not by an indirect approach.”

By the above definition; it is clear that the case study method is qualitative, inclusive,
intensive, insight stimulating and comprehensive approach. The field study is comparatively
limited but has more of depth in it. It aims at studying everything rather than something
about everything as in case of statistical method. In other words, it is study of Micro
problem at macro level. The approach to a case study research may not be based on
hypothecs is or on any well established conclusions but the study itself may help in
formulating a well founded hypothesis for further investigation. This approach to research is
, therefore, an open and objective investigation of a particular unit with a view to develop a
hypothesis in character so the researcher has complete freedom in selecting problem that
be considered as describe and fruit bearing. And it is used not necessary for proving or
disproving a hypothesis. Thus, the case study methods work as a micro scope in
understanding the complex behavior of social problem.
Characteristics of the case study method

Common to all definitions are certain characteristics which distinguish the case study method
from others. Thus, by its very nature the case study is:
1. Descriptive: The data collected in a case study comprises of description of psychological
processes and events and the context in which they occur. Quantitative data such as the
frequency of a behavior of interest may be present but the emphasis is always on
elaborating on the when, how and where of the behavior.
2. Narrow: Although a case study might be conducted on a group, it is rarely done in
practice due to factors such as time and resources. A case study therefore, usually
concerns itself with one particular individual and one or few aspects of the individual.
For example, a researcher studying peer interaction on social networking sites in
adolescents would limit his concern to just that and not study other aspects of social
interaction such as parent child relationship.
3. Highly Detailed: Being a qualitative method, case study is capable of producing “thick”
descriptions about the individual, event or behavior of interest. Its narrow and case
centric approach lends to its ability to describe such aspects in great detail.
4. Combination of Objective and Subjective Data: The data collected in a case study is
capable of representing any combination of objective and subjective data. The
description of behavior and its context accounts for the objective aspect which is
supplemented by details of the subjective matters such as feelings, beliefs, impressions
and interpretations. This quality of integrating different types of data helps in achieving
an in depth understanding of a single individual.
5. Process oriented: Case studies allow the researcher to explore and describe the nature
of processes occurring over time instead of following the snapshot approach to studying
behavior, which only takes into account the behavior and experiences as they occur at a
single point in time. This facilitates the study of changes that might occur over time. It is
for this reason that researchers studying developmental psychology, as we also read in
Genie’s case study, given in the introduction often employ the case study method.
(Adapted from Dyer, 1995, p. 4849)

CASE STUDY TECHNIQUE: -

The case study is often termed as method, sometimes as technique and at others an approach
to social reality. It is in fact, a technique which considers all potential aspects of situation
intensively investigating it. The technique of gathering and processing data are related to three
phases, viz

a. Choice of case
b. Recording of data
c. Data interpretation
The choice of case consists of two elements, first selection of “representative unit‟.
Representativeness of the case is important with a view to studying as a specimen in a culture
rather than as a definite entity, for eg the street child, people living in slums or a child sexually
abused can be the case in social work research which are the representative of case study
research, Second, identifying the situation thought case unit has an outlook, the problem must
be selected carefully and well defined the situation of the case unit being studied. Organizing
the social data in such a way to preserve the unitary character of the social aim is the essential
feature in recording of data. In practical sense, the wholeness of case can be preserved as
Goode and Hatt started, in for headings namely,
1. Breadth of data,
2. Level of data,
3. Formation of index / indices,
4. Interaction in a time dimension

The breadth of data refers to the fact of data collection, level of data concerns to many facts
of life of the unit, and that is available, index relates the various traits that are actually used in
characterizing the unit and time dimension emphasis upon the process and time, the time
provided may be short or long.
The interpretation of data is a equally and challenging as the selection of the case and
gathering information about the case. The researcher must closely guard against the subjective
interpretation of the facts of a case being studied.

SOURCES OF DATA FOR CASE STUDY: -

Following are the main sources of data for case study research.

1. The personal documents, viz. dairies, autobiographies, memories, letter, etc of an

individual which contain the description of remarkable events of the life of an individual
as well as his reactions towards them. Although they sufficiently subjective in nature but
are important for social research.
In the words of P.N. Young “personal documents represent continuity of experience
which helps to illuminate the individual personality. Social relations and Philosophy of
life often expressed in objective reality or subjective appreciation.
2. Life history is another course for case study at reveals the respondent life with the
significance of social movements.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CASE STUDY: -

1. Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis.

2. It helps in framing questionnaire or schedule through case study, it can be known the
prolife of the unit of individual with which a better and suitable questionnaire or
schedule can be framed in order to get rich response.
 3. It aids in sampling, by studying the individual units thoroughly in perfect stultification of
the sample.
4. It locates deviant cases. The deviant case is that units that behave against the proposed
hypothesis. The tendency is to ignore them but for scientific analysis they are important.
5. Case study method is a process rather than an incident
6. Case study method enlarges the range of personal experience of the researcher. In
statistical method, generally, a narrow range of topic is selected and the researcher’s
knowledge is limited to the particular aspect only. In case of case study, the whole of
range of subjective life is studied and the range of knowledge is naturally enlarged. With
this personal gain, he gets an intimate knowledge of many aspects of the units.
7. Since the case study covers the entire life of the unit, it is inclusive and intensive in
nature. Under this, there is possibility of studding the various aspects of a problem.
8. The significance of the case study is recorded. This nature of recording the data within
the life of an individual and later on, within the life of the class of individuals. This
means the researcher comes into contact with different classes of people, a thief, a pick-
pocket and a like.

Evolution of Case Study and its Uses

The use of case study as a methodology has a long history within the sciences, social sciences,
and humanities. It can be traced back to the 1930s when it started being used in medical
research.
Through a case study, medical practitioners would take detailed history of illnesses suffered by
the patient. The case study method has the distinct quality of allowing the researcher to make
inferences outside the lab, in natural settings while retaining the scientific quality of the
method of data collection and the research as a whole.

As such, it gained significance as a research methodology for identifying rich sources of data,
further developing into a technique that combines both qualitative and quantitative research.
Although initially rooted within a sciences approach, the case study method increased in
popularity within the social sciences and has been credited as being especially useful in practice
oriented fields as management, education, public administration, and the human services. It
has been an essential tool for advancing researchers’ knowledge of various individuals, groups,
events, and phenomena.

The case study method was first used by Frederic Le Play (1829) on cyclic changes that
contribute to decline or rise in family morale. Dr. William Healy used this method in 1912 to
study juvenile delinquency and considered it a better method over and above the mere use of
statistical data, which he believed restricts the scope of social sciences.
Case studies have been widely used in psychology and amongst the best were the ones carried
out by Sigmund Freud. He conducted extremely comprehensive investigations into the private
lives of his patients in order to both understand and help them overcome their illnesses.

The best known of Freud's case studies include Little Hans (1909) and The Rat Man (1909). In
keeping with its long history, case histories continue to remain one of the primary methods of
investigation within abnormal psychology and psychiatry. For students of these disciplines they
can give a vivid insight into mental illnesses as well as patients suffering from them. This insight
can then be used to trigger further, more specific research focusing on issues such effectiveness
of treatment plans, onset of disorders, factors that influence etiology etc.

Similarly, anthropologists, historians, novelists have used this method concerning problems
pertaining to their areas of interest. The case study method is also used by management
experts to study clues pertaining to several management problems. Therefore, the use of this
method permeates the boundaries of a particular discipline and is effectively used in different
fields.

Assumptions and Reasons for Conducting a Case Study

The choice of the method rests with the researcher, depending upon several factors such as the
research’s own skills, the resources available to carry out the study, the logic of the research, its
objectives and applications. It is, however, important to understand the rationale behind using
a particular method.

1. Assumptions underlying the use of case study method

It is assumed that no matter the individual differences that exist between different
cases/individuals, there is certain uniformity across the basic human nature which
enables case study as a method to draw generalizations, however low the level of
generalizability may be. This generalizing ability is greater in natural sciences as opposed
to social sciences as phenomena are understood as being universal, however because
social sciences take into account the individual and/or group differences in behavior and
experiences, there is always room for exception. Despite this shortcoming, case study
method is used to understand phenomena as they occur across individuals. For
example, developmental psychologists often use case studies to track stages of
development in children. It is a well known fact that certain developmental milestones
must be achieved at a particular stage. Since the stages of development are more or less
consistent in the normal population, case study can be effectively used to draw
generalizations in such cases.

The history of the unit of study can be exhaustively explored and researched using a
case study, giving the researcher an elaborate timeline of the individual’s life as it
occurred. Case studies are often longitudinal i.e. done over a period of time allowing the
researcher to track changes in the aspect being studied. A case study on Maoist
 movement in Nepal may involve a comprehensive understanding of life and livelihood of
the people before and after the Partition and its impact.

The fundamental assumption behind the case study method is the comprehensive and
elaborate study of the individual or event. One unit is exhaustively studied and focused
on to derive maximum information relevant to the objective and scope of the study.
This in itself gives the researcher using the case study method a wider perspective than
most other methods.

2. Why is a case study conducted?

According to Coolican (2006, p.101), a case study may be conducted for the following
reasons:

a. Outstanding cases: The cases are studied because they are so rare and intrinsically
interesting in themselves. The ‘distinctiveness’ of a case becomes a huge factor in
itself, which in turn leads to the selection of this method for carrying out research.
For instance, an exceptionally talented individual’s life and his extraordinary
achievements can be effectively captured using a case study.
b. Contradicting a theory: As mentioned earlier, social sciences understand and accept
the existence of exceptions and thus, one single counterexample can prove to be a
challenge to any theory.

For instance, if a maternally deprived child is found to have developed quite

normally in most important respects, then we have to adjust the view that such
deprivation is always damaging.

c. Data pool: A mass of information from several case studies can be pooled and
analyzed for specific factors that might emerge. Once patters emerge and are linked
with others, more quantitative might be employed and this time not on special
cases. For example, if a researcher wishes to study the lifestyle of a schizophrenic
patient, he/she may choose to make use of several case studies involving different
people suffering from schizophrenia, and then look at the commonly emerging
aspects.
d. Insight: The fact that in-depth case studies contain rich information is one of their
unique strengths, even when they might not lead to further quantitative studies.
Very often one might not be able to imagine the special circumstances of the
individual, nor their ways of coping with adversity. In such situations, findings from a
case study can inspire the researchers to formulate new and unique ways of looking
at a psychological phenomenon, can teach greater empathy and understanding, and
can add to our overall psychological knowledge without necessarily testing a specific
hypothesis.
Advantages and disadvantages of the Case Study Method

Any research method is a tool of knowledge generation and information-gathering in the hands
of a researcher. Each method comes with its own set of advantages and limitations, which must
be carefully weighed before use. It is the discretion of the researcher to assess these and
effectively use the tool for making inferences about the individual or phenomenon of interest.
Based on this assessment, the researcher decides the appropriateness of the method for
his/her research.

Advantages

 The detailed descriptions and comprehensive study of the individual enable us to gain
deep insight. In the words of Charles Horton Cooley, “Case study deepens our
perception and gives us a clearer insight into life… It gets at behavior directly and not by
indirect and abstract approach.” A thick account of personal experiences can be
maintained. This allows the researcher to historically analyze past experiences, which
may not be tapped by a method like observation. Individual and social changes can be
tracked using case studies as they are usually done over a period of time.
 It can combine information from various sources and methods, thus allowing the
researcher to look at a particular case from different vantage points and refining his/her
knowledge about the case of interest. Each source or tool supplements information
from the other and paints a complete picture about the individual.
 The case study method highlights individual differences and acts as an excellent tool for
studying phenomenon about which little is known. Therefore, case studies are
extensively used in exploratory research. In the case of Phineas Gage, studied by Dr.
John Martyn Harlow, the case study method provided a groundbreaking finding about
the impact of damage in the frontal lobe on personality and behavior.

Limitations

 Case studies are often done on special, peculiar and rare individuals or events and
hence, suffer from low generalizability. The personal experiences of an individual and
the inferences drawn about them are not always comparable with other people.
 The case study method is very time consuming and costly.
 The research who undertakes a case study must be extremely skilled and rigorously
trained in scientific investigation.
 Critics often suggest that case studies lack scientific rigor and objectivity in terms of the
way the data is gathered, presented and analyzed.
 Case studies cannot practically be conducted on a large sample of individuals due to
time and resource constraints.
 It is often only the voice of the researcher that is expressed in a case study and is
susceptible to subjectivity of the researcher.

Summary
Case studies are in-depth investigations of an individual, group, event or community. Typically
data are gathered from a variety of sources and by using several different methods (e.g.
observations & interviews). The case study research method originated in clinical medicine.

The data collected is highly descriptive and detailed in nature, narrow in the sense that it
focuses on limited aspects on the case it’s studying. The data collected is a combination of
objective and subjective data. It is capable of studying changes occurring over time.

It assumes that basic human behavior is uniform in certain ways, allowing a certain level of
generalizations, however low that degree might be. The major reasons for choosing to conduct
a case study are to study outstanding cases, contradict an existing theory, generate a data pool
and develop insight into cases.

The main advantages of case study as a research method is its capability to help the researcher
gain deep insights into the behavior or event of interest and help maintain a detailed account of
personal experiences. Combining data from various sources, it helps highlight individual
differences to even help in studying phenomenon about which is little known previously. There
are certain limitations to the method, though. It studies rare individuals or events and thus
suffers from low generalizability and also becomes costlier and more time consuming to
conduct. It is for this reason that case studies cannot be conducted on a large number of
people.

The researcher is required to be highly skilled and trained, and still the method is critiqued for
lacking objectivity and depending largely on the voice of the researcher alone.

B.Social Survey Method

Social survey technique is very popular in sociology and psychology. Survey research is the
systematic gathering of information about individuals and collectivities. The purpose of
surveying may be description or casual analysis. Large scale descriptive surveys have long
history in social research. National census is the biggest form of social survey in which surveys,
the whole nation regarding its population, their economic condition including their earning,
birth, death etc.

In general, social surveys are concerned with

a. the formation of constructive program of social reform and
b. Amelioration of current or immediate conditions of social
pathological nature, which have definite social significance.
Definition
 1. Duncan Mitchell’s Dictionary of sociology defines social survey as follows, “the
social survey is a systematic collection of facts about people living in a specific
geographic, cultural or administrative area”.
2. Bogardus says “A social survey is the collection of data concerning the living and
working conditions, broadly speaking of the people in a given community”.
3. E.W. Burgess defined “A social; survey of a community is the scientific study of
its conditions and needs for the purpose of presenting a constructive program of
social advance”.

Social surveys are useful for dealing with many related aspects of social problem. They provide
the data for administration, rather than for the illustrative or descriptive material. They are
generally quantitative and the history of the social survey is intimately bound up with the
development of statistics.

Surveys vary greatly in their scope, their design and their content. The specific characteristics of
any survey will determined by the basic objectives, which conducting survey there must be a
specific pattern or design to follow to collect data. The research follows a scientific step by step
procedure.

Procedural ways of social survey

The step by step tasks involved in carrying out a survey from the first state off planning to the
preparation of the final report in as follows;
b. Statement of the problem or general objectives
The problem which make survey necessary and the general objectives of
the survey are stated. The statement is generally expressed the area and
scope of the study.
c. Specific objectives of the survey
Although the general objectives, usually few in number are formulated
without regarding to the requirements of the survey technique; these
general objectives are broken down in to numerous specific objectives.
The specification of data to be gathered and the hypotheses to be tested
by the survey is accomplished at this stage.
d. Sample
Two major divisions in the survey sample are (a) the universe of the
survey (b) the size and design of the sample. After then actual selection
of the sample units take place.
e. Questionnaire
After the selection of sample units, a questionnaire is prepared, to collect
facts from the sample. The questionnaire must be carefully designed
within limits of the problem. The preparation of questions, degree of
probing, the sequence of questions and the establishment of rapport, a
specific pattern and a skill to be applied here. The questionnaire is pre-
tested in the field for proper application.
f. Field work
 The next important step is field work. Gathering facts from sample
through personal interview and observation are done. The interviewers
are usually provided with an instruction manual which explain the
objectives of the study and the meaning of each question.
g. Data coding and tabulation
After careful coding and editing of the data collected through survey may
transcribed into tables. This may be done by preparing a code, a
numbered list of major items such summing all the responses received to
each question.
h. Data analysis and reporting
The data are analyzed and a report is written which embodying the
survey findings. The survey process is a highly interconnected chain of
events so the above steps are independent of one another.

Limitation of survey method

Even though the survey method is applicable to wide range problems, it has evident limitations.

The major limitations are;

a. Sample error: survey method is subjected to the selection of sample,
b. Errors of measurement: A scone representing a person’s attitude, abilities traits or
behaviors may not match with reality.
c. Limitations of questionnaire: the imitations on length of the questions, that can be
asked in a survey and there are limits to the number of topics that can be covered.
d. Limitations of population: A sample survey designed to represent a population over a
wide geographical area is likely not to given adequate representation to any population
which highly localized in its character.

Survey has major two tools or techniques for data collections. They are

1. Interview
2. Questionnaire

Interview
Interview is a process of communication or interaction in which the subject or interviewee gives
the needed information verbally in a face-to-face situation. In a research situation it may be
seen as an effective, informal conversation, initiated for a specific purpose as it focuses on
certain specific areas. The main objective may be the exchange of ideas and experiences and
eliciting of information.

Types of Interview
Interviews may be classified according to the purpose for which they are used and according to
their design and structure. For purposes of research, an interview may be used, as a tool for
gathering data required by the researcher to test a hypothesis or to solve his/her problems.
This type of interview is called ‘research interview’.

Interviews may vary in design and structure. In some situations, an interviewer may interview
one individual at a time. It is called an ‘individual interview’. In a ‘group interview’, a group of
individuals is interviewed at one and the same time.

Interviews are also classified as ‘structured’ and ‘unstructured’. A ‘structured interview’ is one
in which the whole situation is carefully structured and pre-empted and the major areas of
inquiry are mapped out. However, the interviewee is given considerable freedom to express
his/her description of the situation. In this type of interview, the interviewer uses a highly
standardized tool and a set of pre-determined questions.

‘Unstructured interview’ is one where the interviewer does not follow a list of predetermined
questions. The interviewees are encouraged to relate their concrete experiences with no or
little direction from the interviewer, to dwell on whatever events seem significant to them and
to provide their own definition of their social situations. Series of questions to be asked are
allowed to emerge from the interview itself along with their form sequence in which the
questionnaire to be asked.

Techniques of Interviewing
Although the interview as a research tool can be modified according to the needs of the
research situation, there are certain techniques that need to be understood. These techniques
deal with preparing for the interview, conducting the interview and recording the information
gathered.
4. Preparation for the Interview
It is necessary to plan carefully for an interview. The interviewer must decide
exactly what kind of data the interview should yield, whether the structured or
unstructured type of interview will be more useful and how the results of
interview should be recorded. It is advisable to try out the interview on some
persons before using it for actual investigation. This is helpful in revealing the
deficiencies or shortcomings that need to be corrected before the interview is
carried out. The interviewer must have a clear idea of the sort of information
he/she needs, and may accordingly prepare a list of questions in the form of a
“schedule”.
Interview schedule is a device consisting of a set of questions, which are asked
and filled in by an interviewer in a face-to-face situation with the interviewee.
Since it is administered personally, it provides the researcher an opportunity to
establish a rapport with the respondents. This helps the researcher to explain
the nature and purpose of investigation and to make the meaning of the
questions clear to the respondents in case they misinterpret a question or give
incomplete or indefinite responses. The schedule also economizes on time and
 expenses of investigation. The procedure of constructing a schedule is same as
that of a questionnaire.
5. Conduct of Interview

In the conduct of an interview, a harmonious relationship between the

interviewer and interviewee is most essential. A good rapport helps the
interviewee to feel at ease and express himself/herself willingly. In order to
establish a good rapport, the interviewer should greet the interviewee in a
friendly manner so as to help him/her get settled in a relaxed manner. As an
interviewer you should observe the following rules in order to elicit effective
responses:
i. Ask only one question at a time.
ii. Repeat a question if necessary.
iii. Try to make sure that the interviewee understands the questions.
iv. Listen carefully to the interviewee’s answer.
v. Observe the interviewee’s facial expressions, gestures, and tone or voice so as to derive
meanings from his/ her body language.
vi. Allow the interviewee sufficient time to answer the question, but do not let the
interview drag on and on.
vii. Avoid suggesting answers to questions.
viii. Do not show signs of surprise, shock, anger or other emotions if unexpected answers
are given.
ix. Maintain a neutral stance or attitude with respect to controversial issues during the
interview.
x. Take note of answers that seem to be vague, ambiguous, or evasive.
xi. Use tact and skill in getting the subject back to an area of inquiry if he/she has strayed
too far away from the original question.
xii. In the unstructured interview, ask additional questions to follow up clues or to obtain
additional information.

The interviewer should try to redirect the interview to more fruitful topics when he/she
feels that the required information is not sufficient. She/he should wind up the
interview before the interviewee becomes tired.

6. Recording of the Interview

The recording of the interview is obviously an essential step in interviewing. The

interviewer may use a schedule, a structured format, rating scale or a tape
recorder to record the responses of the interviewee. The use of a tape recorder
during the conduct of the interview not only eliminates the omissions,
distortions, elaboration, and other unwarranted modifications of data usually
found in written interview responses, but it also provides an objective basis for
evaluating the adequacy of the interview data in relation to the performance of
the interviewee. The use of a tape recorder also permits the interviewer to
 devote full attention to the interviewee and save much of the time which he/ she
would otherwise use in writing down the responses during or after the interview.
However, if a tape-recorder is not available, the interviewer has to take notes to
record the responses.

Uses of the Interview

1. An interview provides an opportunity to the interviewer to ask questions on various

areas of inquiry. It permits greater depth in responses, which is not possible through any
other means.
2. An interview is not an entirely exclusive tool of research for gathering information
pertaining to feelings, attitudes or emotions. It is supplementary to other tools and
techniques. A combination of interviewing, observations, and statistical techniques
often yields the best results, but the balance of emphasis shifts with the frame of
reference and objectives of the study. Since an interview is a highly flexible tool in the
hands of skillful interviewers, it allows a more liberal atmosphere than in the use of
other techniques of investigation. Questions not readily grasped by interviewees can be
rephrased or repeated with proper emphasis and explanations when necessary.
3. An interview is an effective tool for a social scientist in the study of human behavior.
Through this technique, a researcher can secure very intimate and personal knowledge
about the subject of his/her study, which is denied to the natural scientist, who cannot
communicate with the subjects despite all the instruments of precision.

Limitations of the Interview

In spite of many uses of the interview method, it is not without limitations that may jeopardize
its value, even when it is used as a supplementary research technique.
1. Interview is a time consuming technique.
2. The effectiveness of the interview depends greatly upon the skill of the interviewer
which everyone does not ordinarily possess. It takes time to master this skill.
3. There is always a danger of subjectivity on the part of the interviewer.
4. An interview is very difficult to employ successfully because even in the presence a
skilled interviewer some interviewees do not respond freely, frankly and accurately.
5. Since memory and retention are highly selective processes, interviewees generally
provide accurate and vivid accounts of the most recent or intense experiences, or of
situations that they encounter most frequently. Painful or embarrassing experiences are
often forgotten or even consciously avoided by the interviewees. In such cases, the
responses lack accuracy.

Types of Interview:

Interviews vary in purpose, nature and scope. They may be conducted for guidance, therapeutic
or research purposes. They may be confined to one individual or extended to several people.
The following discussions describe several types of interview.
a. Structured Interview:

Structured interview involves fight control over the format of questions and answers. It is
like a questionnaire which is administered face to face with a respondent. The researcher
has a predetermined list of questions. Each respondent is faced with identical questions.
The choice of alternative answers is restricted to a predetermined list. This type of
interview is rigidly standardized and formal.

Structured interviews are often associated with social surveys where researchers are
trying to collect large volumes of data from a wide range of respondents.

b. Semi-Structured Interview: In semi-structures interview, the interviewer also has a clear

list of issues to be addressed and questions to be answered. There is some flexibility in
the order of the topics. In this type of interviewee is given chance to develop his ideas
and speak more widely on the issues raised by the researcher. The answers are open-
ended and more emphasis is on the interviewee elaborating points of interest.

c. Unstructured Interview: In case of unstructured interview, emphasis is placed on the

interviewee ‘s thoughts. The role of the researcher is to be as unobtrusive as possible.
The researcher introduces a theme or topic and then letting the interviewee develop his
or her ideas and pursue his or her train of thought. Allowing interviewees to speak their
minds is a better way of discovering things about complex issues. It gives opportunity for
in depth investigations.

d. Single Interview: This is a common form of semi structured or un-structured interview.

It involves a meeting between one researcher and one informant. It is easy to arrange
this type of interview. It helps the researcher to locate specific ideas with specific
people. It is also easy to control the situation in the part of the interviewer.

e. Group Interview:

In case of group interview, more than one informant is involved. The numbers involved
normally about four to six people. Here you may think that it is difficult to get people
together to discuss matters on one occasion and how many voices can contribute to the
discussion during any one interview. But the crucial thing to bear in mind here is that a
group interview is not an opportunity for the researcher to questions to a sequence of
individuals, taking turns around a table. Group is crucial here, because it tells us that
those present in the interview will interact with one another and that the discussion will
operate at the level of the group. They can present a wide range of information and
varied view points.
 According to Lewis – ―Group interviews have several advantages over individual
interviews. In particular, they help to reveal consensus views, may generate richer
responses by allowing participants to challenge one another ‘s views, may be used to
verify research ideas of data gained through other methods and may enhance he
reliability of responses.

The disadvantages of this type of interview are that the views of quieter people do not
come out. Certain members may dominate the talk. The most disadvantages are that
whatever opinions are expressed is acceptable by the group irrespective of their
opinions contrary to it. Private opinion does not given importance.

F. Focus Group Interview:

This is an extremely popular form of interview technique. It consists of a small group of

people, usually between six and nine in number. This is useful for non-sensitive and non-
sensitive and non-controversial topics. The session usually revolves around a prompt, a
trigger, some stimulus introduced by the interviewer in order to focus the discussion.
The respondents are permitted to express themselves completely, but the interviewer
directs the live of thought. In this case, importance is given on collective views rather
than the aggregate view. It concentrates on particular event or experience rather than
on a general line of equality.

Requirements of a Good Interview:

As a tool of research good interview requires:

1. Proper preparation.
2. Skillful execution and
3. Adequate recording and interpretation.

Preparation for Interview: The follow actors need to be determined in advance of the actual
interview: Purpose and information needed should be clear. Which type of interview best
suited for the purpose should be decided. A clear outline and framework should be
systematically prepared. Planning should be done for recording responses.

Execution of the Interview:

Rapport should be established. Described information should be collected with a stimulating
and encouraging discussion. Recording device should have leased without distracting the
interviewee.
Recording and Interpreting Responses:
It is best to record through tape recorder. It the responses is to be noted down, it should be
either noted simultaneously or immediately after it. Instead of recording responses, sometimes
the researcher noted the evaluation directly interpreting the responses.
Advantages of Interview:

An interviews technique has the following advantages:

1. Depth Information: Interviews are particularly good at producing data which deal with
topics in depth and in detail. Subjects can be probed, issues pursued lines of
investigation followed over a relatively lengthy period.
2. Insights: The researcher is likely to gain valuable insights based on the depth of the
information gathered and the wisdom of ―key informants‖.
3. Equipment: Interviews require only simple equipment and build on conversation skills
which researchers already have.
4. Information Priorities:
Interviews are a good method for producing data based on informant ‘s priorities,
opinions and ideas. Informants have the opportunity to expand their ideas, explain their
views and identify what regard as their crucial factors.
5. Flexibility: Interviews are more flexible as a method of data collection. During
adjustments to the line of enquiry can be made.
6. Validity: Direct contact at the point of the interview means that data can be checked
for accuracy and relevance as they are collected.
7. High response rate: Interviews are generally pre-arranged and scheduled for a
convenient time and location. This ensures a relatively high response rate.
8. Therapeutic: Interviews can be a rewarding experience for the informant, compared
with questionnaires, observation and experiments, there is a more personal element to
the method and people end to enjoy the rather rare chance to talk about their ideas at
length to a person whose purpose is to listen ad note the ideas without being critical.

Disadvantages

Irrespective of the above advantages, it has the following disadvantages.

1. Time Consuming: Analysis of data can be difficult and time consuming. Data preparation
and analysis is ―end loaded‖ compared with, for instance, questionnaires, which are
preceded and where data are ready for analysis once they have collected. The
transcribing and coding of interview data is a major task for the researcher which occurs
after the data have been collected.
2. Difficulty in data analysis: This method produces non-standard responses. Semi-
structured and unstructured interviews produce data that are not pre coded and have a
relatively open format.
3. Less Reliability: Consistency and objectivity are hard to achieve. The data collected are,
to an extent, unique owing to the specific content and the specific individuals involved.
This has an adverse effect on reliability.
 4. Interviewer Effect: The identity of the researcher may affect the statements of the
interviewee. They may say what they do or what they prefer to do. The two may not
tally.
5. Inhibitions: The tape recorder or video recorder may inhibit the important. The
interview is an artificial situation where people are speaking for the record and on the
record and this can be daunting for certain kinds of people.
6. Invasion of Privacy: Interviewing can be an invasion of Privacy and may be upsetting for
the informant.
7. Resources: The cost of interviewer ‘s fine, of travel and of transcription can be relatively
high it the informants are geographically widespread. On the basis of the merits and
limitations of the interview techniques it is used in many ways for research and non-
research purposes. This technique was used in common wealth teacher training study to
know the traits must essentials for success in teaching. Apart from being an
independent data collection tool, it may play an important role in the preparation of
questionnaires and check lists which are to be put to extensive use.

Questionnaire

In a research situation, a questionnaire can be said to be a carefully designed instrument for

collecting information or data in relation to the specifications of the research questions and
hypotheses. This instrument is used to elicit written responses from the subjects of the
research through a series of questions or statements put together with some specific objectives
in mind. It can be used to ascertain facts, opinions, beliefs, attitudes, practices, etc.

Obodo (1997), defines it as a series of questions or statements presented in a written form to a

subject or group of subjects and to which they are expected to answer in writing.

The Components of Questionnaire

A questionnaire is made up of such components as the title, the introduction, the response
instructions, biographical information, the questions/statements, return instructions and
gratitude. For you, as a student/learner, a letter of reference from an appropriate authority
may accompany your questionnaire to elicit the cooperation of your respondents. Now, let us
briefly touch on these components.
1. The Title
This gives an appropriate caption for the substantive content of the questionnaire. It is
not the topic of the research project, e.g. Public perception of depression
Questionnaire, Students’ attitude to intelligent test Practicals Questionnaire etc
2. The Introduction
This gives the main objectives of the research and/or the questionnaire. It also gives a
guarantee of anonymity of the respondents and confidential treatment of the
information supplied. It establishes a rapport with the respondents by assuring that no
information in the research report can be traced to particular individuals. This will likely
bring out accurate, frank, objective and comprehensive information from the
respondents.
 3. The Response Instruction
This specifies the mode or modes of completing the questionnaire. You have to instruct
the respondents to fill in the blanks, underline, put a cross, circle or tick the appropriate
place. It is a good practice to use one or two questions and answers to illustrate what
they should do.
4. Biographical Information
This gives the personal data of the respondents. It is required for analysis and
interpretation of the data. It includes such things as type of school, class, occupation,
sex, income, age, qualification, experience, social class, marital status, etc. You should
include only the variables that are needed for analysis and interpretations. Again, you
have to be cautious on the type of information being elicited or required. For instance,
divorced, separated, or widowed, instead of asking for exact age, give age range, when
information is sought what social class, income occupation, qualification, etc.
respondents may be prestige biased and therefore predisposed to over claim, thus
introducing response error.
5. The Questions/Statements
This gives the actual substantive content of the research. They can require factual
answers, opinions or evaluations. Every question/statement has to address a specific
issue in the research. Therefore, the questions/statements must not be written
aimlessly, haphazardly or shoddily.

All the statements or questions must be relevant to the hypotheses and/or research
questions. Do not add unnecessary questions to make the questionnaire lengthy. Select
words which will give you the required information with a minimum of distortions. The
language should be simple, clear and precise. You must try to avoid ambiguous,
suggestive, leading, antagonistic and embarrassing questions that invade privacy. Do not
use double-barreled questions.
6. Return Instructions
These direct the respondents on what to do with the completed instrument. Specify the
collection point, a mailing address or to hand them back to you or your assistants.
7. The Gratitude
This is the end of the instrument. You should recognize that the respondents are under
no obligation to complete the instrument. In fact, they are doing you a favor. Therefore,
you need to appreciate the respondents by thanking them.

Types of Questionnaire
Based on the format for the statements/questions and the responses, questionnaires can be
classified into two major types. These are structured/closed or fixed response type and the
unstructured/open end type. Let us look at them.

1. The Structure or Fixed Response Questionnaire

Here, the respondents are restricted to some response options. A question is asked or a
statement is made and a respondent has to choose from the available alternatives. You
 can see that the respondents do not have the freedom and opportunity to express their
views.

Look at some sample items of the fixed response type below:

a. How old are you?
20 – 30 years ( )
31 – 40 years ( )
41 – 50 years ( )
51 – 60 years ( )
61 and above ( )
b. For how long have you been teaching?
Below 5 years ( )
6 – 10 years ( )
11 – 15 years ( )
16 – 20 years ( )
21 and above ( )

c. What is your highest qualification?

SLC/ SEE ( )
10+2 ( )
B. A ( )
M. A ( )
Ph. D ( )

This type of questionnaire is usually preferred because it facilitates data analysis and the
estimation of validity and reliability indices for the instrument. Again, it is easier and demands
less time to complete. But on the other hand, a respondent may have different suggestions for
your imagination. He may not have the opportunity to give those suggestions.

2. Unstructured or Open-Ended Questionnaire

Here, response options are not provided for the respondents. All you need do is to
provide questions pertinent to the problem and the respondents are free to supply their
responses in their own words and in any manner they deem fit. When you are not sure
or cannot predict what the subjects’ responses are likely to be, this type of
questionnaire is the most appropriate.

See sample items below:

a. Do you have open and distance education in your state or country?
……………………………………….………………….
b. How is it operated ………………………………………
c. Would you say it has advantages over the conventional system of education?
………………………………………….……………..
d. Why do you say so? ………………………………….…………..
 The open-end questionnaire can provide unanticipated and insightful information that
could lead to a better understanding of the problem. But they are difficult to complete
and time-consuming. There may be misinterpretation arising from the fact that some
people may not be able to express themselves very well; while others may use styles
which are at variance with that of the researcher. These may bring about
communication problems. Again, classification and quantification of the responses are
very difficult leading to serious difficulties in the data analysis.

Characteristics of a Good Questionnaire

You have seen that the questionnaire is a very popular method of data collection in behavioral
sciences. The reason can be attributed to the relative ease and cost-effectiveness with which it
is constructed and administered to large samples when compared to other methods. To serve
its purposes very effectively, the questionnaire you construct must be characterized by the
following features:
1. Relevance: The instrument should be relevant to the purpose of the research. It should
elicit all the information necessary for answering the research questions and testing the
hypotheses. It should also consider the background and experience of the respondents.
2. Consistency: The instrument should be able to yield responses that are consistent. The
responses of a group of people to the instrument on two different occasions should be
as close as possible on these occasions.
3. Usability: The instrument should as much as possible be usable.
It should not be too long or so bulky. The conditions for the administration and the
method for interpreting the data elicited should be fairly simple and easy.
4. Clarity: Both the instructions and the items should be clear enough to avoid possible
misinterpretations. You should note once again that a good questionnaire should not
contain ambiguous items or instructions.
5. Quantifiable: The responses from a good questionnaire must be easily quantifiable. It
should be easy to assign numerical values or figures to such responses in a manner that
is systematic.
6. Legibility: All the items should be legible without tiny characters. The words should be
properly spaced with appropriate side margins. Always use the computer to type your
questionnaire so as to produce very neat and legible instrument.

Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages
i. It is economical in terms of time and cost;
ii. It can be administered to variety of people;
iii. It is easy to administer and even to distant respondents;
iv. It can be used to get information on non-cognitive constructs such as kindness,
stress, anxiety etc;
v. Great percentage of students or respondents can be reached at a time.

Disadvantages
 i. There may be low percentage return which may lead to the distortion of the
findings;
ii. There may be misunderstanding or wrong responses if the item s are not clear or
the instructions are misleading;
iii. Wrong or negative or faked answers may be given if the instrument is too lengthy or
if it is intruding o the respondents’ private life;
iv. It is not suitable for the illiterates, semi-illiterates, and children.

Techniques of questionnaire

1. Size of The Questionnaire Should Be Small:

A researcher should try his best to keep the number of questions as small as possible,
keeping in view the nature, objectives and scope of the enquiry. Respondent’s time
should not be wasted by asking irrelevant and unimportant questions. A large number
of questions would involve more work for the investigator and thus result in delay on his
part in collecting and submitting the information. A large number of unnecessary
questions may annoy the respondent and he may refuse to cooperate. A reasonable
questionnaire should contain from 15 to 25 questions at large. If a still larger number of
questions are a must in any enquiry, then the questionnaire should be divided into
various sections or parts.
2. The Questions Should Be Clear:
The questions should be easy, brief, unambiguous, non-offending, and courteous in
tone, corroborative in nature and to the point, so that much scope of guessing is left on
the part of the respondents.
3. The Questions Should Be Arranged in A Logical Sequence:
Logical arrangement of questions reduces lot of unnecessary work on the part of the
researcher because it not only facilitates the tabulation work but also does not leave
any chance for omissions or commissions. For example, to find if a person owns a
television, the logical order of questions would be: Do you own a television? When did
you buy it? What is it making? How much did it cost you? Is its performance
satisfactory? Have you ever got it serviced?
4. Questions should be simple to understand
The vague words like good, bad, efficient, sufficient, prosperity, rarely, frequently,
reasonable, poor, rich etc. should not be used since these may be interpreted differently
by different persons and as such might give unreliable and mis leading information.
Similarly, the use of words having double meaning like price, assets, capital, income, etc
should also be avoided.
5. Questions should be comprehensive and easily answerable
Questions should be designed in such a way that they are readily comprehensible and
easy to answer for the respondents. They should not be tedious nor should they tax the
respondents’ memory. At the same time questions involving mathematical calculations
like percentages, ratios etc. should not be asked.
6. Questions of Personal & Sensitive Nature Should Not Be Asked:
There are some questions which disturb the respondents and he/she may be shy or
irritated by hearing such questions. Therefore, every effort should be made to avoid
such questions. For example, ‘do you cook yourself or your wife cooks?’ ‘Or do you
drink?’ Such questions will certainly irk the respondents and thus be avoided at any
cost. If unavoidable then highest amount of politeness should be used.
 Types of Questions to follow:
Under this head, the questions in the questionnaire may be classified as follows:
a. Shut Questions:

Shut questions are those where possible answers are suggested by the framers of the
questionnaire and the respondent is required to tick one of them. Shut questions can
further be subdivided into the following forms
b. simple alternate questions
in this type of questions, the respondent has to choose from the two clear cut
alternatives like ‘Yes’ or ‘No’, ‘right or wrong’ etc. such questions are also called as
dichotomous questions. This technique can be applied with elegance to situations
where two clear cut alternatives exist.
c. Multiple Choice Questions:
Many a times it becomes difficult to define a clear cut alternative and accordingly in
such a situation additional answers between Yes and No, like Do not know, no opinion,
Occasionally, Casually, seldom etc., are added. For example, in order to find if a person
smokes or drinks, the following multiple choice answers may be used:

Do you smoke?

(a) Yes regularly [ ] (b) No never [ ]

(c) Occasionally [ ] (d) Seldom [ ]

Multiple choice questions are very easy and convenient for the respondents to answer.
Such questions save time and also facilitate tabulation. This method should be used if
only a selected few alternative answers exist to a particular question.
7. Leading Questions Should Be Avoided:
Questions like ‘why do you use a particular type of car, say Maruti car’ should preferably
be framed into two questions-
i. Which car do you use?
ii. Why do you prefer it?

It gives smooth ride [ ]

It gives more mileage [ ]
It is cheaper [ ]
 It is maintenance free [ ]
8. Cross checks:
The questionnaire should be so designed as to provide internal checks on the accuracy
of the information supplied by the respondents by including some connected questions
at least with respect to matters which are fundamental to the enquiry
9. Pre Testing The Questionnaire:
It would be practical in every sense to try out the questionnaire on a small scale before
using it for the given enquiry on a large scale. This has been found extremely useful in
practice. The given questionnaire can be improved or modified in the light of the
drawbacks, shortcomings and problems faced by the investigator in the pre test.
10. A Covering Letter:
A covering letter from the organizers of the enquiry should be enclosed along with the
questionnaire for the purposes regarding definitions, units, concepts used in the
questionnaire, for taking the respondent’s confidence, self addressed envelope in case
of mailed questionnaire, mention about award or incentives for the quick response, a
promise to send a copy of the survey report etc.

Difference between Interview and Questionnaire

Questionnaire Interview
1. Data is gathered indirectly. Data is gathered directly.
2. No face to face contact between two. There is face to face contact between
interviewer and interviewee.
3. Interviewer should have the general Skillful interviewer is needed.
knowledge of the topic.
4. Interviewee will hesitate to write it. Some confidential information can
also be obtained
5. We get written information only. We get written and oral both type of
information.
6. The body language, emotions, gestures The body language, emotions,
can not be obtained. Lack of verbal gestures can be obtained. Excess
communication upon verbal communication

C. Observation based method

Introduction to observation method in psychology research

Observation may be defined as a process in which one or more persons observe some real-life
situation and record pertinent occurrences. It is used to evaluate the overt behavior of the
individuals in controlled and uncontrolled situations.

The term observation derives from Latin, meaning to watch, to attend to. Dictionary definitions
(e.g. Oxford English Dictionary, 1989) tend to concerned it with the accurate watching and
noting of phenomena as they occur in nature, with regard to cause and effect or mutual
relations.

Reber (1985), however, extends the definition that “All psychological methods involve
observation, but stresses a distinction that should be made between research that is controlled
by the manipulation of independent variables and research that is carried out by the use of
naturalistic observation”.

C.A. Moser (1958) expressed that “Observation can fairly be called the classic method of
scientific study.” Observation is one of the oldest and the most fundamental research method
approaches.

From the above definitions, it can be seen that `observation’ is the process of collecting
impressions of the world using all of one’s senses, especially visual and auditory, which can be
used as an independent `classic method’ of scientific study and also as a part of research,
supplementing other methods in an important way. However, in the layman’s perception,
understanding and usage of the term `observation’ is very different from the one used in the
social research processes. Everyone is an observer. However, observation stops being a part of
everyday lives and becomes a research method if it is systematically planned, recorded and the
recordings are checked for their validity and reliability with a particular intention for such an
Endeavour. These factors simply distinguish between simply observing the world around you
and collecting research data through observation. Observation as a research method, thus, take
place when the researcher intentionally, with a specific purpose in mind, place themselves
amidst certain people, locations, situations and contexts to observe a phenomenon.

For example: Observing two kids playing just for the pleasure of watching it is an example of
everyday observation.

However, observing a group or a pair of kids playing in a particular context or setting, for
example a park in order to observe the “Aggression in the play interaction of children in the age
range of 6 – 11 years” is an observation which is a research method. Other less important
distinctions would be the seriousness, which, in a greater degree, observation as a research
method entails and the importance in furthering of knowledge that observation as a research
method helps in achieving.

Characteristics of Observation research

The `characteristics of observation technique, in general and as a method used in the
qualitative realm of research are presented as follows:

1. An intent and purpose: Observation, as a scientific study seems to provide the

characteristics of objectivity, precision, specificity, systematic steps, verifiable, reliable
and valid. For insuring all of the above, the first and most important consideration is
that the researcher (observer) must know clearly what is to be observed. A scientific
observation always has intent or a purpose behind it for it to be different from the
everyday observation.

Thus, for example: If a researcher wants to study a problem through observation such as
“Does democratic style of teaching lead to better grades in school?” Here it is very
important to measure “democratic style of teaching” by defining it in a way it can be
subjected to empirical testing, only when the researcher operationalizes the constructs
or variables he wishes to measure, the scope of `what to measure?’ and the purpose of
observation would become clear.

2. Naturalism and qualitative research: In a quantitative paradigm, when observation is

used, it is comparatively more systematic following certain steps providing for planning,
recording data and analyzing it, while being systematic is an important feature of
research. Qualitative observational research attempts to capture life as experienced by
the research participants, in the field as it happens, rather than through categories that
have been predetermined by the researcher. Observational research assumes behavior
is purposeful, reflecting deeper values and beliefs. Although it can be conducted in
`contrived settings’; a characteristic of observational research is that it occurs in the
natural settings to capture behavior as it occurs in the real life of the participant.

3. Characteristic of contact: Another characteristic is that it usually involves direct contact

between the observer and participant though indirect observations by observing video
and audio tapings can also be made.

4. Exploratory research paradigm: Observational research holds the `characteristic’ to be

`exploratory’ in nature. It seeks to uncover unexpected phenomena, ideas, causes for
behavior and the like. As said, sometimes, though the researcher has planned his
observation, the field might surprise him.

Advantages and limitations of observation

Advantages
Observation as a method of data collection is generally considered to have the following
advantages over other methods (Mahr, 1995):

 It provides information when other methods are not effective.

 It employs a relatively less complicated and less time-consuming procedure of subject
selection.
 It can offer data when respondents are unable and/or unwilling to cooperate or to
offer information.
 It approaches reality in its natural structure, and studies events as they evolve.
 It offers first-hand information without relying on the reports of others.
 It allows the collection of a wide range of information, even when this information is
thought to be, at the time of study, irrelevant. This is particularly true of participant
observation.
 It is relatively inexpensive.

Limitations / disadvantages

Observation also has some limitations, of which the ones listed below are the most significant.
It must be noted that while some limitations occur in qualitative observation, and others in
quantitative observation, they are often addressed indiscriminately by many writers (e.g.
Becker, 1989; Mahr, 1995), as they relate to observation as a method.

 It cannot be employed when large groups or extensive events are studied.

 It cannot provide information about past, future or unpredictable events.
 It cannot offer data related to frequency of behavior.
 It cannot study opinions or attitudes directly.
 It is inadequate when studying certain phenomena, such as sexual behavior, family
violence, etc.
 It is a relatively laborious and time-consuming method.
 It is exposed to the observer's bias, selective perception and selective memory.
 In participant observation the observer is a part of the situation that is being observed.
 It offers no control measures regarding bias, attitudes and opinions of the observer.
 It cannot offer quantitative generalizations on the results.

Types of Observation
Observation may be classified into following types:

1. Participant Observation
 2. Non-participant Observation

Participant observation: In the process of ‘participant observation’, the observer becomes

more or less one of the group members and may actually participate in some or the other
activity of the group. The observer may play any one of the several roles in observation, with
varying degrees of participation: as a visitor, an attentive listener, an eager learner or as a
participant observer. It is one type of data collection method typically done in the qualitative
research paradigm. It is a widely used methodology in many disciplines, particularly in
behavioral science. Its aim is to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of
individuals (such as a religious, occupational, sub cultural group, or a particular community) and
their practices through an intensive involvement with people in their cultural environment,
usually over an extended period of time.

Stages of participant observation

According to Howell (1972), four stages that most participant observation research studies
are

 Consolidating the information gathered

 recording data and observations,
 immersing oneself in the field,
 establishing rapport or getting to know the people,

Types of participant observation

Participant observation is not simply showing up at a site and writing things down. On the
contrary, participant observation is a complex method that has many components. One of the
first things that a researcher or individual must do after deciding to conduct participant
observations to gather data is deciding what kind of participant observer he or she will be.
Spradley provides five different types of participant observations

Type of Participant Observation Level of Involvement

Non-Participatory No contact with population or field of study
Passive Participation Researcher is only in the bystander role
Moderate Participation Researcher maintains a balance between
"insider" and "outsider" roles
Active Participation Researcher becomes a member of the group
by fully embracing skills and customs for the
sake of complete comprehension
Complete Participation Researcher is completely integrated in
population of study beforehand (i.e. he or she
is already a member of particular population
 studied).

Advantages and Disadvantages of participant observation

Advantages

1. Possible to get natural behavior of the group studied.

2. Possible to get an insight into the activities and motivations of the group which would have
been impossible had the fieldworker not been able to eliminate social and mental
distances.
3. Possible to get an ‘emic’ view of the people’s behavior and actions i.e. conceptually
speaking, to obtain the ‘insider’s point of view’ rather than the observer’s own
interpretation.
4. The intimate and active participation provides the investigation with sources of information
not procurable in more formal methods of investigation.
5. This method has its psychological values- it often tends to accustom the group to the
observer and at times even to accept him and incorporate him more or less as a member.
He, thus, gains the rapprochement which is indispensable for more intimate case-studies
and interviews later on.
6. Possible to check the truth of statements made by members of the group i.e. enables him
to evaluate his informant’s statement and information.
7. The use of the technique will provide a desirable balance between the more purely
behaviorist type of investigation and the type which seeks some measure of insight into the
‘meanings’ current in the community.

Disadvantages

1. Objectivity is lost, because of the observer’s intimate relationship with the group. Often
the investigator develops a sort of secondary ethnocentrism, when he starts identifying
himself very closely with the group, and it becomes very difficult for him to get rid of it,
and report his findings objectively.
2. Further, when the investigator goes completely native and learns the correct mode of
behavior, he comes to take them so much for granted that they seem perfectly natural.
As a consequence, he frequently will fail to record these details.
3. Such close identification may shape the investigator to a point where he starts feeling
that it has become a part of his responsibility to self-guard the interests of the people,
and he may give incomplete details.
 4. By becoming a participant, the investigator narrows his range of experience. He takes
on a particular position within the group, with a definite clique or friendship circle. He
learns and follows a pattern of activity which is characteristic of its members, and thus
is less able to find out what fringe individuals are doing.
5. The participant observer may fail to notice certain details as a consequence of his
preoccupation with the perfection of his role in the new group.

Non-participant observation: In the process of ‘nonparticipant observation’, the observer takes

a position where his/her presence is not felt by the group. She/he may follow closely the
behavior of an individual or characteristics of one or more groups. In this type of observation, a
one-way ‘vision screen’ permits the observer to see the subject but prevents the subject from
seeing the observer.

Non participant observation or direct, observation is where data are collected by observing
behavior without interacting with the participants. In this type of observation, the researcher
does not actually participate in the activities of the group to be studied. He would be simply
present in the group to note down the behavior of the respondents. The researcher makes no
attempt to influence or to create a relationship between him and the group. Though the
method implies non-participation, it should not be construed as complete or total lack of
participation. As a matter of fact, there can be no non-participant observation of a group.

The merit of this method is that the researcher can maintain purely impartial status and be free
from factionalism. He can adopt a scientific attitude and look at the happenings only from that
perspective. But the greatest problem with this method is that the members of the group (i.e.
those under observation) may become suspicious of the presence of the researcher and hence
may not display their natural behavior.

Further, under non-participant observation, the observer may observe only those activities that
take place before him. He fails to understand them in proper sequence, unless he has actively
participated with the group.

Observations may also be classified into the following two categories:

1. Structured observation, and
2. Unstructured observation
Structured observation: Structured observation is formal in character and is designed to
provide systematic description to test causal hypothesis. It is executed in controlled situations
like classrooms or laboratory settings. This type of observation starts with relatively specific
formulations. There is not much choice with respect to the content of observation. The
observer sets up in advance the categories of behavior in terms of which he/she wishes to
analyze the problem, and keeps in mind the time limit within which he/she has to make the
observation.
It is a method for systematically observing the behavior of individuals in terms of a schedule of
categories. It is a technique in which the researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the
observation and recording of behavior. One of its main advantages is that it allows behavior to
be observed directly, unlike in survey research, which allows behavior only to be inferred. In
survey research, respondents frequently report their behavior, but there are good reasons for
thinking that such reports may not be entirely accurate. Structured observation constitutes a
possible solution in that it entails the direct observation of behavior.

Structured observation, often also called systematic observation, is a technique in which the
researcher employs explicitly formulated rules for the observation and recording of behavior.
The rules inform observers about what they should look for and how they should record
behavior. Each person who is part of the research (we will call these people ‘participants’) is
observed for a predetermined period of time using the same rules. These rules are articulated
in what is usually referred to as an observation schedule, which bears many similarities to a
structured interview schedule with closed questions. The aim of the observation schedule is to
ensure that each participant’s behavior is systematically recorded so that it is possible to
aggregate the behavior of all those in the sample in respect of each type of behavior being
recorded. The rules that constitute the observation schedule are as specific as possible in order
to direct observers to exactly what aspects of behavior they are supposed to be looking for. The
resulting data resemble questionnaire data considerably, in that the procedure generates
information on different aspects of behavior that can be treated as variables. Moreover,
structured observation research is typically underpinned by a cross-sectional research design.

Advantages of structured observation:

1. The fact that different observes can, and do, produce different accounts of situations
can be handled by using structured observation.

It is precisely this problem which is addressed by systematic (structured) observation

and its use of an observation schedule. The whole purpose of the schedule is to
minimize, possibly eliminate, the variations that will arise from data based on
individual perceptions of events and situations. Its aim is to provide a framework of
observation which all observers will use (Denscombe, 2007).

Thus, it gives objectivity to the research.

I. It can be replicated to some extent exactly.
II. It helps to not miss out any aspects which are of extreme importance for the study. It
also helps in quicker recording of the aspects of the phenomenon.
III. The observer bias is not much in the field, however while construction of the
observation schedule, the bias enters as only those observations anticipated to be
important find a place in the schedule.
Disadvantages of structured observation:
i. Researcher bias during construction of observation schedule
ii. Limited and narrow scope of studying a phenomenon
iii. Greater objectivity sometimes leads to missing out on major variables that affect the
focus of the observation.
iv. The findings, rather, the recordings may not be complete, missing out on some
unanticipated observations the field surprises the researcher with.
v. This is based on a theory but might not help in elaborating or giving a new theory.

Thus, the structuring of data or an observation can be done by structuring the data gathering
techniques which are structured and systematic like check-lists, rating scales, charts etc.

Unstructured observation: Unstructured observation is associated with participant observation

and is often an exploratory exercise. In unstructured observation, it may not be possible to
categories behavior before the observation. The observer considers aspects of behavior in
terms of their contexts or situations of which they are a part.

Unstructured observation:

As its name implies, unstructured observation does not entail the use of an observation
schedule for the recording of behavior. Instead, the aim is to record in as much detail as
possible the behavior of participants with the aim of developing a narrative account of that
behavior. In a sense, most participant observation is unstructured, but the term unstructured
observation is usually employed in conjunction with non-participant observation.

Researchers who decide to adopt the technique and may have a clear idea of the purpose of
observation, they may not be very clear about the details of observation. This kind of
observation is generally used in exploratory studies. The researcher `does not use
predetermined categories and classifications but makes observations in a more natural open –
ended way …. The logic here is that categories and concepts for describing and analyzing the
observational data will emerge later in the research, during the analysis, rather than brought to
the research, or imposed on the data, from the start.’ (Punch, 2005).

As in grounded theory, the researcher `postpones the definitions and structures until a pattern
has been observed …. And then continues with the fieldwork in order to elaborate these while
the data are still available for access ‘(Bouling, 2002).

Unstructured observation can be useful to generate hypotheses and theories, but is difficult to
manage. It’s qualitative in nature and this can sometimes be referred to as qualitative
observational research. Thus usually involves taking field notes and such unstructured means to
collect data where the field holds surprises.

Advantages of unstructured observation

1. Not imposing any particular limit to the data on the behavior in any way, this form of
observation is more open to new concepts and ideas that may be derived from the field.
2. New concepts may arise and new theories may develop which may help to further
knowledge in an unrestricted manner.
3. It includes bias as structured observation have certain aspects to observe outlined which
depends strongly upon the researcher’s subjective bias or understanding what is
important and what is not.
4. It helps in greater understanding of a phenomenon in a more subjective manner which
is one quality of qualitative research.

Disadvantages of unstructured observation:

1. It is very difficult to do and requires a great deal of skill.
2. It involves observer bias; as the observer notes down only the aspects of the
phenomenon which he feels to be important and relevant.
3. Only carrying unstructured data collecting devices may slow down the observation
process and if only one observes is present to observe a large group, the notes may be
incomplete as the observes may miss out on some aspects.
4. Some notes may be deviating from the research topic and the analysis is also
comparatively difficult.

Application of observation in the psychology research

1. Observation as a technique:
“Observational research technique” is used in conjunction with other techniques or
method in the process of carrying out a research. Observation may be used in traditional
experimental design, as in Milgram’s (1963) work on obedience where, in addition to
mechanical recordings of the participant’s responses, a film record was made in order to
achieve or observe changes in the `emotional reactions’.

Also in Bandura’s (1965) `Bobo doll study’ of aggression, the degree of frustration of the
child just prior to observing the model was observed, the status of the role of the child and
the consequences of the model’s behavior were predicted using observation as a
technique, using the information of which, many independent variables were manipulated
and their affect on the dependent variables was observed.

In exploratory researches using any method, observation as a technique can be used to

understand the context of the phenomenon and the important questions regarding the
phenomena to be asked.
Observation can be used in conjunction with interviews in order to observe and record the
inherent non-verbal eves of the participant and also when the interviewer possesses
limited verbal skills (like children and people with learning disabilities) and the like.

Observation is used in conjunction to the analysis done in role play and simulated
behaviors. In these cases, observations may be made at the time when the simulated
behaviors and feeling exhibited in particular role plays are filmed for subsequent analysis.

Thus, observation can be used as a technique in conjunction with many other instruments
as it adds comprehensiveness, meaning and scope for generalizing the data and the
findings of the research study.

Observation as an Overall research design:

An ‘observational investigation’ is a study carried out only using the method of

observation for collecting data and thus, analyzing it. It thus involves all the characteristics
of observational method such as the presence of intent, it being carried out in a real-life-
setting, usually away from the labs and finally not involving manipulation of the variables
which thus, enables the formulation of strong correlations but not cause effect
relationships between the variables.

The biggest weakness of such a study only employing the observational technique for the
entire process of research is that a cause – effect relationship between the variables
measured cannot be formed due to the vast dynamic interplay of variables in real – life
settings where none of the variables are manipulated. Thus, the reason for a particular
phenomenon cannot be particularly found and generalized.

However, in phenomena that require an exploratory approach, seeking to known about the
field no one treaded into, observational method is the only research method which
positively affects the study. In these studies, as the causes of behavior or the phenomena
are more unimportant than the general primary understanding of the phenomenon,
observational method serves the purpose.

However, it is very rarely used as an individual method due to loss of comprehensiveness

and thus losing out on important aspects of the phenomenon.

Research questions appropriate to be studied by the technique of observation:

Observation, one of the methods of field research holds the strength of observing the
phenomenon as it happens, in the field setting, to get a full understanding of it and thus a
deeper insight into it.

Thus, with such purposes in mind, it can be said the observation is appropriate for research
questions that appear to defy simple quantification, which show study of social processes
over time and those which study attitudes and behaviors best understood within their
natural setting.

The above three criteria answer the question “What research questions are appropriately
answered by the method of observation?”
1. Firstly, observation is appropriate for questions that defy including simple
quantification: Observation, particularly the paradigm of qualitative research as a whole,
rejects the idea that all the subjective human experiences, individual differences and
many intricacies that help in better understanding of a phenomenon cannot be
quantified (always).
For example: The very subjective reaction of empathy or helping behavior of an
individual can be very rarely quantified, thus making observation an appropriate
method for its study.
2. Observation is appropriate for research questions which study social processes over a
period of time.

While survey research and other longitudinal studies are ex-post facto researches where
the study occurs after the phenomenon had already occurred, in a reconstruction of
events, observation gives a picture though, from the beginning to the end of the
phenomenon.

For example: Observation is very useful to examine the rumblings and final explosion of
a riot as the events actually occur, rather than the afterward in a reconstruction of the
events.

3. Field research (observation) is especially appropriate for the study of those attitudes
and behavior; which is best understood within their natural setting.

For example: Observation best suites the studying of dynamics of conversion of religion
at a revival meeting which requires a subjective experience to the data collected.
However, “how many men and woman are more likely to convert is better studies
through a statistical analysis.

4. Observation is appropriate for questions that demand a rounded understanding of a

phenomenon, but not generalizability to a large population. Observation, being one the
many methods in qualitative research focuses on the understanding of a phenomenon
at a deeper level but not on the process of generalization to a larger group. Hence, the
sampling also differs in qualitative and quantitative research paradigms. Observation
chooses people who are rich in information regarding that phenomenon or seem to be
potential sources are treated as the `simple’; and questions that require that kind of an
approach are best suited to be observed.

For example: For investigating the research question “what individual” would have the
aim of learning about the various possible symptoms rather than generalizing this to all
 possible schizophrenics. For such questions, observation can be an effective method of
research.
5. Historical Development of Observation as a research method
Naturalistic Observation as a method

Naturalistic observations are observations that take place in a person's or animals own natural
environment. It is sometimes called field work or simply field observation. In a naturalistic
observation study, the researcher makes observations of individuals in their natural
environments (the field). This research approach has roots in anthropology and the study of
animal behavior and is currently widely used in the social sciences to study many phenomena in
all types of social and organizational settings.

Naturalistic observation (sometimes referred to as field observation) involves watching people

or animals in their natural habitats. The greatest advantage of this type of observation is the
potential for observing natural or true behaviors. The idea is that animals or people in their
natural habitat rather than in an artificial laboratory setting should display more realistic,
natural behaviors. For this reason, naturalistic observation has greater ecological validity than
most other research methods. Ecological validity refers to the extent to which research can be
generalized to real-life situations (Aronson & Carlsmith, 1968). Both Jane Goodall and Dian
Fossey engaged in naturalistic observation in their work with chimpanzees and gorillas,
respectively. However, as we will see, they used the naturalistic method slightly differently

In this method, the scientist tests hypotheses by observing people as they engage in everyday
activities in their natural habitats. For example, observing people in their common, everyday
life at home, at school, or on the playground, (that is, natural) surroundings. The strength of
naturalistic observation is the ease with which it can be applied to infants and toddlers, who
often cannot be studied though methods that demand verbal skills. But perhaps the greatest
advantage of the observational technique is that it is the only method that can tell us how
people actually behave in everyday life (Willems & Alexander, 1982).

In some observational studies, researchers observe and record behavior without intervening or
affecting the behavior in any way, in a real – life setting, as it occurs, naturally. The participants
are observed as they engage in ordinary activities in settings that have not been artificially
created or set up in the aim of carrying out research.

For example: Researchers have used naturalistic observation to study behavior during riots,
crowd behavior, other mob events, littering, non-verbal behavior, play interactions between
children and so on. Such an observation in the context of naturalism is known as ‘Naturalistic
observation’.
Naturalistic observation is not only used by psychologists, sociologists and other people who
study the human behavior, but is also conducted by researchers who are interested in the
behavior of non-human animals in their natural habitats – ethnologists and comparative
psychologists.

Examples are studies of tool use by elephants, mating among ignana lizards, aggression among
monkeys (for eg., cheralier – skolnikoff & Liska, 1993).

In reality, this method was inherited by psychology from the ethnologists largely (Lorenz,
Tinbergen).

Advantages of Naturalistic setting:

1. The behavior which occurs is more natural and if the target is unaware of the observer,
(which is usually the case), the behavior is unaffected by anxiety or the target’s need to
be socially desirable or to impress.
2. The study gains the status of a real and ecologically valid study as the observations tend
to more true in the real – life and thus more valid.
3. The places of phenomena where it would be unethical to experiment with or intervene
or manipulates variables (eg. In the lives of children and animals), this method is
extremely of use.
4. When people are not ready to cooperate with interview or questionna9ire methods and
when the researcher decides that full social content is necessary for the observed
behavior to carry meaning; these are the places where naturalistic observation takes on
an advantage.

Disadvantages of observational research in naturalistic settings (natural observation)

1. First, some behaviors occur so infrequently (for example, heroic rescues) or are
so socially undesirable that they are unlikely to be witnessed by a strange
observer in the natural environment.
2. Second, many events are usually happening at the same time in the natural
setting, and any (or some combination) of them may be affecting people’s
behavior. This makes it difficult to pinpoint the causes of participants’ actions or
of any developmental trends in behavior.
3. The mere presence of an observer can sometimes make people behave
differently than they otherwise would
4. Naturalistic observation obviously cannot be used to study all issues or
phenomena. The approach is most useful when investigating complex social
settings both to understand the settings and to develop theories based on the
observations.
5. It is less useful for studying well-defined hypotheses under precisely specified
conditions or phenomena that are not directly observable by a researcher in a
natural setting (e.g., color perception, mood, and response time on a cognitive
task).
6. Field research is also very difficult to do. Unlike a typical laboratory experiment,
field research data collection cannot always be scheduled at a convenient time
 and place. In fact, field research can be extremely time-consuming, often placing
the researcher in an unfamiliar setting for extended periods.
7. In naturalistic observation research, however, there is an ever-changing pattern
of events, some important and some unimportant; the researcher must record
them all and remain flexible in order to adjust to them as research progresses.
8. Finally, the process of analysis that follows the completion of the research is not
simple. The researcher must repeatedly sort through the data to develop
hypotheses to explain the data and then make sure all data are consistent with
the hypotheses.

Stages in the Process of Observation

As a good research technique, observation needs proper planning, expert execution, and
adequate recording and interpretation.

ii. Planning for observation

Planning for observation includes definition of specific activities or units of
behavior to be observed; the nature of the groups of subjects to be
observed; the scope of observation of the individual or group; determination
of the length of each observation period and deciding about the tools to be
used in making the observation and recording.
iii. Execution of Observation

The expert execution of observation includes:

a. Proper arrangement of specific conditions for the subject or subjects to be
observed
b. Assuming proper role or physical positions for observing,
c. Focusing attention on the specific activities or units of behavior under
observation,
d. Proper handling of recording instruments to be used, and
e. Utilizing one’s training and experience fairly effectively in terms of making
the observation and recording the facts.

iv. Recording and Interpreting the Observation

Recording of the observation data should take place either simultaneously or soon after the
observation. In the former case, the observer goes on recording his/her observation data
simultaneously with the occurrence of the phenomenon observed. In the latter case, the
observer undertakes to record his/her observations not simultaneously with the actual event,
but immediately after he/she has observed for a certain period of time while the details are still
fresh in his/her mind.

In viewing, classifying and recording behavior, the observer must take utmost care to keep out
his/her personal influences, biases, attitudes and values from the observation report. The
observer should know what he/she is looking for in a given situation and should carefully and
objectively record the relevant data. Subjectivity on the part of an observer may partly be due
to his/her emotional involvement, his/her selective perceptions and memory. In order to
overcome these biases, various mechanical instruments are used to obtain more accurate
records of events.

The use of cameras, tape-recorders, stopwatches, binoculars, audiometer, one-way vision

screens, mirrors, etc., allows behavior to be observed to a degree of accuracy which cannot be
achieved by an unaided human observer. It is worthwhile to develop an “observation schedule”
like a question-schedule for making and recording observations. The specific behaviors to be
observed and recorded should be listed in this schedule.

D.Focus Group Discussion (FGD)

Focus Group Discussion (FGD) is a qualitative method of data gathering that is aimed at
obtaining in-depth information from a particular group of people called the focus group. The
process involves a facilitator and a group of about 6 – 12 persons who have the same
background. The researcher acts as the facilitator, with the group members discussing the topic
raised by the facilitator freely. In some cases, there are co- facilitators.

Sometimes, an FGD is not completed in a day. Once this is so, the researcher adjourns the
session as many times as possible until all the information is exhausted. An FGD is particularly
aimed at eliciting attitudes, ideas or perceptions of the group. An FGD can be in the form of
teleconferencing where a telephone conference is used real time to get information from a
group of respondents and more recently, there is increased use of the on-line type called the
on-line FGD. In conducting an FGD, the researcher chooses the objectives of the meeting, plans
the meeting session, carefully selects the group using his pre planned selection criteria,
schedules the meeting in a open setting, sets ground rules and holds the session. It is important
for the researcher to immediately make notes of the meeting after the session.

A focus group is a form of qualitative research in which a group of people are asked about their
perceptions, opinions, beliefs, and attitudes towards a product, service, concept,
advertisement, idea, or packaging. Questions are asked in an interactive group setting where
participants are free to talk with other group members. The first focus groups were created at
the Bureau of Applied Social Research in the USA, by associate director, sociologist Robert K.
Merton.

The term itself was coined by psychologist and marketing expert Ernest Dichter. Powell et al
define a focus group as “A group of individuals selected and assembled by researchers to
discuss and comment on, from personal experience, the topic that is the subject of the
research.
(1996: 499)”
Focus groups are discussions that last one to two hours, usually done with 6-12 people. The
discussion is led by a moderator asking open-ended questions. Focus groups can be used to
discover people's general reactions to an interface or services. A wide range of information can
be gathered in a relatively short time span.

In the social sciences and urban planning, focus groups allow interviewers to study people in a
more natural setting than a one-to-one interview. In combination with participant observation,
they can be used for gaining access to various cultural and social groups, selecting sites to
study, sampling of such sites, and raising unexpected issues for exploration. Focus groups have
a high apparent validity - since the idea is easy to understand, the results are believable. Also,
they are low in cost, one can get results relatively quickly, and they can increase the sample size
of a report by talking with several people at once.

Focus groups are particularly helpful when used in conjunction with surveys. Your library can
follow up a survey with focus groups to clarify the issues revealed, and perhaps hear surprising
new ideas or concerns. Unlike doing polls or asking a listserv, the strength of this technique is
the interaction between participants. With a skilled moderator, the conversation can go beyond
"like it, don't like it" and allow new views to surface. Since there is no pressure to reach a
consensus, all views can be encouraged and aired.

The first step is to understand what you want to learn. Focus groups are not polls or surveys;
they are in-depth, qualitative interviews with a small number of carefully selected people, to
help you develop an idea or specific service. To prepare, you may want to first consider your
budget.
This is a labor intensive project; time may be the most expensive item. It takes considerable
time to plan the sessions, recruit volunteers, and develop your questions. If you hire a
professional moderator, that could be a considerable expense, other optional things can add to
the cost, including honorariums, refreshments and video taping

Advantages of FGD (focus group discussion)

1. FGD enables the researchers have ample information on the topic within a little period
of time.
2. FGD produces responses that are equal to those of the population from which the focus
group is drawn.
3. Focus group research involves organized discussion with a selected group of individuals
to gain information about their views and experiences of a topic.
4. Focus group interviewing is particularly suited for obtaining several perspectives about
the same topic.
5. The benefits of focus group research include gaining insights into people’s shared
understandings of everyday life and the ways in which individuals are influenced by
others in a group situation.
6. Problems arise when attempting to identify the individual view from the group view, as
well as in the practical arrangements for conducting focus groups.
 7. The role of the moderator is very significant. Good levels of group leadership and
interpersonal skill are required to moderate a group successfully.
8. You can get feedback about what people do over a long period of time.
9. Focus groups used early in a project can produce insights and questions from the
interaction among different users or stakeholders.
10. Focus groups are relatively inexpensive (assuming that participants are from the same
geographical area) and can be arranged quickly.

Disadvantages of FGD
 Impersonal
Group discussions don’t lend themselves to personal revelations, so they might not be
suitable for sensitive or controversial issues. For example, group discussions might not
be suitable for research pertaining to products people might feel ashamed about using,
such as alcohol. If people don't feel comfortable sharing their opinions or experiences,
the focus group interview won't generate any useful insights. In these situations,
anonymous surveys or confidential interviews might be a better means of obtaining
information.
 Difficult to Control
For a focus group interview to be revelatory, the conversation must flow naturally to
reveal what the participants are thinking. But group discussions can get out of hand
quickly, straying from the original topic and getting lost in useless tangents. An effective
facilitator will keep the discussion on track, but this might be impossible if the group is
rowdy or young.
 Dominating Individuals
The goal of a group discussion is to discover what all the participants think, but
outspoken people might skew those results. For example, a shy dissenter might never
reveal important insights, or a single persuasive participant might cause other
participants to change their original opinions, meaning you never learn about their
initial reactions. To avoid these problems, facilitators must involve everyone to ensure
all the participants have equal time and that all points of view are heard.
 Not Representative
The selection of people for the group discussion is unlikely to be representative of the
larger population, so you can’t assume the opinions you uncover have any significance
past whatever insights they offer into possible thought patterns. For example,
unanimous agreement about a product's effectiveness might have no correlation to how
most consumers feel about that product, though a discussion of the product’s
effectiveness might help you generate targeted questions for future research
 FGD is not appropriate for use as a single research tool, it is most appropriate to use it
with another research tool
 FGD cannot be used to discuss very sensitive topics like sexual exposure, etc
 E. Experimental method
Experimental method is a scientific method. It is oriented to the future in the sense that the
researcher is seeking to evaluate something new. It is a process of contribution to the already
acquired fund of knowledge. Thus, the experimenter operates under the basic assumption that
the research situation he wishes to evaluate has never existed and does not now exist.

Experimentation is the basic tool of the physical sciences like Physics, Chemistry for establishing
cause and effect relationship and for verifying inferences. However, it is now also used in social
sciences like Psychology, Sociology, and social work. Experimentation is a research process used
to observe the cause and effect relationship under controlled conditions. In other words, it aims
at studying the effect of an independent variable on a dependent variable, by keeping the other
interdependent variables constant through some type of control. In experimentation, the
researcher can manipulate the independent variables and measure its effect on the dependent
variable.

According to Jahoda: It is a Method of Testing Hypothesis

The purpose of experimentation is to derive verified functional relationships among
phenomena under controlled conditions or more simply, to identify the conditions underlying
the occurrence of a given phenomenon. From an operational point of view, it is a matter of
varying the independent variable in order to study the effect of such variation on the
dependent variable. For example, the investigator might vary the size of the print and appraise
the effect of such manipulation on reading speed. Actually, what we know about our
environment comes from observation, and all research is concerned with the observation of
phenomena and the generalization of these observations into certain functional relationships
whose internal validity can be tested. Experimentation simply enables us to improve the
conditions under which we observe and, thus, to arrive at more precise results. This is the
essence of the scientific method.

MEANING AND DEFINITION OF EXPERIMENT

There are many views about the experiment, given by different researchers. They are as
follows:
 “An experiment usually consists in making an event occur under known conditions
whereas many extraneous influences as far as possible are eliminated and close
observation is possible so that relationship between phenomena can be revealed.” –
William I.B. Beveridge
 “An experiment is an observation under controlled conditions.” – F.S. Chapin

W.S. Monro and M.D. Engelhart define term ‘experiment’ in their words
 “Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child or group of children is
subjected during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement”
John W. Best has defined experiment that
 “Experimental research is the description and analysis of what will be or what will occur,
under carefully controlled condition.”

 E.B. Wilson - “An experiment is a question framed on the basis of what is known and
addressed to nature to elicit further knowledge. It, thus transcends mere observations
or collection of materials; it is consciously directed, purposeful observation.”

According to Johada and others: “It is a method of testing hypothesis”

 Ernest, Greenwood - “Experiment is the proof of a hypothesis which seeks to make up
two factors into a casual relationship through the study of contrasting situations which
have been controlled on all factors the one of interest, the latter being either the
hypothetical cause or the hypothetical effect.”
 Festinger- “The essence of an experiment may be described as observing the effect on a
dependent variable of the manipulation of an independent variable.”
According to W.S. Monore
“Experimentation is the name given to the type of educational research in which the
investigator controls the educative factors to which a child of group of children is subjected
during the period of inquiry and observes the resulting achievement.

Advantages of Experiments

 It is a precise, systematic, objective and valid method of scientifically testing a

hypothesis.

 The experimenter has an upper hand in controlling and creating conditions herself.

 The researchers have a control over the variables.

 Experiment method enables the researcher to eliminate and limit the effects of all the
extraneous variables.

 A scientifically tested direct cause-effect relationship between the variables can be

measured.

 In experiments dealing with the effect of media on audiences, the researchers have a
total control over the selection of media content. It is the researcher who determines
the factors and procedures for the exposure and decides methods through which
audiences may respond.

 Apart from the single test, the researcher can test the variables at certain points in
time.
  Results obtained through experiments method are highly replicable.

 The reliability and internal validity of experiment research is high.

 Experimental method minimizes the error or random variance.

Weakness

 Artificial settings.

 In research on behavioral effects, for example, researchers have frequently created

artificial measures of behavior, especially when studying the effects of media violence
on audience aggression (Berkowitz 1964; Berkowitz and Geen 1966; Donnerstein and
Berkowitz 1981).

 Experimenter's bias may take place.

 In the case of a laboratory experiment, there is lack of external validity. The results
can’t be generalized beyond the lab.

 This is expensive, lengthy and time-consuming method.

 Every phenomenon can't be studied in the lab.

 Co-operation of the subject remains to be an issue

 An experiment can't be conducted everywhere, in all the settings, at all the points in
time.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD EXPERIMENTAL METHOD

These characteristics are classified into two categories:
a. General Characteristics
b. Specific Characteristics.

A. General Characteristics of an experimental method

The following are the general characteristics.
1. Bias free estimation of true effect,
2. Precision of the estimates with a quantitative index,
3. The testing of clear specific hypothesis of different intention etc., and
4. Efficiency in the sense of securing maximum results at minimum.
 B. Specific Characteristics of an experimental Method
The following are the specific characteristics:
1. It emphasizes objectively and accuracy in the collection of the data and treatment part
of it.
2. It emphasizes control of conditions and the experimentation of certain variables in
controlled conditions.
3. It sets out the relationship between the phenomenon and this relationship is more or
less of the casual type.
4. It uses standardized tool for experimentation and makes the evidences very much
objective.
5. The sample is selected with great precaution and every care is taken to safeguard
extraneous factors.
6. It leads to the testing of a specific hypothesis and experimental evidences so called as
to reject or retain the hypothesis.
7. The laws postulate and theories of education are developed mostly through
experimental methods. It allows for precision and definiteness (exactness) in the
findings and their analysis and treatment through measurement. The hypothesis is
rejected or retained, measurement through standardized test and tools of research.

PRECAUTIONS TO BE TAKEN IN EXPERIMENTATION

The following precautions are to be observed in experimentation:
1. Purpose of experiment should be defined clearly in advance.
2. Experiment control and criterion variables should also be defined clearly.
3. Great precautions be taken for the effect of intervening variables.
4. Sample should be selected carefully and appropriate sampling techniques should be
used.
5. Pre and post test should be given in the experimental situation.
6. Same criterion test should be used as pre and post test.
7. In designing and experiment the following things should be kept in view:
a. Plan (Layout).
b. Procedure.
c. Time.
d. Cost.

Three broad types of experiments are:

1. Natural experiment

Natural experiments are conducted in the everyday (i.e. real life)

environment of the participants, but here the experimenter has no
control over the IV as it occurs naturally in real life.
 For example, Hodges and Tizard's attachment research (1989)compared
the long term development of children who have been adopted, fostered
or returned to their mothers with a control group of children who had
spent all their lives in their biological families.

Strength:

 Behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to reflect real life

because of its natural setting, i.e. very high ecological validity.
 There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the
results, as participants may not know they are being studied.
 Can be used in situations in which it would be ethically
unacceptable to manipulate the independent variable,
e.g. researching stress.

Limitation:

 They may be more expensive and time consuming than lab

experiments.
 There is no control over extraneous variables that might bias
the results. This makes it difficult for another researcher to
replicate the study in exactly the same way.

2. Field experiment
The field experiment, the best suited one for social sciences. “A field
experiment is a research study in a realistic situation in which one or
more independent variables are manipulated by the experimenter under
as carefully controlled conditions as the situation will permit”. ( Fred N.
Kerlinger).
Field experiments are done in the everyday (i.e. real life) environment of
the participants. The experimenter still manipulates the independent
variable, but in a real-life setting (so cannot really control extraneous
variables).

An example is Holfing’s hospital study on obedience.

Strength:
 Behavior in a field experiment is more likely to reflect real life
because of its natural setting, i.e. higher ecological validity than a
lab experiment.
 There is less likelihood of demand characteristics affecting the
results, as participants may not know they are being studied. This
occurs when the study is covert.
 Limitation:

 There is less control over extraneous variables that might

bias the results. This makes it difficult for another
researcher to replicate the study in exactly the same way.

3. Laboratory / controlled experiment

This type of experiment is conducted in a well-controlled environment
(not necessarily a laboratory), where accurate measurements are
possible. The researcher decides where the experiment will take place, at
what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and using a
standardized procedure. Participants are randomly allocated to each
independent variable group.

The laboratory experiment is the exclusive domain of the physical

scientist. “A laboratory experiment is a research study in which the
variance of all or nearly all of the possible influential independent
variables, not pertinent to the immediate problem of the investigation, is
kept at a minimum. This is done by isolating the research in a physical
situation apart from the routine of ordinary living and by manipulating
one or more independent variables under rigorously specified,
operationalized, and controlled conditions”. (Fred N. Kerlinger). The
contrast between the field experiment and laboratory experiment is not
sharp; the difference is a matter of degree. The laboratory experiment
has a maximum of control, where as the field experiment must operate
with less control.

An example is Milgram’s experiment on obedience or Loftus and

Palmer's car crash study.

Strength:
 It is easier to replicate (i.e. copy) a laboratory experiment. This is
because a standardized procedure is used.
 They allow for precise control of extraneous and independent
variables. This allows a cause and effect relationship to be
established
Limitation:
 The artificiality of the setting may produce unnatural behavior
that does not reflect real life, i.e. low ecological validity. This
means it would not be possible to generalize the findings to a
real life setting.
 Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may bias the
results and become confounding variables.
Experimental Errors

According to Singh (2006), there may be generally two kinds of error in case of an experimental
study:

a. Chance Error

b. Systematic Error

A. Chance Error: This error may occur due to the individual differences. According
to the sources of error, there may be two categories in this type of experimental
error.

1) Sampling Error - The error simply occurs due to the differences in the
items in the sample that are chosen for study.

2) Measurement Error- The error occurs because accurate results cannot be

obtained due to the ineffectiveness of the measuring instruments.

B. Systematic Error: Despite taking preventive measures, some other external

factors with no direct connection with the study may also affect the experiment.
This affects the result. This type of error may be surprising for the researcher.

All experimenters try to control these errors. Kerlinger (1964) has pointed out
that a researcher attempts to control error variance in three ways as follows:
 Maximizing the variance of desired variables
 Controlling the variance of extraneous variables and
 Minimizing the error or random variance

Triangulation in research
Meaning

Triangulation is a strategy where the use of more than one approach is used in the investigation
of a research question. It is suggested that this increases the validity of research findings. It
helps to overcome the limitation of any one method, data source, investigator or theory and
hence provides a means of “creating innovative ways of understanding a phenomenon,
revealing unique findings, challenging or integrating theories, and providing a clearer
understanding of the problem”. Triangulation is the combination of at least two or more
theoretical perspectives, methodological approaches, data sources, investigators, or data
analyses methods. The intent of using triangulation is to “decrease, negate, or counterbalance
the deficiency of a single strategy, thereby increasing the ability to interpret the findings”
(Thurmond, 2001).

Triangulation may be defined as the use of two or more methods of data collection in the study
of some aspect of human behavior. The use of multiple methods, or the multi-method
approach as it is sometimes called, contrasts with the ubiquitous but generally more vulnerable
single method approach that characterizes so much of research in the social sciences.

In its original and literal sense, triangulation is a technique of physical measurement: maritime
navigators, military strategists and surveyors, for example, use (or used to use) several location
markers in their endeavors to pinpoint a single spot or objective. By analogy, triangular
techniques in the social sciences attempt to map out, or explain more fully, the richness and
complexity of human behavior by studying it from more than one standpoint and, in so doing,
by making use of both quantitative and qualitative data.

Triangulation is used in a number of fields, such as surveying, radio broadcasting, astronomy,

and navigation, to describe a process of determining distance between various points by
dividing up a large area into a series of connected triangles. In research, it refers to a variety of
techniques used to ensure the * validity of data. Some alternative terms include operational
delineation, convergent validation (in educational and psychological testing), corroboration,
cross validation, and multiple validations.

Because the concept is used in many different ways, researchers need to be sure to specify its
meaning and purpose in relation to their work and cite the literature that is consistent with that
orientation.

Triangulation is often used to describe research where two or more methods are used, known
as mixed methods. Combining both quantitative and qualitative methods to answer a specific
research question may result in one of the following three outcomes:

1. The results may converge and lead to the same conclusions;

2. the results may relate to different objects or phenomena but may be complementary to
each other and used to supplement the individual results and
3. The results may be divergent or contradictory. Converging results aim to increase the
validity through verification; complementary results highlight different aspects of the
phenomenon or illustrate different phenomenon and divergent findings can lead to new
and better explanations for the phenomenon under investigation.

Definitions
 a. The strategy of cross-checking data by using a variety of research
methods is known as ‘triangulation’ (Burham et al., 2004:31)
b. Triangulation is looking at something from several different points to give
a more accurate view of it (Neuman, 2000, p. 521).
c. Triangulation is a powerful way of demonstrating concurrent validity,
particularly in qualitative research (Campbell and Fiske 1959).
d. Marshall and Rossman (2011) define it as the act of bringing more than
one source of data to bear on a single point. Data from different sources
can be used to corroborate, elaborate, or illuminate the phenomenon in
question. For example, we might interview a patient and his nurse to
triangulate and learn a broader conception of the patient’s recovery.
e. Qualitative researchers use the term triangulation to describe the use of
multiple perspectives and strategies to study the same phenomenon. It is
a means of overcoming bias and enhancing rigor (trustworthiness,
validity) (Denzin, 1989).
f. The principle of approaching a research question from different angles
(theoretical triangulation), with various techniques (methodical
triangulation), possibly using various sorts of findings (data triangulation)
by different persons (researcher triangulation) (Bryman, 2004: 275, 545).

Challenges of triangulation

 Time is required to conduct triangulation activities

 Complexities of dealing with large quantities of data
 The potential conflicts between different investigations, theories/ hypothesis and / or
methods
 Difficulty of interpretation when data do not converge into a clean, clear picture
 Limited understanding among policy/decision- makers about how triangulation works
and why it was used in a given sitaution
 It is also difficult to balance the routine use of triangulation with its use in an adhoc
basis
 Collecting more data requires greater planning and organization – resources that are not
always available to lead researchers.

Types of triangulation and their characteristics

Types of triangulation
Denzin (1978) listed four kinds of triangulation.

1. Data triangulation,
2. Investigator triangulation,
3. Theory triangulation, and
4. Methodological triangulation
5. Janesick (1994) suggested ‘interdisciplinary’ triangulation as a fifth type.

Freeman (1998) suggested on other type of triangulation, which Brown divided into what could
be considered the sixth and seventh types as

6. ‘time triangulation’ and

7. ‘location triangulation’

Data triangulation

It is also referred to as data sources triangualtion.it involves using different sources of

information in order to increase the validity of study. In extension, theses sources are likely to
be stakeholders in program, participants, other researchers, other community members and so
on. This type of triangulation, where the researchers use different sources is perhaps the most
popular because it is the easiest to implement. Data triangulation comes as a result of the idea
that the robustness of data can be based on the time data were collected , people involved in
the data collection process and the setting from which the data were collected.

It can provide a better understanding of a situation or phenomena by creating new ways of

looking at a situation.

Data triangulation simply refers to collecting data from more than one source. For example,
interviewing more than one individual about a road accident they witnessed. However, Denzin
(1970) has extended this notion to include time and space such that data is collected at
different times and in various social situations, as well as on a range of people. Other examples
of data triangulation are collecting data across seasons, or different times of the day, or for
example to collect data from different settings, so if the research is on children’s play, to visit
parks, school playgrounds etc.

Investigator Triangulation

Investigator triangulation refers to the use of more than one researcher in the field to gather
and interpret data. I.e. In this type of triangulation, two or more researchers observe and/or
analyze the same phenomenon. This is usually considered a good practice and is often already
built into the research process because more than one person is needed for data collection. For
example, in carrying out a survey across the city of Kathmandu to understand the attitudes
towards cleanliness and pollution a significant number of researchers would be required in
order to collect data from all over the city. At the same time, the task is also to decide how
many researchers there should be, who they are and how they would contribute to the process
of data collection (Denzin, 1978; Miles, 1982). The process of data collection and data analyses
is often not very clearly separate and thus who collects how much data are important questions
to which there is no clear answer. Each research and researcher will have to come to their own
answers (Mathison, 1988).

It is believed that this method of analysis may overcome the biases that can occur when only
one person analyzes the data. People can see or read the same thing and yet interpret it
differently. When a group looks at the same text, they can discuss it and reach agreement or
outline different interpretations. This is similar to the case in which several teachers discuss a
child’s behavior problem after watching him fight with another child in the school yard. They all
have their ideas and previous knowledge of the child in different classes. Some may know the
child’s family and have further information that explains the child’s frustration. They can come
to one or more conclusions based on this discussion.

Theoretical/ theory Triangulation

Theoretical triangulation refers to the use of more than one theoretical position in interpreting
data. I.e. it uses different theoretical perspectives to interpret findings. For example,
triangulation of theory may occur in considering a number of concepts from anthropology,
sociology, and psychology in the interpretation of the experience of mourning. In the kind of
research that we present in this chapter, we expand the meaning of theory to include different
participants’ theories about the world. For example, how people explain and predict human
behavior based on their cultures, and on their spiritual, religious or traditional theories and
theories they have learned at home, at school or in other educational settings.

Methodological triangulation

Methodological triangulation refers to the use of more than one method for gathering data.
Mitchel( 1986) defines methodological triangulation as the use of more than two methods in
stuydying the same phenomenon under investigation. A researcher in methodological
triangulation uses a combination of methods both qualiattive and quantitative methods or call
it mised method. Applying multiple research methods can help in unearthing interesting
findings in unexplored research phenomenon. It can lead to chance or accidental discovery.
Most findings from social research is founded on the use of a single research method and as
such may suffer from limitation associated with that method. The specific application of
methodological triangulation offers the prospect of enhanced confidence. In methodological
triangulation, there is involvement of contrasting methods such as questionnaire and
observation.
 It is the most often used and discussed form of triangulation. Denzin (1978) suggests two kinds
of approaches, within- method and between- methods. In the within–method approach,
variation of the same method is used to investigate a research issue. For example, multiple
scales are used together to assess a trait like intelligence. Denzin has pointed out the limitation
of the within method approach since only one method is being used. In the between-methods
approach, different research methods, such as a survey questionnaires and observation are
used together to collect data. Most researchers focus primarily on between -methods
triangulation. "The rationale for this strategy is that the flaws of one method are often the
strengths of another: and by combining methods, observers can achieve the best of each while
overcoming their unique deficiencies" (Denzin, 1978, p. 302).

For example, in order to understand how the presence of children affect parent’s decision
making in a supermarket, one could use a combination of observation and survey. Another way
in which methodological triangulation is used is by combining qualitative and quantitative
methods, also referred to as the mixed-methods approach. For example, a researcher may
decide to use a structured questionnaire to gather data for statistical analysis of the correlation
between drug addiction and domestic violence and complement it with focus group discussions
with drug abusers and victims of domestic violence.

Interdisciplinary triangulation (collaboration of researchers from different disciplines):

Interdisciplinary triangulation can introduce the researcher to discourses that are not dominant
in one’s own discipline, such as those from art, sociology, history, dance, architecture, and
others. This kind of triangulation is extremely important in the Journey Approach, which is
especially oriented to investigate complex social questions in a cultural context. To receive the
full scope of the cultural context, it is important to look for collaboration of different disciplines.
In the example brought later in this chapter, the contribution of the collaboration of different
disciplines, such as education, nursing, social activists, etc., will be apparent.

In the above example, in which teachers try to give meaning to the child’s behavior, a
multidisciplinary team (e.g.: math teacher, art teacher, language teacher, sports teacher, nurse
or physician) may contribute, by viewing the children’s behavior and performance with
different subject matter, which provides the child with different challenges. In the first case,
namely, in the “elephant situation”, a good civil engineer or an experienced magician could
really make a difference.

Time and space triangulation as new concept

Time Triangulation

It is applied to both cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. Cohen and Manion (1997) maintain
that cross sectional data is collected with time-related processes from different groups at one
point in time, while longitudinal studies collect data from the same group at different points in
time sequence. Cross sectional studies compare the measurements for the individuals in
different samples at one point in time, while longitudinal studies examine selected processes in
the same individuals comparing the same sample's results repeatedly over time.

Space Triangulation

It attempts to overcome the limitations of studies conducted within one culture or subculture,
as not all the behavioral sciences are culture bound, they are sub-culture-bound according to
Cohen and Manion (1997).

Plese consult a companion to qualitative research…………………………..

Participant triangulation (use of different participants to obtain information and enhance

rigor):

Participant triangulation is based on the collaboration and comparison between the research
participants’ perspectives. According to this approach, the researcher is not alone in analyzing
data, interpreting the results and looking for ways to translate the knowledge into action.
Janesick (2000) proposes the term “crystallization” to describe the different modes of
triangulation. Crystals are seen as prisms that reflect externalities and refract within
themselves, creating different colors, patterns and arrays, casting off in different directions.
Accordingly, the different kinds of triangulation or crystallization are seen as the simultaneous
display of multiple, refracted realities.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Triangulation

Advantages of Triangulation

The value of triangulation is the variety and quantity of data that is gathered and that can be
used for analysis. The method has several advantages which are as follows:
1. It uses more than one method or paradigm and hence increases the confidence in
results.
2. It strengthens the completeness of the study by providing a holistic picture and many
researchers believe it can result in data that is richer, more complex and authentic (Foss
and Ellefsen, 2002).
3. It enables one to address questions that are dissimilar in nature but nevertheless
complementary in one study itself. It enhances interpretability as one set of data also
helps in understanding the other set of data.
 4. It requires the researcher to be deeply involved in the research situation and hence
leads to a more nuanced understanding of the focus of the study.
5. It enhances the validity of the research. (Bradley, 1995)
6. In using different methods together, the researcher benefits from the uniqueness of
each method and at the same time, using contrasting methods increases the chances of
overcoming the limitations of any one method.

Disadvantages of Triangulation

Triangulation also has several limitations:

1. The data collection has to be planned thoroughly and organized effectively.

2. The resources that may be required are often not available or easily accessible.
3. Researchers may not be technically competent in particular methods
4. It is possible that the various research paradigms used are not comptible (Duffy 1985,
Blaikie 1991, Sim and Sharpe 1998)
5. Many researchers are not clear in how triangulation has been used and how it has
added value to their research (Oberst 1993).
6. Undertaking replication and comparative studies may be difficult
7. Researchers might be tempted to make inconsistent data sets artificially compatible in
order to produce a more coherent account.
8. Some other disadvantages include the “possible disharmony based on investigator
biases, conflicts because of theoretical frameworks, and lack of understanding about
why triangulation strategies were used” (Thurmond, 2001, p. 256).

Assumptions of triangulation

a. Assumption of ‘Cancelling Bias’

The idea of triangulation as a research strategy is based on two assumptions. The
first is that using more than one data source, method, investigator or theory would
minimize bias or that the bias inherent in any one method would be cancelled by the
other methods that are used in combination. This assumption often goes
unexamined but some researchers (Mathison, 1988) have criticized it on the basis
that different methods produce different understandings of the same phenomena
and they might be tapping different aspects of knowledge. Scriven (1972)
distinguishes between the meaning of objectivity in the quantitative and qualitative
research paradigm (Mathison, 1988). Under the quantitative research paradigm, one
individual's view is considered to be subjective and the collective view of many
individuals is taken to be objective.

In the qualitative research paradigm, objectivity points to the observation being

factual, while being subjective means that the observation has some bias in it. The
quantitative notion of objectivity seems to underlie discussions of triangulation at
the expense of the qualitative notions of objectivity. It is assumed then that just like
 the view of one person is biased and hence subjective, if we use only one method, it
will be necessarily subjective and hence biased. Triangulation is the methodological
counterpart to inter subjective agreement and, just as with individuals; reliability is
confused with validity (Mathison, 1988)

b. Assumption of ‘reality’ or one ‘truth’

The second assumption, related to the first, is that there is one social reality or truth
that we are trying to reach and that through the use of triangulation there would be
a convergence upon the truth about a social phenomenon. The realist notion of
there being a single definitive account of the social world has been criticized,
especially by the followers of social constructionist who argue that social reality is
not created or discovered by an individual mind but that meanings are generated in
corroboration with other individuals. Thus, research findings are not ‘truths’ but one
among the many possible accounts of social phenomenon. However, social
constructionists do not consider triangulation to be a redundant research strategy.
They believe that it leads to a more complex and richer account of social reality and
hence is useful.

Following the above argument, it has been suggested that there are three possible
outcomes of triangulation (Mathison, 1988). These are:

 Convergence- it refers to the outcome that data from different sources,

methods, or investigators will provide data that will act as evidence in
support of a single premise about some social phenomenon.
 Inconsistency refers to the outcome when multiple sources, methods, and/or
investigators are used and the evidence suggests more than one perspectives
or the information collected does not confirm one single idea about a social
phenomenon and presents alternatives that are inconsistent with each other
and have ambiguities.
 Contradiction: refers to the possible outcome where not only data is found
to be inconsistent but it suggests opposing views.

The value of triangulation is not as a solution to a data collection and the

problem of analyses; it is a technique which provides more and better
evidence from which researchers can construct meaningful propositions
about the social world. Inconsistent and contradictory data adds complexity
and depth to our understanding and has as much, if not more value in
relation to convergent data.

c. Addressing the Question of Validity in Qualitative Research

The question of validity is an important one in qualitative research. When qualitative

researchers refer to validity, they are usually referring to research that is plausible,
credible, trustworthy, and hence, defensible. Several strategies have been
developed to address the question of validity in qualitative research (Kirk & Miller,
1986; LeCompte & Preissle, 1993; Lincoln & Guba, 1985; Maxwell, 1996).
 UNIT 6 - WRITING RESEARCH REPORT

REPORT WRITING

The last and final phase of the journey in research is writing of the report. It is
always written in APA format. After the collected data has been analyzed and
interpreted and generalizations have been drawn the report has to be prepared. The
task of research is incomplete till the report is presented.

Writing of a report is the last step in a research study and requires a set of skills
somewhat different from those called for in respect of the earlier stages of
research. This task should be accomplished by the researcher with utmost care and
should be in APA style.

APA style of writing

It is the style of documentation of sources used by the American Psychological
Association. This form of writing research papers is used mainly in the social
sciences, like psychology, anthropology, sociology, as well as education and other
fields. APA style is a type of scientific writing used by psychologists. If you
adhere to this format, it ensures that you present your work in a way that is
consistent with acceptable psychological standards. APA style refers to the
American Psychological Association style of writing scientific reports. Although
most people think that APA style refers to referencing (as it does), it’s also relevant
to all parts of scientific writing, including formatting (for example, double-spacing
your work in 12-point font), writing style (for example, avoiding biased or
offensive language) and reporting numerical information in a consistent format (for
example, the results of a statistical test).

APA style was developed in 1929 as a guide for professional psychologists

preparing articles for publication, and it’s updated regularly (after all, there weren’t
too many websites to reference in 1929!). The aim was to ensure that psychology
as a discipline had a standardized way of reporting findings in an accessible way.
Adhering to APA guidelines improves the clarity of your report, prevents the
reader from becoming distracted due to inconsistencies and ensures that your
statements are evidenced appropriately using references cited in a systematic way.
You can then focus on telling the story of your research instead of deliberating
over how to cite a reference or report a number. If you’re coming to psychology
from a different discipline, or from school, this new style of writing may be
completely new to you, but it’s definitely worth your while to invest time to master
it. Adopting APA style lends credibility to your writing and demonstrates to the
reader that you’re aware of psychology’s specific sets of guidelines.

APA referencing is based on the Harvard library system of referencing, which is

adopted by many other natural and social sciences (for example, economics,
education and nursing). You also find many other formats for referencing material
(for example, footnotes in the Oxford system, or the Chicago and Vancouver
systems used by medics).

PURPOSE OF A REPORT
The report may be meant for the people in general, when the investigation has not
been carried out at the instance of any third party. Research is essentially a
cooperative venture and it is essential that every investigator should know what
others have found about the phenomena under study. The purpose of a report is
thus the dissipation of knowledge, broadcasting of generalizations so as to ensure
their widest use.

A report of research has only one function, “it must inform”. It has to propagate
knowledge. Thus, the purpose of a report is to convey to the interested persons the
results and findings of the study in sufficient detail, and so arranged as to enable
each reader to comprehend the data, and to determine for himself the validity of
conclusions. Research results must invariably enter the general store of knowledge.
A research report is always an addition to knowledge. All this explains the
significance of writing a report.

In a broader sense, report writing is common to both academics and organizations.

However, the purpose may be different. In academics, reports are used for
comprehensive and application-oriented learning. Whereas in organizations, report
form as the basis for decision making.

Meaning

A research report is a formal statement of the research process and its results. It
narrates the problem studied, methods used for studying it and the findings and
conclusions of the study. The purpose of a research report is to communicate to
interested persons the methodology and the results of the study in such a manner as
to enable them to understand the research process and to determine the validity of
the conclusions. The aim of the report is not to convince the reader of the value of
the result, but to convey to him what was done, why it was done, aid what was its
outcome. It is so written that the reader himself can reach his own conclusions as
to the adequacy of the study and the validity of the reported results and
conclusions.

Reporting simply means communicating or informing through reports. The

researcher has collected some facts and figures, analyzed the same and arrived at
certain conclusions. He has to inform or report the same to the parties interested.
Therefore -“reporting is communicating the facts, data and information through
reports of the persons for whom such facts and data are collected and compiled”.

A report is not a complete description of what has been done during the period of
survey/research. It is only a statement of the most significant facts that are
necessary for understanding the conclusions drawn by the investigator. Thus, “a
report by definition is simply an account”. The report thus is an account describing
the procedure adopted, the findings arrived at and the conclusions drawn by the
investigator of a problem.

TYPES OF REPORTS

Broadly speaking reporting can be done in two ways:

a. Oral or Verbal Report: reporting verbally in person, for example; presenting

the findings in a conference or seminar or reporting orally to the superiors.
b. Written Report: Written reports are more formal, authentic and popular.

Written reports can be presented in different ways as follows.

1. Sentence form reports: Communicating in sentence form
2. Tabular reports: Communicating through figures in tables
3. Graphic reports: Communicating through graphs and diagrams
4. Combined reports: Communicating using all the three of the above.
Generally, this is the most popular

Research reports vary greatly in length and type. In each individual case, both the
length and the form are largely dictated by the purpose of the study and problems
at hand.
 For example, business organizations generally prefer reports in letter form, that
too short in length. Banks, insurance and other financial institutions generally
prefer figure form in tables. The reports prepared by government bureaus, enquiry
commissions etc., are generally very comprehensive on the issues involved.

Similarly, research theses/dissertations usually prepared by students for Ph.D.

degree are also elaborate and methodical.

It is; thus, clear that the results of a research enquiry can be presented in a number
of ways. They may be termed as a technical report, a popular report, an article, or a
monograph.

A. Technical Report: A technical report is used whenever a full written report

(ex: Ph.D. thesis) of the study is required either for evaluation or for record
keeping or for public dissemination. The main emphasis in a technical report
is on:
1. The methodology employed.
2. The objectives of the study.
3. The assumptions made / hypotheses formulated in the course of the study.
4. How and from what sources the data are collected and how have the data
been analyzed.
5. The detailed presentation of the findings with evidence, and their
limitations.

B. Popular Report: A popular report is one which gives emphasis on simplicity

and attractiveness. Its aim is to make the general public understand the
findings and implications. Generally, it is simple. Simplicity is sought to be
achieved through clear language and minimization of technical details.
Attention of the readers is sought to be achieved through attractive layout,
liberal use of graphs, charts, diagrams and pictures. In a popular report
emphasis is given on practical aspects and policy implications.

C. Research Article: Sometimes the findings of a research study can be

published in the form of a short paper called an article. This is one form of
dissemination. The research papers are generally prepared either to present
in seminars and conferences or to publish in research journals. Since one of
the objectives of doing research is to make a positive contribution to
knowledge, in the field, publication (publicity) of the work serves the
purpose.
 D. Monograph: A monograph is a treatise or a long essay on a single subject.
For the sake of convenience, reports may also be classified either on the
basis of approach or on the basis of the nature of presentation such as:
1. Journalistic Report
2. Business Report
3. Project Report
4. Dissertation
5. Enquiry Report (Commission Report), and
6. Thesis
Sometimes technical report can be called monograph

Reports prepared by journalists for publication in the media may be journalistic

reports. These reports have news and information value.

A business report may be defined as report for business communication from one
departmental head to another, one functional area to another, or even from top to
bottom in the organizational structure on any specific aspect of business activity.
These are observational reports which facilitate business decisions.
A project report is the report on a project undertaken by an individual or a group of
individuals relating to any functional area or any segment of a functional area or
any aspect of business, industry or society.
A dissertation, on the other hand, is a detailed discourse or report on the subject of
study.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A GOOD REPORT

Research report is a channel of communicating the research findings to the readers

of the report. A good report is one which does this task efficiently and effectively.
As such it should have the following characteristics/qualities.
1. It must be clear in informing the what, why, who, whom, when, where and
how of the research study.
2. It should be neither too short nor too long. One should keep in mind the fact
that it should be long enough to cover the subject matter but short enough to
sustain the reader’s interest.
3. It should be written in an objective style and simple language, correctness,
precision and clarity should be the watchwords of the scholar. Wordiness,
indirection and pompous language are barriers to communication.
4. A good report must combine clear thinking, logical organization and sound
interpretation.
5. It should not be dull. It should be such as to sustain the reader’s interest.
 6. It must be accurate. Accuracy is one of the requirements of a report. It
should be factual with objective presentation. Exaggerations and superlatives
should be avoided.
7. Clarity is another requirement of presentation. It is achieved by using
familiar words and unambiguous statements, explicitly defining new
concepts and unusual terms.
8. Coherence is an essential part of clarity. There should be logical flow of
ideas (i.e. continuity of thought), sequence of sentences. Each sentence must
be so linked with other sentences so as to move the thoughts smoothly.
9. Readability is an important requirement of good communication. Even a
technical report should be easily understandable. Technicalities should be
translated into language understandable by the readers.
10. A research report should be prepared according to the best composition
practices. Ensure readability through proper paragraphing, short sentences,
illustrations, examples, and section headings, use of charts, graphs and
diagrams.
11.Draw sound inferences/conclusions from the statistical tables. But don’t
repeat the tables in text (verbal) form.
12.Footnote references should be in proper form. The bibliography should be
reasonably complete and in proper form.
13. The report must be attractive in appearance, neat and clean whether typed or
printed.
14. The report should be free from mistakes of all types viz. language mistakes,
factual mistakes, spelling mistakes, calculation mistakes etc.,

The researcher should try to achieve these qualities in his report as far as possible.

WHY AND HOW TO WRITE A RESEARCH REPORT

Once you complete your research project, you are expected to write the report. A
research report is a precise presentation of the work done by a researcher while
investigating a particular problem. Whether the study is conducted by an individual
researcher or by an institution, the findings of the study should be reported for
several reasons. There reasons are:

1. People learn more about the area of study.

2. The discipline gets enriched with new knowledge and theories.
3. Researchers and practitioners in the field can apply, test and retest the
findings already arrived at.
 4. Other researchers can refer to the findings and utilize the findings for further
research.
5. Findings can be utilized and implemented by the policy makers or those who
had sponsored the project.

The final report of a research exercise takes a variety of forms.

1. A research report funded by an educational institution may be in the form of
a written document.
2. A research report may also take the form of an article in a professional
journal.
3. The research reports of students of M.A/BA ., M.S.W/BSW., M.Sc., M.Ed.,
M Phil. Or Doctoral programs take the form of a thesis or dissertation.

FUNCTIONS OF A RESEARCH REPORT

A well written research report performs several function: -
1. It serves as a means for presenting the problem studied
methods and techniques used for collecting and analysing
data, the findings, conclusions and recommendations, in an
organised manner.
2. It serves as a basic reference material for future use in
developing research proposals in the same or related area.
3. A report serves as a means for judging the quality of the
completed research project.
4. It is a means for evaluating the researcher’s ability and
competence to do research.
5. It provides factual base for formulating policies and
strategies relating to the subject matter studied. 6. It provides
systematic knowledge on problems and issues analysed.
The structure or main division of research report with their
components
In the following sections we shall discuss the main components of a research
report. The entire research report is mainly divided into three major divisions: - the
beginning, the main body and the end.

Division of research report/format and their components

The entire research report format is mainly divided into three major divisions:
1. The beginning/ the front matter or pre factory items.
2. The main body/ text of the report/ chapterisation of report
3. The end/ the back matter or terminal items.

The beginning/ the front Main body/ text of the report. End/ the back
matter or pre factory items. matter or terminal
items.
1. Blank sheet/cover 1. Introduction 1. Appendix, if
2. Title page 2. Review of Literature any
3. Approval sheet 3. Design of the Study/ 2. Glossary, if
4. Researcher’s methodology any
declaration 4. Analysis and interpretation of 3. Bibliography/
5. Dedications Data references
6. preface and or/ 5. Main Findings, Conclusions and 4. Index
Summary 5. Blank sheet
Acknowledgements
7. Table of Contents
8. List of Tables
9. List of figures /graphs
and list of charts
10.List of cases.
11.List of abbreviation
12.Abstracts
THE BEGINNING/ THE FRONT MATTER OR PRE FACTORY ITEMS
OF REPORT AND THEIR COMPONENTS/ ITEMS

The beginning of a report is crucial to the entire work. The beginning or the
preliminary section of the research report contains the following components/
items, more or less in the order given below:
1. Title page
2. Approval sheet
3. Researcher’s declaration
4. Dedications
5. preface and or/ Acknowledgements
6. table of Contents
7. List of Tables
8. List of figures /graphs and list of charts
9. List of abbreviations
10.List of cases.
11.Abstracts

Let us describe in brief each of the above six items of the preliminary section
of a Report

1. Title page
The cover page is the beginning of the report, though different colleges,
universities and sponsoring institutions prescribe their own format for the
title page of their project report of thesis, generally, it indicates the
downward vertical order:

a. title of the topic,

b. relationship of the report to a degree, course, or organizational requirement,
c. name of the researcher,
d. name of the supervisor,
e. name of the institution where the report is to be submitted, and
f. The date of submission.
 The title page should carry a concise and adequately descriptive title of the
research study. The title should briefly convey what the study is about.
Researchers tend to make errors in giving the title by using too many
redundant and unimportant words.
The title should be written either in bold letters or upper-lower case and be
placed in the central portion of the top of the cover page.
2. The approval sheet
If a certificate of approval is required either from the research supervisor or
from the institution which provided the research facilities, it must be given.
3. Researchers declaration:
Generally, the researcher has to declare/certify that it is his/her bonafide and
original work done by him/her.
4. Dedication: If the author wants to dedicate the work to whom so ever he/she
likes, he/she may do so
5. Preface or/and Acknowledgement
A preface includes the background and reasons for the study. This is an
appropriate place for him/her to make acknowledgements also. But if the
researcher has opted to discuss the significance, reasons of the study
elsewhere in the report he/she may not write ‘preface’. But he/she may use
the page for only acknowledgements. In acknowledgements the researcher
acknowledges the assistance and support received from individuals and
organizations in conducting the research. It is intended to express his/her
gratitude to them. Acknowledgement should be non-emotional and simple.
6. Table of Contents
A table of contents indicates the logical division of the report into various
sections and subsections. In other words, the table of contents presents in
itemized form, the beginning, the main body and the end of the report. It
should also indicate the page reference for each chapter or section and sub-
section on the right hand side of the table. It facilitates easy location of
topics in the report. The chapter headings may be typed with capital letters.
7. List of Tables
The table of contents page is followed by the page containing a list of tables.
The list contains the exact title of each table, table number and the page
number on which the table has appeared.
8. List of Figures/chart/graphs
The page’ List of Figures’ comes immediately after the ‘List of Tables’
page. If there are many graphs and charts they should also be listed with
page numbers
9. List of cases/exhibits
If there are many cases/exhibits they should also be listed.
 10.List of Abbreviations italics
To avoid repeating long names again and again, a researcher uses
abbreviations. Since abbreviations are not universal, it is necessary to
provide the full form of the abbreviations in the beginning.
11.Abstracts
An abstract is a synopsis. It should be as brief as possible and run about one
or two pages. It is placed at the pre factory part of the report so that a reader
can get a quick over view of the report. It contains a brief and precise
statement of the purpose and a bare summary of the findings or the results of
the study

Main body/ text of the report

The main body of the report presents the actual work done by an investigator or a
researcher. It tells us precisely and clearly about the investigation/study from the
beginning to the end. The methodology section of the final report should be written
in the past tense because the study has been completed. The report categorically
avoids unnecessary details and loose language–we shall examine this point in
detail in this section
The components /sub divisions are:
1. Introduction
2. Review of Literature
3. Design of the Study
4. Analysis and Interpretation of Data
5. Major Findings
6. Conclusions and Discussions
7. Summary

Besides the logicality of sections/chapters in the main body there is certain other
important aspects which need our attention. They are the style of writing, the
design and placement of references and footnotes, the typing of the report, and the
tables and figures.

Let us elaborate these points in the following sub-sections.

Chapters and their Functions

We will discuss the cauterization of a thesis or a research report under six heads as
noted above. Let us begin with introduction which is usually the first chapter.
 A. Introduction
This is the first chapter of a research report. It introduces the topic or problem
under investigation and its importance. The introductory chapter:
1. Gives the theoretical background to the specific area of investigation,
2. States the problem under investigation with specific reference to its
placement in the broader area under study,
3. Describes the significance of the present problem,
4. Defines the important terms used in the investigation and its reporting,
5. States precisely the objective(s) of the study,
6. States precisely the important terms used in the study that would be tested
through statistical analysis of data, and
7. Defines the scope and limitations of the investigations.

Although these sub-sections are common, it is not necessary to follow the given
order strictly; there may be variation in the order of the sub-sections. Sometimes
the review of literature related to the area under investigation is also presented in
the first chapter and is placed immediately after providing the theoretical
background to the problem. Many researchers use review to argue the case for their
own investigation. In experimental research it becomes essential to review related
studies to formulate the hypotheses.

2. Review of Literature

Review of literature is a collective body of works done by earlier scientists and

published in the form of books or in the form of articles in journals or published as
monograph etc. Every scientific investigation starts with a Review of Literature. In
fact, working with the literature is an essential part of the research process which
helps generate ideas, helps in developing significant questions and is regarded as
instrumental in the process of research design. In this unit we will be dealing with
the review of literature, how to go about it, what its importance is and how the
review should be organized and how to relate it to the present research report.

3. Design of the Study Reporting

The design of a study is usually described in the third chapter of the report.
Broadly speaking, this chapter provides a detailed overview of “how” the study
was conducted. The various sub-sections include:
1. description of the research methodology,
2. variables: the dependent and intervening variables with their operational
definitions;
 3. sample: defining the population, and the sampling procedure followed to
select the sample for the present study;
4. listing and describing various tools and techniques used in the study, like
questionnaires, attitude scales, etc., whether these have been adopted or
developed by the investigator, their reliability, validity, item description,
administration and scoring, etc.;
5. Describing the statistical technique used in the analysis of data including the
rationale of the use and method of data analysis.

4. Analysis and interpretation of data

This is fourth chapter of the research report. It is the heart of the whole report, for
it includes the outcome of the research. The collected data are presented in tabular
form and analyzed with the help of statistical techniques– parametric and
nonparametric. The tables are interpreted and if necessary, the findings are also
presented graphically. The figures do not necessarily; repeat the tables, but present
data visually for easy understanding and easy comparisons. Data may be presented
in parts under relevant sections. The analysis of the data not only includes the
actual calculations but also the final results. It is essential that at each stage of
analysis the objective(s) of the study and their coverage is taken care of. This
chapter also presents the details about the testing of each hypothesis and the
conclusions arrived at. This gives the reader a clear idea regarding the status of the
analysis and coverage of objectives from point to point.

5. Main findings and conclusion

This is usually the fifth chapter in a research report. The major findings of the
study analyzed and interpreted in the preceding chapter are precisely and
objectively stated in this chapter. The fourth chapter contains such presentations as
only a specialist or a trained researcher can understand because of the complexities
involved; but in the fifth chapter the major findings are presented in a non-
technical language so that even a non-specialist such as a planner or an
administrator in the field can make sense out of them.

The main findings are followed by a discussion of the results/findings. The major
findings are matched against the findings of other related research works which
have already been reviewed in the second chapter of the report. Accordingly, the
hypotheses formulated in the first chapter are either confirmed or discarded. In
case the null-hypotheses are rejected, alternative hypotheses are accepted. If the
findings do have any discrepancy in comparison with those of other researches, or
if the findings do not explain sufficiently the situation or problem under study, or if
they are inadequate for generalizations, explanations with proper justification and
explanation have to be provided.

The next task in this chapter is to provide implications of, the findings and their
generalizations. The implications should suggest activities for and provide some
direction to the practitioners in the field. Unless these implications are clearly and
categorically noted, it becomes difficult for the practitioners to implement them on
the one hand, and on the other research findings do not get utilized at all even if
they have been recorded in a report.

The implications follow a presentation/listing of the limitations of the study on the

basis of which suggestions are made to carry out further investigation or extend the
study from where it has reached.

6. Summary
Some researchers include a summary along with the research report (as the last
chapter) or as a pull-out to the report itself, If sums up precisely the whole of the
research report right from the theoretical background to the suggestions for further
study. Sometimes researchers get tempted to report more than what the data say. It
is advisable to check this tendency and be always careful to report within the
framework provided by the analysis and interpretation of data, i.e., within the
limits of the findings of the study.

THE END/TERMINAL ITEMS OF REPORT

This section follows the text. First it is the appendices section, then the
bibliography and glossary. Each section is separated by a divider page on which
only the words APPENDICES, BIBLIOGRAPHY, or GLOSSARY all in capital
letters appear.

All reference section pages are numbered in Arabic numerals in continuation with
the page numbers of the text. The major components include- appendices,
bibliography/ references, glossary, index and blank sheet.
1. Appendices

What goes into an Appendix?

a) Supplementary or secondary references are put in the appendices section. But
all primary reference material of immediate importance to the reader is
incorporated in the text. The appendices help the author to authenticate the thesis
and help the reader to check the data.

b) The material that is usually put in the appendices is indicated below:

1) Original data
2) Long tables
3) Long quotations
4) Supportive legal decisions, laws and documents
5) Illustrative material
6) Extensive computations
7) Questionnaires and letters
8) Schedules or forms used in collecting data
9) Case studies / histories
10) Transcripts of interviews

Bibliography and References

Research reports present both bibliographies and references. Although many

researchers use these terms interchangeably, the two terms have definite and
distinct meanings. A bibliography is a list of titles – books, research reports,
articles, etc. that may or may not have been referred to in the text of the research
report.

Referencing is the practice of acknowledging in your own writing the intellectual

work of others; work that has been presented in some way into the public domain.
References include only such studies, books or papers that have been actually
referred to in the text of the research report. Whereas research reports should
present references, books meant for larger circulation may be listed in
bibliographies that should include all such titles as have been referred to. There is a
mainly one style manual detailing general form and style for research reports in
social work.

It is:-
1. American Psychological Association, Publication Manual, 3rd ed.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association, 1983.

References and bibliographies

What is the difference between a list of ‘References’ and a

‘Bibliography’? The terms are often used synonymously, but there is a
difference in meaning between them.

 References are the items you have read and specifically referred to
(or cited) in your assignment.
 A bibliography is a list of everything you read in preparation for
writing an assignment. A bibliography will, therefore, normally
contain sources that you have cited and those you found to be
influential but decided not to cite. A bibliography can give a tutor
an overview of which authors have influenced your ideas and
arguments even if you do not specifically refer to them.

What to reference

You can cite references taken from a range of sources, e.g.:

 Books written by a single author

 Multiple edited books with contributions from a range of different authors
 Reference books of all types
 Notes supplied by a lecturer
 Legal documents
 Articles from journals
 Newspaper articles
 Reports of various kinds, e.g. official reports from government
departments, university working papers, etc.
 Papers presented at conferences
 Internet sources, including weblogs (blogs) and email correspondence (but
see below)
 DVD/CD databases • Radio/television/videos/audio cassette/CD-ROMS
 Interview transcripts
 Cinema films, theatre plays and other creative productions
 Illustrations
 Song lyrics and other original musical works
 Works of art and design

When to reference: six scenarios

You should reference evidence in assignments in the following situations:
A. To give the reader the source of tables, statistics,
diagrams, photographs and other illustrations included in
your assignment
B. When describing or discussing a theory, model or
practice associated with a particular writer (this links
specifically to the next two items)
C. To give weight or credibility to an argument supported
by you in your assignment
D. When giving emphasis to a particular theory, model or
practice that has found a measure of agreement and
support among commentators
E. To inform the reader of sources of direct quotations or
definitions in your assignment
F. When paraphrasing another person’s work, which is
outside the realm of common knowledge, and that you
feel is particularly significant or likely to be a subject of
debate. This can also include definitions.
Style of Referencing
There are mainly two types of referencing:
1. Arranging references in alphabetical order where the researcher has cited
the name of the author and year of publication/completion of the work in the
text.
2. Arranging references in a sequence as they appear in the text of the research
report. In this case, related statement in the body of the text is numbered.

How References Are Constructed

In general, a reference should contain four elements: the author’s name

(“who”), date of publication (“when”), title of the work (“what”), and source
data (“where”). The four elements always appear in the same order:

Author, A. A. (year). Title. Source.

This is the basic principle behind all APA Style references.

For traditional materials, these components are straightforward. However,

for some web-based material, it can be difficult to identify one of more of
these elements. Table 1 will help you identify the best way to format
challenging web-based material.
 If you cannot find the reference example you need in the Publication
Manual, choose the example that is most like your source and follow that
format. Sometimes you may need to combine elements of more than one
reference format.

However, most research reports use alphabetical listing of references.

For example, entries in a reference section may look like the following:

Gannicott, K. and Throsby, D. (1994), Educational Quality and Effective

Schooling, UNESCO, (Book), Paris.

You would notice the following:

 All studies are arranged in alphabetical order
 The names of the authors are recorded by title and initials (not full
name).
 To indicate two or three authors, ‘and’ is used between the first and
the second, between first and ‘and’ between second and third author.
 In case of more than three authors, only the name of the first author is
mentioned followed by et al. (et allibi) or others.
 In case of a chapter in a book, after the author and chapter title and
the name of the author or editor of the book.
 Titles of printed books, names of journals are highlighted by using
‘italics’ or by underlining (in case of manually typed material).
 Place of publication of a book precedes the name of the publisher
separated by a ‘:’( colon).
 Names of journals are following by the relevant volume and issue
numbers usually in the form 10(3) –Volume 10, Number 2 and page
numbers.
 Unpublished thesis or dissertation titles are not highlighted and the
word ‘unpublished’ is mentioned.

Referring Web Based Documents

Computers have brought revolution in all sectors of development including

education. Computers were conventionally used for data storage, processing and
retrieval. Through internet, information can be accessed from any part of the
world. As researchers, reviewing the relevant literature related to the problem
under study is almost magnum opus. In these days internet is a rich academic and
professional resource. World Wide Web (WWW) is the easiest and most popularly
used browsing mechanism on the Internet. Here we will very briefly explain as
how to write the references when we quote from any Web Site.

Citing E-Mail
E-Mail communications should be citied as personal communications as noted in
APA’s publication Manual http://www.apa.org/journals/webref.html. Personal
Communications are not cited in the reference list. The format in the text should be
as:

Citing a Web Site

When you access the entire Web site (not a specific document on the site), you just
give the address of the site in the text. It is not necessary to enter in the reference
section.

For example,
http://www.abc.ac.in
http://www.webct.com/ (This site provides tools for development of web based
courses)

Citation of specific document on a web site has a similar format to that for print.
Here, we give few examples of how to cite documents. The Web information is
given at the end of the reference section. The date of retrieval of the site should be
given because documents on the Web can change in content or they may be
removed from a site.

Example
Duchier, D. (1996), Hypertext, New York: Intelligent Software Group. [Online]
http://www.isg.sfu.ca/duchier/misc/hypertext - review/chapter4.htm ] Accessed on
25/1/99].

Flinn, S. (1996), Exploiting information structure to guide visual browsing and

exploratory search in distributed information systems [Online]
http://www.cs.ubc.ca/ reading-room [Accessed June 1998]
If you have to cite some specific parts of a web document, indicate the chapter,
figure, table as required.

Principles of referencing (Why reference?)

 Walker and Taylor (1998, pp.11–15), argue that all styles of referencing are
underpinned by five principles. The first of these establishes a rationale for all
referencing styles and the other four establish a framework for referencing practice
within all referencing styles.

G. The principle of intellectual property. As discussed in

the previous section, Western concepts of plagiarism are
based on an economic model of capitalism and the notion
that someone can claim ownership of an idea if it has
been presented in a ‘fixed’ way, for example, published
or presented in the public domain.
H. The principle of access. References help readers easily
and quickly identify and locate documents referred to in a
text. This helps to spread knowledge, as the reader may
then be able to use the information for his or her own
learning purposes.
I. The principle of economy. The references should
include as much information as necessary to help readers
locate the sources cited. However, they should also be
presented in such a way as to reduce the need for lengthy
explanations in the text, and to speed up the process of
reading.
J. The principle of standardization. References should be
presented in such a way that allows everyone who has
learned the practice to recognize and understand the
meaning of codes and formulas presented. Different
styles of referencing build a standardized framework for
this to happen.
K. The principle of transparency. There must be no
ambiguity in terms and expressions used.
Using references in your text also allows you to group together (or integrate)
several studies to demonstrate a body of evidence for or against a theory.
Alternatively, you can contrast references that have conflicting findings or
interpretations to create a sense of argument in your work.

3. Glossary

What is a Glossary: A glossary is a short dictionary giving definitions and

examples of terms and phrases which are technical, used in a special
 connotation by the author, unfamiliar to the reader, or foreign to the
language in which the book is written? It is listed as a major section in
capital letters in the table of contents.

Positioning of a Glossary:

The glossary appears after the bibliography. It may also appear in the
introductory pages of a book after the lists of tables and illustrations.

4. Index
Index may be either subject index or author index. Author index consists of
important names of persons discussed in the report, arranged in alphabetical
order. Subject index includes a detailed reference to all important matters
discussed in the report such as places, events, definitions, concepts etc., and
presented in alphabetical order. Index is not generally included in graduate /
post graduate students research reports. However, if the report is prepared
for publication or intended as a work of reference, an index is desirable.

Typing Instructions:

For typing a report, the following points should be kept in mind.

1. Paper: Quarter - size (A4 size) white thick, unrolled paper is used.
2. Typing: Typing is done on only one side of the paper in double space.
3. Margins: Left side 1.5 inches, right side 0.5 inch, top and bottom 1.0
inch. But on the first page of every major division, for example, at the
beginning of a chapter give 3 inches’ space at the top.

Unit 7- critically evaluating a study

Robbers Cave (social interaction)

 Sherif's classic social psychology experiment named Robbers Cave
Experiment dealt with in-group relations, out-group relations and intergroup
relations.

The experiment focused heavily on the concept of a 'group' and what a perception

of belonging to a group can actually do to the relationships of members within it
and their relationships with people outside their group.
The same experiment also tried to observe conflicts or 'friction' between two
groups and the process of cooperation or 'integration' of two previously conflicting
groups.

Background of the Experiment

Both in the fields of Sociology and Psychology, researchers have been fascinated
with the concept of 'group.' This particular concept can be defined as one of the
basic social units a person can have. It can consist of a number of individuals who
has a definite status or role relationship with other members of the group. Another
key feature of a group is that members have a set of norms or values that regulate
the behaviour and attitudes of the members. This can be the reason why we usually
hear the statement: "Tell me who your friends are and I will tell you who you are."
Along with this concept of belonging to a group are several concepts that are vital
to the understanding of this experiment. All the common attitudes, aspirations,
hopes and goals that all the members of a group share are social units that can be
referred to as in-groups while all the social units that is not part of the group and all
the social units that he cannot relate to is called out-groups. Correspondingly, the
relation between two or more in-groups along with its members can be called
intergroup relations.

Three Phases of the Experiment

1. In-group Formation - this phase involves the experimental creation of in-
groups through activities that will promote group identification.
2. Friction Phase - this phase involves bringing two experimentally formed
groups into conflict with each other or forming intergroup tension.
3. Integration Phase - this phase involves bringing the two previously
conflicting groups into cooperation through the attainment of superordinate
goals.
Phase 1 (In-Group Formation)

The subjects of the experiment were twenty-two eleven year-old boys of middle-
class socioeconomic standing, who have not experienced any unusual degree of
frustration in their homes, who are not school or social failures and who have
similar educational level. These boys were taken into a summer camp in Robbers
Cave State Park in Oklahoma. Before the start of the experiment, the boys were
randomly divided into two groups ending up with eleven boys each.

The two groups were separately transported and housed in cabins within the same
park. Ultimately, the groups must not be aware of the existence of the other group
during the first phase of the experiment. Otherwise, any functional contact between
the two groups would certainly have unwanted consequences both for the in-group
formation and for the later phases of the experiment. It is these two groups that
formed the basis of group interaction that is the focus of the Robbers Cave
Experiment.
During the first week of the experiment, the groups did not know the existence of
the other group. They basically spend time bonding with each other while hiking in
the park or swimming. Each group was tasked to coin a group name which was
stencilled on their flags and on their shirts. A group name is a good step to allow
the members of each group to identify with their respective groups. It grants the
members belongingness and group spirit. One of the groups chose Eagles as their
group name while the other group chose Rattlers. The chief aim of the first phase is
to produce in-groups through the interaction of the members within the two
separate groups.

Phase 2 (Friction Phase)

During this phase, the two groups were allowed to find out about the existence of
the other group. The chief aim of this phase is the production of conflict between
the two groups which can be accomplished by a series of competitive activities in
the form of a tournament of events which will yield cumulative scores with a
reward for the members of the winning group.
 This step of the experimenters greatly increased the antagonism between the two
groups. This was significantly evident during the tally of the scores where the
Rattlers won the overall trophy. The Rattlers planted their flag in the play field as a
reminder of their success. Later on, name calling started and the singing of
offending songs were also observed.

Furthermore, after these incidences, the groups refused to eat in the same dining
together. The experimenters were so successful at producing friction that they
concluded that it was no longer safe to conduct friction-producing activities and
phase two was suddenly cut short and phase three commenced.

Phase 3 (Integration Phase)

This stage constitutes the most crucial and significant aspect of the study. In this
phase, the experimenters will deliberately attempt to bring about cooperation
between the two groups following a stage of friction or conflict. This phase aims to
study the process of reducing group tensions.

The first activity for this phase was a problem wherein both the groups must
cooperate to solve because the resources and efforts of a single group are
inadequate to attain the solution to the problem. Both of the groups were taken to a
new location and were told that they are having drinking water shortage. The two
groups had to repair the damage done by vandals to their drinking water supply.
During the successful repair of their water problems, cooperation was observed
between the members of the two groups. This activity was done by the
experimenters to create a state of real and tangible interdependence between the
members of the two groups.

The second activity was the group needed to interact with each other and they had
to pay and decide for a movie that they would like to watch. The groups
successfully agreed upon a movie all of them should watch and during the dinner
after this activity, all the boys were eating together once again.

Observations

 Definite group structures and dynamics consisting of individual status and

roles will be formed when a number of individuals without previously
 established interpersonal relations interact with one another under similar context
and events.
 During the Friction Phase, uneasy conflicts produce unfavourable
stereotypes in relation to the out-group and its members placing the out-group at
a certain social distance.
 In an event that a number of conflicting groups are brought together with a
common superordinate goal and the attainment of which cannot be achieved by
the efforts of one group alone, the groups will tend to cooperate towards the
achievement of the superordinate goal.

Muzafer Sherif is a famous social psychologist important to the psychological

understanding of groups and its members. 

His main contribution is known as Realistic Conflict Theory, and accounts for
group conflict, negative prejudices, and stereotypes as being the result of
competition between groups for desired resources.  Sherif validated his theory in
one his most famous experiments, "The Robber's Cave"

Sherif argued that intergroup conflict (i.e. conflict between groups) occurs when
two groups are in competition for limited resources. This theory is supported by
evidence from a famous study investigating group conflict: The Robbers Cave
(Sherif, 1954, 1958, 1961).
The field experiment involved two groups of twelve-year-old boys at Robber’s
Cave State Park, Oklahoma, America.
The twenty-two boys in the study were unknown to each other and all from white
middle-class backgrounds.  They all shared a Protestant, two-parent background.
None of the boys knew each other prior to the study. The boys were randomly
assigned to one of two groups, although neither was aware of the other’s existence.
They were then, as individual groups, picked up by bus on successive days in the
summer of 1954 and transported to a 200-acre Boy Scouts of America camp in the
Robbers Cave State Park in Oklahoma.
At the camp the groups were kept separate from each other and were encouraged to
bond as two individual groups through the pursuit of common goals that required
co-operative discussion, planning and execution. During this first phase, the groups
did not know of the other group's existence. The boys developed an attachment to
their groups throughout the first week of the camp, quickly establishing their own
cultures and group norms, by doing various activities together like hiking,
swimming, etc. The boys chose names for their groups, The Eagles and The
Rattlers, and stenciled them onto shirts and flags.
Sherif now arranged the 'competition stage' where friction between the groups was
to occur over the next 4-6 days. In this phase it was intended to bring the two
groups into competition with each other in conditions that would create frustration
between them. A series of competitive activities (e.g. baseball, tug-of-war etc.)
were arranged with a trophy being awarded on the basis of accumulated team
score. There were also individual prizes for the winning group such as a medal and
a multi-bladed pocket knife with no consolation prizes being given to the "losers."
The Rattlers' reaction to the informal announcement of a series of contests was
absolute confidence in their victory! They spent the day talking about the contests
and making improvements on the ball field, which they took over as their own to
such an extent that they spoke of putting a "Keep Off" sign there! They ended up
putting their Rattler flag on the pitch. At this time, several Rattlers made
threatening remarks about what they would do if anybody from The Eagles
bothered their flag.
Situations were also devised whereby one group gained at the expense of the other.
For example, one group was delayed getting to a picnic and when they arrived the
other group had eaten their food.
At first, this prejudice was only verbally expressed, such as taunting or name-
calling. As the competition wore on, this expression took a more direct route. The
Eagles burned the Rattler's flag. Then the next day, the Rattler's ransacked The
Eagle's cabin, overturned beds, and stole private property. The groups became so
aggressive with each other that the researchers had to physically separate them.
During the subsequent two-day cooling off period, the boys listed features of the
two groups. The boys tended to characterize their own in-group in very favorable
terms, and the other out-group in very unfavorable terms.
Keep in mind that the participants in this study were well-adjusted boys, not street
gang members. This study clearly shows that conflict between groups can trigger
prejudice attitudes and discriminatory behavior. This experiment confirmed
Sherif's realistic conflict theory.
 Critical Evaluation
The events at Robbers Cave mimicked the kinds of conflict that plague people all
over the world. The simplest explanation for this conflict is competition. Assign
strangers to groups, throw the groups into competition, stir the pot, and soon there
is conflict. There is a lot of evidence that when people compete for scarce
resources (e.g. jobs, land etc.) there is a rise in hostility between groups. For
example, in times of high unemployment there may be high levels of racism
among white people who believe that black people (or asylum seekers) have taken
their jobs. The study was a field experiment which means it has high ecological
validity.
However, the Robbers Cave study has been criticized on a number of issues. For
example, the two groups of boys in the study were artificial, as was the
competition, and did not necessarily reflect real life. For example, middle class
boys randomly assigned into two separate groups is not rival inner city gangs, or
rival football supporters.
Ethical issues must also be considered. The participants were deceived, as they did
not know the true aim of the study. Also, participants were not protected from
physical and psychological harm.
Nor should the results be generalized to real life because the research used only 12-
year-old white middle class boys and excluded, for example, girls and adults.
The sample was biased.

Main Findings
This classic study of intergroup conflict and cooperation demonstrated how groups
strongly favor their own members (in-group bias), and how intergroup conflict can
be resolved by the groups working together on a common task that neither group
can complete without the help of the other group.

Teaching sign language to a chimp (1969) Gardner & Gardner

Aims and context (Put aims of study & background history):

The aim of the study was to answer the question to what extent (how
much) might another species be able to use human language? One way to
test this was to teach a form of human language to a non-human animal.

Gardner & Gardner aimed to investigate if they could teach a chimpanzee

(considered to be a most intelligent and sociable animal) to communicate
using a human language, specifically that of American Sign Language.

Context - Language makes us unique as an animal, Chomsky (1965)

believes language is unique to humans, other species can’t acquire
language, humans have a language acquisition device, animals don’t.

Early attempts to teach chimps to talk were useless, a chimp’s vocal

apparatus is unsuited to making speech sounds, however the Gardners felt
that chimps can use a non-spoken language like ASL, this language is
used by the deaf in America. The Gardners were the first to attempt to
teach a chimp ASL.

Bryan (1963) reports that the vocal apparatus of the chimpanzee is very
different to that of man. Even though chimpanzees are capable of making
many different sounds, vocalization tends to occur in situations of high
stress or excitement; when undisturbed, chimpanzees are normally silent.
Gardner & Gardner therefore concluded that a vocal language was not
appropriate for this species.

Hayes & Hayes (1951) worked extensively with a chimpanzee called Vicki.
They aimed to teach her to produce a vocal language, however in their 6
years of work with Vicki, she was only able to make four sounds which
approximated to English words.
In the 1960s, the American Linguist Charles Hockett produced a list called
the ‘Design Features of Language’. He believed that animal and human
communications had some features which were similar, but that even the
most basic of human languages contained many features which animal
communication did not.

There are problems in how we evaluate findings when we teach a non-

human animal to use a language, and this depends on how we define a
language in the first place. Hockett (1960) believed there were real
qualitative differences between human and non-human language.

Aitchison (1983) concluded that there are 4 criteria which are unique to
human language: Only we can do these things: These are:

1. Semanticity - use of symbols to mean an object or action

2. Displacement - when we can refer to things not present in time or
space
3. Structure–dependence - the patterned nature of language and
correct word order
4. Creativity - to be able to produce and understand many new ways of
saying the same thing, called productivity.

Premack (1971) in a later study got a female chimp called Sarah to use
small plastic shapes each of which stood for a word and were arranged on
a magnetic board.

Procedures (What did the Psychologists do to the participants?)

 A wild caught female chimp had been previously rescued &

eventually given to the Gardner’s for research purposes; her age was
between 8-14 months.
 Detailed records were kept of Washoe’s progress over 32 months.

 Her human companions introduced games and activities which would

maximize interaction with Washoe.

 One person was with her for all her waking hours.

 All people who had contact with Washoe had to learn ASL & use it a
lot in her presence in connection with interesting activities.

 If Washoe used the wrong sign to mean something, the Gardners

made the correct sign to her, and repeated this until Washoe copied
it herself. Also there was prompting, like pointing at Washoe’s hand
or a part of her body that was involved in the signing.

 Routine activities like feeding and bathing have been ritualised (done
in a certain way each time) & used for signs to be taught.

 New objects and new examples of familiar objects have been

brought continually to Washoe’s attention in the hope she’d learn the
signs.

 Tickling Washoe was used as a reward when she signed correctly.

 Training methods used by Washoe’s human companions included:

 imitation of signs using the “Do this” game.
 encouraging ‘babbling’ through clapping, smiling and repeating
the gesture.
 instrumental conditioning - tickling was used as a reward as this
seemed to be the most effective reward to use with Washoe. This
meant Washoe would repeat the sign that led to the reward.
  When a sign appeared it had to be seen by 3 different observers &
had to occur in the right situation and spontaneously i.e. not
prompted, the sign was then added to a checklist and so recorded.

 2 checklists were filled out, one for each half of the day. A frequency
of one appropriate and spontaneous occurrence of a new sign had
to happen each day over 15 consecutive days for the researchers to
conclude Washoe had learned a new sign.

Perspective ; cognitive

Method: Case study

3 advantages of the methodology: Sample (e.g. representative)

Internal & external validity/internal & external reliability/ethics & any other
issues:

1. The results are reliable as Kanzi another chimp in (1991) also had
the ability to show semanticity (knew 200 words) as did Washoe
(learned 132 signs) so a form of language can be taught to chimps.

2. The procedures had high internal validity as the recording of whether

Washoe had acquired a new sign was strict e.g. had to be seen by 3
different observers.

3. The research was conducted under very controlled conditions & all
staff fully understood the need for consistency & the following of
basic rules such as ‘not speaking language’ around Washoe. This
means we can be confident that the training programme led to
 Washoe acquiring a language of signs. It also means the procedures
can be repeated with another chimp to see if the same results are
found.

4. Variables can be controlled e.g. all meaningful sounds she heard had
to be ones she could copy.

3 disadvantages of this methodology: Sample bias/validity – internal &

external/reliability internal & external/ethics/gender bias/cultural bias & any
other issues:

1. One chimp was tested, the results can’t be generalised to all chimps.
This is a case study and so Washoe could be unique to her species
e.g. very intelligent.

2. Washoe was at times pressed too hard to learn signs, so she was
not learning signs in her own time, she sometimes bit her tutor, this
means the study had low internal validity as the training programme
and procedures sometimes went wrong.

3. The results have low ecological validity because Nim another chimp
rarely signed spontaneously, unlike Washoe. Nim almost always
required human prompting to sign. This suggests it is unusual for
chimps to use ASL and Washoe was quite unique. This could be
because the researchers were over-keen for Washoe to sign and
thus ‘pushed’ her to learn.

4. Ethics - Washoe was a wild caught chimp, she as an animal would

not have chosen to become involved with this research project, her
right to be free was not kept to. Her inability to stand and defend her
rights should not be a barrier for humans to recognise that chimps
have rights.
Findings and conclusions of the study:

 30 signs had met the criteria of occurring each day over 15 days by
the end of the 22nd month of the project.

 Washoe showed semanticity – learning 132 signs+ after 4 years of

intensive training. There was evidence of displacement e.g. she
asked for absent objects e.g. ALL GONE CUP/MORE MILK.

 Washoe could transfer signs to new members of the same thing e.g.
transferred the FLOWER sign to mean an outdoor flower and indoor
flower.

 Washoe could use combinations of signs - called strings e.g. used 2

or three signs together e.g. GIMME TICKLE.

 She did not show conclusive evidence of structure dependence

(correct sign order).

 Sign language is an appropriate method of two way communication

for the chimp.

 The ability for Washoe to combine and recombine signs must be

tested in the future; the idea is that Washoe will be able to describe
events and situations to an observer who has no other access to this
information except for Washoe.

Instrumental conditioning - In the early months during play Washoe would

indicate wanting more tickling by placing the researcher’s hands on her
ribs. The Gardners decided to shape an arbitrary response which she
could use for requesting ‘more’ tickling. They noticed that when being
tickled she tended to bring her arms together to cover the area being
tickled - this appeared very similar to the ASL sign for ‘more’. Washoe soon
associated this sign with the resulting tickling.

The training conditions have not been the best according to the
researchers. They therefore think her achievements will be succeeded by
another chimp.

The Gardners believe that a larger body of intensive research needs to go

on with other species of animals before we can conclusively say that
language is an exclusively human ability.

Conclusion:

The Gardners are wary of answering the question of whether Washoe has
language - they imply that there is an element of looking for hierarchy of
communication skills. It is a difficult question to answer whether Washoe
has language. The fact that Washoe’s signs do not remain specific to their
original contexts suggests that she has indeed ‘learnt’ language.

critical Evaluation points of the study:

Strengths:

 Gives interesting insights into nature v’s nurture debate - it shows

that nature is important, as despite intensive training there were
things Washoe could not do which humans do e.g. show correct
word order, on the other hand she could learn a sign language by
imitation and situation so this gives evidence of nurture learning
through the environment.
Weaknesses:

 Poor mundane realism (is task the same as what would happen in
real life?) the way that Washoe was taught to communicate would
not be how she would do it naturally and communicate with other
chimps.

 Experimenter bias - the researchers could have affected how

Washoe responded e.g. prompted her to respond a lot, so did she
sign spontaneously?

 The researchers may also have shown expectancy effects – e.g.

encouraging Washoe to sign when she would not have done left to
her own devices, so they may have overestimated her signing
abilities.

 Reductionism - the Gardners used one form of communication i.e.

ASL, they could neglect how complex communication in chimps
could be, e.g. through facial expression etc, also only one feature of
ASL was used that of hand gestures even though there are more
parts to ASL e.g. movement. This is reductionist.

 Small sample size. Washoe could be an unusual chimp e.g. more or

less intelligent, so can’t say how well she really did at using a
language.

 Subjective - as the Gardners were highly involved with Washoe, they

may have lost their sense of objectivity, the whole research was
unscientific, a lot of learning and teaching was trial and error and
they may have interpreted her behaviour wrongly as showing
evidence of understanding sign language, but really Washoe may not
have been as clever as they thought.
 Gibson & Walk (1960) walking off a cliff

Aims and context (Put aims of study & background history):

Aims: Aim was to investigate if infants could discriminate depth by the

time they could move independently i.e. crawl. They wanted to test if an
infant’s perception & cliff avoidance behaviours were an innate
characteristic of humans & non human animals i.e. it is inborn in us.
Biologically pre-programmed to detect depth before we are independently
locomotive.

Depth perception is the ability to perceive how close or far an object is

from us. It is an element of our visual capabilities. It is needed as we have
to find our way around the world. If we had no depth perception we would
probably die e.g. we could not go up or down stairs without falling!

Nativists are people who support the nature side of the nature v’s nurture
debate. They believe we are born with certain capacities like the ability to
perceive depth. They believe these abilities may not be functioning well
when we are born, but as we mature physically these capacities develop.
Learning then is of little importance in these abilities. Nurturists however,
believe we get these abilities through our experiences & the willingness to
learn; learning occurs before we are able to move about on our own.
Interactionists are in between, they believe our abilities are the product of
both nature (inborn abilities) and nurture (learning through our
environment).

When we are born our nervous system has all the right parts, however it
is immature - it is half the size of an adult’s. The optic nerve, which we
use to see, is shorter than it will be when adult sized, but it is also
narrower as it does not have the protective myelin sheath round it that
ensures good transmission of information through the nervous system.
Humans can move independently by about 6 months but many other
species can move from the time they are born. By using animals as well
as humans, the researchers could see if cliff avoidance behaviours were
evident from birth in these species. Aquatic turtles were used too to see if
those animals which don’t need depth perception as much in their
environment were less able to show it.

Procedures (What did the Psychologists do to the participants?)

 Cornell University U.S.A. - a visual cliff apparatus was made in a

laboratory.
 The visual cliff consisted of a large glass sheet which is supported a
foot or more above the floor with patterned material directly beneath
the glass on one side, (shallow side) and several feet below it on
the other (deep side).

 Chequered patterns on the material under the glass gave visual

clues (cues) that one side was shallow, the other side was deep.

 36 infants aged 6-14 months were put on the centre board of the
visual cliff. All the infant participants were capable of crawling.
(independent locomotion).

 Each child was then observed to see if it would crawl to the mother
(cross onto the deep side) or if it would crawl onto the shallow side
(away from the beckoning mother).

 Non-human animals were tested (cats, rats, chicks, goats, turtles)

on the cliff, they were tested at the age at which they show
locomotion e.g. chick - one day old.

 A further test was done on kid goats and lambs. An adjustable cliff
was set up so the apparently shallow surface could be lowered
once the animal was on it. The idea was to test how the animal
would react to the visual cues when it felt the depth of its
surroundings was suddenly going down.

 Another condition was set up where the pattern that displayed the
depth was replaced by a uniform grey surface. This was to see if
the pattern was the reason the animals and humans could sense
 depth and distance. It was expected the participants would no
longer show a preference for the shallow side.

Perspective ; developmental

Method: Controlled Observation

3 advantages of the methodology: Sample (e.g. representative)

Internal & external validity/internal & external reliability/ethics & any other
issues:

1. Controlled Observations – reliable, as the same procedures can be

repeated with different participants to see if the same results can be
gained, if so, the results are reliable.

2. High internal validity - the researchers did measure what they

claimed. The infant’s movement was a good measure of their ability
to perceive depth. Also, babies are less likely to respond to demand
characteristics as they won’t understand what the researcher is
trying to find out!

3. High ecological validity, although it was a lab the way the cliff was
designed, mirrored the sort of experiences of depth that an infant
could come across in everyday life i.e. reacting to changes in
patterned surfaces and drops.

3 disadvantages of this methodology: Sample bias/validity – internal &

external/reliability internal & external/ethics/gender bias/cultural bias &
any other issues:

1. Sample - small sample size of 36 infants. These infants could be

different from the wider population and so can’t generalise to other
infants. Also these babies were quite mature as they could have
learned depth perception through their environment by that age, so
we can’t see if depth perception is inborn (i.e. innate). Some older
babies were upright and walking!

2. How do you test why the participants moved to the shallow side but
away from the deep side? You can’t tell what is going on in a
 baby’s mind so this calls into question the validity of the findings.
So we have to be careful about imposing our own reasons for this.

3. Ethics - the sight of the visual cliff may have distressed the babies
even though they were in no physical danger. They cannot give
consent even though their mothers did. They also did not have the
right to withdraw if they suffered distress. They would be distressed
by the fact that their mothers were asking them to do something
they were clearly afraid of so they are not being protected from
harm. Furthermore, Gibson & Walk continued with the procedures
knowing the distress it would cause future participants.

4. Reliability questionable - Pei et al (2007) have shown using a

range of different textures and patterns that although human
infants can make use of crude patterns like the square pattern on
the visual cliff they cannot detect and understand more subtle
differences in texture like adults, so advanced visual perception
requires experience and learning, so it is against Gibson & Walks’
view that depth perception is inborn.

Findings and conclusions of the study:

 All 27 infants who moved off the centre board crawled out onto the
shallow side at least once.

 Only 3 tried to crawl onto the deep cliff side.

 Many infants crawled away from the mum when she called to them
from the deep side, others cried when she stood there as they could
not get to her without crossing to the deep side.

 Chicks less than 24 hours old would always hop off the centre
board onto the shallow side and avoid the deep side.

 Goat kids & lambs never stepped onto the deep side even at 1 day
old!

 Kittens at 4 weeks old preferred the shallow side & froze when
placed on the deep side or circled back to the centre board.
  Kittens that had been reared in darkness for their first 27 days of life
crawled onto the shallow and deep side equally. When placed on
the deep side, they demonstrated similar behaviours to if they had
placed on the shallow side THEY DID NOT ‘FREEZE’ OR ‘CIRCLE
BACK LIKE ‘NORMAL’ KITTENS. After this initial research, these
kittens were kept in ‘normal’ lighting conditions. They were tested
daily on the visual cliff and by the end of 1 week the ‘dark reared’
kittens demonstrated similar behaviours to kittens who had been
reared in the light i.e. almost unanimous preference for shallow
side.

 76% of the water turtles crawled onto the shallow side.

 A minority of turtles chose the deep side this is because the turtle
has poorer depth discrimination than other animals. Gibson & Walk
say that its natural habitat does not really mean it is likely to fall.

Conclusion: The survival of a species requires that its members develop

discrimination of depth by the time they are able to move independently,
be it at 1 day (the chick & goat) or 6-14 months (human). That such a vital
ability does not depend on possibly fatal accidents of learning in the lives
of individuals is consistent with evolutionary theory.
Human infants can discriminate and work out depth as soon as they can
crawl.

Alternative and complementary research findings:

Alternative:

Pei et al (2007) used a range of different textures and patterns on their

participants and found human infants can make use of easy patterns like
the squares on the visual cliff, they cannot detect more subtle and small
differences in texture like adults can, so depth perception is learned to an
extent, so goes against Gibson’s idea that by the time infants are
locomotive they have depth perception.

Stratton (1897) wore a lens over one eye which turned his view of the
world upside down. He kept it on for 8 days. He covered the other eye
with a patch forcing him to look through a lens. By day 5 he could walk
around without bumping into things. Humans then can make changes to
the way they experience the visual world and relearn. This goes against
the Gibson & Walk nativist view that our development of perception is
biologically fixed and pre-programmed from an early age; otherwise
Stratton would not be able to do this.

Peterson (1938) used the same lenses as Stratton on people and got the
same results, making Stratton’s study reliable. However, even after two
weeks not all p’s had adapted to their new way of looking at the world,
giving evidence for the interactionist view of perception.

Blakemore & Cooper (1966) raised kittens in large drums so they only
saw vertical black and white stripes. When they were put into a normal
world at 5 months of age, the kittens bumped into anything which was not
vertical e.g. a pen waved horizontally across where they were walking;
this suggests learning is needed for correct visual perception. However
there were some problems with this experiment. The playful kittens would
have rolled around on the floor so they would have seen stripes at
different angles.

Complementary findings:

Fantz showed infants a number of shapes and patterns; babies showed a

preference for complex shapes like a chess board. He concluded that
form perception could be inborn. Babies, he said, can perceive form or
pattern from one week of age. This is clearly much earlier than Gibson &
Walk suggest.

He also showed babies scrambled up faces compared to normal faces,

all infants were more interested in the human face, so babies have a
preference for human faces, which could be inborn. This means that they
could recognise their caregivers & attach to them, and supports
evolutionary theory as if they can attach to someone they are more likely
to survive and be protected.

Sinai et al (1998) tested adults on their ability to judge distance up to 7

metres. When the ground was even, p’s could use texture as a cue (clue)
and judge distance accurately. But when other things were put in the way
of vision, like a ditch, the accuracy of their estimates got worse. This
shows the importance of texture patterns as a distance cue, like Gibson &
Walk said.

Bower tested if babies could judge distance and direction accurately. An

object (cube) was moved towards the baby’s face if the infant can see the
moving object it will try to lift its hand to protect its face and try to move
out of the path of the object. It was found that babies can tell the direction
of a moving object well, they become disturbed if objects appear to head
straight for them but don’t show the same concern when the same object
would miss them even by an inch, or two. The defensive reaction seems
to be inborn; this makes sense as it would have survival value.

Evaluation points of the study:

Strengths:

 Reliable - other studies have found same results.

 Valid - good experiment and seems to measure depth perception.

Good realistic visual cliff, could eliminate other senses like touch so
they were measuring visual perception.

 Ecological validity - cliff mirrors other experiences of drops in the

environment.

 High internal validity - procedures led to valid results; all well

controlled procedures.

 Shows our behaviour is determined (controlled) by our biology

which controls our senses (vision in this case).

 Evidence for nature side of debate - we are genetically pre-wired to

respond to our environment in certain ways e.g. avoid drops!

Weaknesses:

 Individual differences at work - a few babies still crawled onto the

deep side, so interesting why 3 babies did this.

 Sample too small to be representative of all babies, also American,

so culturally biased.
 Experimenter bias - the mums could give their babies subtle signals
to not cross over to the deep side e.g. body language and this may
have affected some babies.

 Ethics - babies were distressed at being called over to the deep

side by their mums. Should they be put under this distress?

 Ethnocentric - a lot of research is American and these findings are

then used to explain behaviour in all cultural groups, but this is not
correct.

 Hawthorne effect - babies know they are being watched so may

react to this in some way, lowering validity of results e.g. try harder
to do the right thing for their mums?