KEY NOTE – BIOLOGY -2020

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KEY NOTES ON BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

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Table of Contents
1. Plantae
2. Plant Kingdom
3. Algae – Thallophytes
3.1. Chlorophyceae – Green Algae
3.2. Phaeophyceae – Brown Algae
3.3. Rhodophyceae – Red Algae
3.4. Uses of algae

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4. Bryophytes
5. Pteridophytes
6. Cryptogamae

PLANT
Classification among plants depends on
1. Whether the plant body has well differentiated, distinct components,
2. Whether the differentiated plant body has special tissues for the transport of water and other
substances within it, ability to bear seeds, and whether the seeds are enclosed within fruits .

System of Classification
Classification Criteria used in classification Plant
System

Artificial systems Criteria used were gross superficial, morphological characters (habit,
(Linnaeus) colour, shape number of leaves and number of stamens). Vegetative and
sexual characters were given equal weightage. But vegetative characters
are more plastic (change with environment) while sexual characters
are conserved and stable).
Natural Systems Based on natural affinities, they include external as well as internal
(George Bentham features (ultrastructure, embryology, anatomy and phytochemistry).
and Joseph Dalton They take into account homology of characters.
Hooker)
Phylogenetic Based on evolutionary relationships. Uses information from
Systems
(Oswald Tippo)

DEMERITS OF ARTIFICIAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

3. It separated the closely related species.

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4. They were based on a few characteristics (superficial characters).

5. Also, the artificial systems gave equal weightage to vegetative and sexual characteristics; this
is not acceptable since we know that often the vegetative characters are more easily affected
by environment.

DEMERITS OF NATURAL SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION

6. The system does not give any idea as to the evolutionary history of any genus, family or order.

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7. Some plant group classification based on artificial system.
8. Gymnospermae is placed between the Dicotyledones and Monocotyledones

SOME OTHER SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION:

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9. Cytotaxonomy : Chromosome number, structure, behaviour.
10. Chemotaxonomy : Analysis of chemical constituents.
11. Numerical taxonomy / Phenetics : Computational analysis of all characters. Hundreds of
characters can be studied and all characters are given equal weightage.

Let us see how the plant kingdom has changed over the years

Classification Year Plant Kingdom

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Linnaeus System 1758 Bacteria, Protists, Fungi, Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
(Two Kingdom ) Gymnosperms and Angiosperms (All organisms with cell walls)

Haeckal 1866 Fungi, Algae, Bryophytes, Pteridophytes, Gymnosperms,

(Three kingdom) Angiosperms (one celled organisms shifted to Kingdom Protista)
Whittaker 1969 Algae (green, brown, red) Bryophytes, Pteridophytes,
(Five Kingdom) Gymnosperms, Angiosperms (Fungi shifted to Kingdom Fungi)

Master Stroke:
12. Four kingdom classification proposed by Copland. Fungi, and members of the Monera and
Protista having cell walls have now been excluded from Plantae though earlier classifications
put them in the same kingdom.
13. The cyanobacteria that are also referred to as blue green algae are not ‘algae’ any more.

Demerits of Two kingdom classification :

14. In two kingdom classification Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes placed in the same group.
15. In this system photo synthetic green algae and non-photosynthetic fungi are placed in same
group i.e. plantae.
16. In two kingdom system unicellular and multicellular organism are placed together.
17. On the basis of cell wall bacteria were considered as' plant and put in plantae.
18. Position of Euglena is not fixed. .

KINGDOM PLANTAE
19. Plants are multicellular eukaryotes with cell walls mainly made of cellulose {Plant Cell vs.
Animal Cell}.
20. They are autotrophs and use chlorophyll for photosynthesis. A few members are partially
heterotrophic such as the insectivorous plants or parasites. Bladderwort and Venus fly trap are
examples of insectivorous plants and Cuscuta is a parasite.
21. Plantae includes algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms.

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22. Fungi, and members of the Monera and Protista having cell walls have now been excluded
from Plantae. So, the cyanobacteria that are also referred to as blue green algae are not ‘algae’
any more.

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ALGAE – Thallophytes
23. Plants that do not have well-differentiated body design fall in this group. They are commonly
called algae
24. Algae are chlorophyll-bearing, simple, thalloid, autotrophic and largely aquatic (both
fresh water and marine) organisms.
[Thallus == a plant body not differentiated into stem, leaves, and roots and without a vascular
system, typical of algae, fungi, lichens, and some liverworts].
25. They occur in a variety of other habitats 3 : moist stones, soils and wood. Some of them also
occur in association with fungi (lichen) and animals (e.g., on sloth bear).
26. Form and size of algae : highly variable
a. Microscopic unicellular forms like Chlamydomonas,
b. Colonial forms like Volvox
c. Filamentous forms like Ulothrix and Spirogyra.
d. A few of the marine forms such as kelps (underground water forest of brown alga) form
massive plant bodies
27. Reproduction: The algae reproduce by vegetative, asexual and sexual methods
a. Vegetative reproduction : By fragmentation. Each fragment develops into a thallus.
b. Asexual reproduction : By the production of different types of spores, (the most
common being the zoospores). They are flagellated (motile) and on germination gives rise
to new plants. ( Prepared by Srivastava sir)
c. Sexual reproduction (fusion of two gametes).
 Fusion of two gametes similar in size, Such reproduction is called isogamous.
 Gametes can be flagellated (Chlamydomonas) or non-flagellated/non-motile (Spirogyra)
(anisogamous).
 Fusion between one large, non-motile (static) female gamete and a smaller, motile male
gamete is termed oogamous, e.g., Volvox, Fucus. [Compare this with human sperm and
ovum]
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USE OF ALGAE
28. Algae are useful to man in a variety of ways. At least a half of the total carbon dioxide
fixation on earth is carried out by algae through photosynthesis.
29. Being photosynthetic they increase the level of dissolved oxygen in their immediate
environment. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
30. They are of paramount importance as primary producers of energy-rich compounds which
form the basis of the food cycles of all aquatic animals.

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31. Many species of Porphyra, Laminaria and Sargassum are among the 70 species of marine
algae used as food. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
32. Certain marine brown and red algae produce large amounts of hydrocolloids (water holding
substances), e.g., algin (brown algae) and carrageen (red algae) which are used commercially.

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33. Agar, one of the commercial products obtained from Gelidium and Gracilaria are used to
grow microbes and in preparations of ice-creams and jellies.
34. Chlorella a unicellular alga, rich in proteins is used as food supplement even by space
travellers.
35. The algae are divided into three main classes: Chlorophyceae, Phaeophyceae and
Rhodophyceae.

MASTER STROKE
36. In present classification, (Chlorella and Chlamydomonas are now placed under Kingdom

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Protista and Spirulina (Blue Green Algae/Cyanobacteria) under Kingdom Monera.
37. In earlier classification, they were considered in Kingdom Plantae.

CLASSIFICATION OF ALGAE (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)

Chlorophyceae Phaeophyceae Rhodophyceae

Common name Green Algae Brown Algae Red Algae

plant body may be unicellular, marine habitats,

colonial or filamentous  simple branched, filamentous
form (Ectocarpus)
 Profusely branched forms as
represented by kelps, which
may reach a height of 100
metres.
Colour and green due to the chlorophyll a, c, carotenoids Red colour as
Pigments dominance of and Fucoxanthin (xanthophyll predominance of the
pigments chlorophyll Pigment) red pigment, r-
a, b Color from olive green to phycoerythrin in
various shades of brown their body.
depending upon the amount Cholophyall a,d
fucoxanthin present in them.
Food Storage Food storage bodies Laminarin, mannitol The food is stored as
called pyrenoids floridean starch
(located in the (similar to
chloroplasts ) contain amylopectin and
protein besides glycogen in
“starch” structure)
Other ways of Some algae may store
Food storage food in the form of oil
droplets.

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Cell Wall Rigid, and made of an vegetative cells has cellulosic

inner layer -cellulose wall covered by outer
Outer layer - pectose. gelatinous coating of algin.
Reproduction Vegetative - Vegetative - fragmentation Vegetative-
fragmentation fragmentation.
Reproduction Asexual- Spores Asexual- biflagellate zoospores asexually - non-
(flagella-2-8, Equal, (pear-shaped and have 2, motile spores

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Apical)
Sexual-isogamous,
anisogamous,
Oogamous

unequal, laterally attached
flagella)
Sexual-isogamous,
anisogamous or Oogamous.
Sexual- by non-
motile
Oogamous
accompanied
gametes.
and
by
 complex post

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In Oogamous species, Union of
gametes may take place in fertilisation
water or within the Oogonium. developments.
 gametes are pyriform (pear-
shaped) and bear two laterally
attached flagella
Example Chlamydomonas, Ectocarpus, Dictyota, Polysiphonia,
Volvox, Ulothrix, Laminaria, Sargassum and Porphyra,
Spirogyra and Chara Fucus Gracilaria and

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Gelidium.

(a) Green algae

(i) Volvox (ii) Chlamydomonas (iii) Chara

SHORT TRICK
US has VERY CLEEN COLLEGES
Ulothrix Spirogira Volvox chara Chlamydomonas

(b) Brown algae

(i) Laminaria (ii) Fucus (iii) Dictyota

SHORT TRICK Laminaria

S E L F Defence
Sargassum Ectocarpus Fuscus Dictyota

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(c) Red algae

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(i) Porphyra (ii) Polysiphonia

SHORT TRICK
Pogo PER GILI GILI SIM SIM DEKHO
Polysiphonia Porphyra Gelidium Gracilaria

3. Bryophytes (Gametophytic plant)

38. Bryophytes are called amphibians of the plant kingdom because these plants can live in
soil but are dependent on water for sexual reproduction.

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39. The plant body is commonly differentiated to form stem and leaf-like structures. However,
there is no specialized tissue for the conduction of water and other substances from one part of
the plant body to another.
40. Bryophytes include the various mosses (funaria), marchantia and liverworts that are found
commonly growing in damp, humid and shaded localities. They play an important role in
plant succession on bare rocks/soil. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
41. It is thallus-like and prostrate or erect, and attached to the substratum by unicellular
(Liverworts) or multicellular (Mosses) rhizoids. They lack true roots, stem or leaves.
42. The main plant body -haploid. It produces gametes, hence is called a gametophyte. The sex
organs in bryophytes are multicellular.
43. Male sex organ -antheridium. Produce biflagellate antherozoids.
44. The female sex organ-archegonium is flask-shaped, produces a single egg.
45. The anthropoids -released into water where it contact with archegonia fuses to produce the
zygote (No immediate reduction). (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
46. Zygotes produce a multicellular body called a sporophyte (not free-living but attached to the
photosynthetic gametophyte and derives nourishment from it.)
47. Some cells of the sporophyte undergo reduction division (meiosis) to produce haploid spores.
These spores germinate to produce gametophyte.

MASTER STROKE
48. Sexual reproduction in bryophyte is oogamous type and life life cycle is haplodiplontic
49. In bryophyte sporophyte stage is depend on gametophyte stage. This is unique character of
bryophyte

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Economic Importance
50. Mosses provide food for herbaceous mammals, birds and other animals.
51. Species of Sphagnum, a moss, provide peat that has long been used as fuel, and because of
their capacity to hold water as packing material for trans-shipment of living material.
52. Mosses along with lichens are the first organisms to colonies rocks and hence, are of great
ecological importance. They decompose rocks making the substrate suitable for the growth of
higher plants. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)

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3.1. Liverworts
53. The plant body of a liverwort is thalloid, e.g., Marchantia.
54. The thallus is dorsiventral and closely appressed to the substrate.

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55. Asexual reproduction :
a) Fragmentation of thalli, or
b) by the formation of specialised structures called gemmae (sing. gemma).
 Gemmae are green, multicellular, asexual buds, which develop in small receptacles called
gemma cups located on the thalli.
 The gemmae become detached from the parent body and germinate to form new
individuals
c) Sexual reproduction,
 Male and female sex organs are produced either on the same or on different thalli.

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 The sporophyte is differentiated into a foot, seta and capsule. After meiosis, spores are
produced within the capsule. These spores germinate to form free-living gametophytes.

MASTER STROKE :

Marchantia:

Diocious,

Unisexual,

Heterothallus.

A liverwort – Marchantia (a) Female thallus (b) Male thallus

3.2. Mosses
56. Predominant stage of the life cycle of a moss  the gametophyte which consists of two
stages.
a) protonema stage: which develops directly from a spore. It is a creeping, green, branched
and frequently filamentous stage. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
b) leafy stage, which develops from the secondary protonema as a lateral bud. They consist
of upright, slender axes bearing spirally arranged leaves. They are attached to the soil
through multicellular and branched rhizoids. This stage bears the sex organs.
57. Vegetative reproduction
by fragmentation
Budding in the secondary protonema.
58. In sexual reproduction, the sex organs antheridia and archegonia are produced at the apex
of the leafy shoots. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)

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59. After fertilisation, the zygote develops into a sporophyte, consisting of a foot, seta and
capsule.
60. The capsule contains spores. Spores are formed after meiosis.
61. The sporophyte in mosses is more elaborate than that in liverworts. (Prepared by Srivastava
Sir)
62. The mosses have an elaborate mechanism of spore dispersal.
63. Hence, each of the cells of an embryo-sac is haploid.

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64. Each embryo-sac has a three-celled egg apparatus – one egg cell and two synergids, three
antipodal cells and two polar nuclei.
65. The polar nuclei eventually fuse to produce a diploid secondary nucleus. Pollen grain, after
dispersal from the anthers, is carried by wind or various other agencies to the stigma of a
pistil. This is termed as Pollination

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4. Pteridophyta (Sporophytic Plants)
66. Includes Horsetails and ferns
67. Pteridophytes are also called as vascular cryptogames.
68. Pteridophytes are vascular plants i.e. xylem and phloem are present in it.
69. In pteridophytes, vessels in xylem and companion cells in phloem are absent.
70. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purpose and as soil binders. They are also frequently
grown as ornamentals.
71. Pteridophytes are more adapted terrestrial plants as compared to bryophytes. Because –
(i) Vascular tissue is present in pteridophytes.
(ii) They have roots.
72. Evolutionarily, they are the first terrestrial plants to possess vascular tissues – xylem and
phloem.
73. Pteridophytes are not completely successful terrestrial plants because they _need water for
fertilization, so pteridophytes grow in cool, shady and moist places.
74. In pteridophyta, the plant body is completely differentiated in to root, stem and leaves.
75. The primary root remains alive for short period. After some time it is replaced by adventitious
roots. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
76. Stem is erect or prostrate. When in pteridophytes stem is underground, which is known as
rhizome.
77. On the basis of leaves, pteridophytes are of two types -
a. First in which stem is smaller while leaves are larger. They are known as megaphyllous
Pteridophytes. eg. Ferns
b. Second, in which stem is larger and leaves are smaller. They are called as microphyllous
Pteridophytes. eg. Selaginella (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
Life Cycle of Pteridophyta
78. Plant is sporophyte (dominating stage) i.e; diploid and they reproduce by spore formation.

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79. Sporophyte is differentiated into true root, stem and leaves.

80. The sporophytes bear sporangia that are subtended by leaf-like appendages called sporophylls.
In some cases sporophylls may form distinct compact structures called strobili or cones
(Selaginella, Equisetum).
81. sporangia produce spores by meiosis in spore mother cells. (Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
82. The spores germinate to give rise to inconspicuous, small but multicellular, free-living, mostly
photosynthetic thalloid gametophytes called prothallus.

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83. Gametophytes grow cool, damp, shady places.
84. Gametophytes bear male and female sex organs called antheridia and archegonia. (Prepared
by Srivastava Sir)
85. Fusion of male gamete with the egg present in the archegonium result in the formation of
zygote.

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86. Zygote thereafter produces a multicellular well-differentiated sporophyte which is the
dominant phase of the pteridophytes.
87. Homosporous (most of the plant spores are similar in size)
88. Heterosporous {spore are small (microspore) and large (megaspore)
89. megaspores and microspores germinate and give rise to female and male gametophytes,
respectively(Prepared by Srivastava Sir)
90. The female gametophytes in these plants are retained on the parent sporophytes for variable
periods. The development of the zygotes into young embryos takes place within the female

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gametophytes. This event is a precursor to the seed habit considered an important step in
evolution.
Classifiction of pteridophytes
(Prepared by Srivastava Sir)

Psilopsida Sphenopsida
Pteropsida
Lycopsida
Psilotum Equisetum
Dryopteris,
Selaginella,
Pteris,
Lycopodium
Adiantum

Economic Importance
91. Pteridophytes are used for medicinal purposes and as soil-binders.
92. Grown as ornamentals

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